A brief dictionary of terms and concepts of the cultural studies course: Textbook. Culturology: dictionary of terms and concepts Dictionary of cultural studies

Based on: Culturology: Basic course program, reader, dictionary of terms. M.: FAIR PRESS, 2000. 400 p. With. – 331 – 392.

ACCULTURATION – (eng. accul duration; from lat. ad+ cultura – education, development) – a process of mutual influence, as a rule, of cultures of different levels of development. It is expressed in the fact that a less developed culture fully or partially perceives another, more developed one. The term originated in the 30s. XX century in the USA and is used when considering the diversity of processes of assimilation and ethnic consolidation.

AXIOLOGICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO THE INTERPRETATION OF THE CONTENT OF THE CONCEPT “CULTURE” are two coexisting approaches, which are based on the question of the scope of the concept “culture”: whether it includes only positive aspects or both positive and negative. According to the first (value) approach, culture can only be understood as such non-biological human activity that leads to positive results; According to the second approach, the concept of “culture” extends to any (both positive and negative) non-biological human activity, as well as its results.

Proponents of the axiological approach to the interpretation of the concept of “culture” believe that it is associated only with “true humanity” and is aimed at the spiritual improvement of man. At the same time, most human creations that cannot be marked with a plus sign (a bomb aimed at destruction, military art, vandalism, etc.) are discarded. This leads to a narrowing of the content of the concept of “culture”, a reluctance to recognize the ambivalence of people’s actions, and subjectivity (since the criteria of values ​​are different for different people). In addition, with such an approach, the same human creations, depending on the situation, can act as both “culture” and “non-culture”: for example, an ax that is used in the construction of a temple should be classified under the concept of “culture”; and the same ax that will be used to destroy something or kill someone can no longer be attributed to the concept of “culture.”

Proponents of the anthropological approach to interpreting the concept of “culture” proceed from the fact that it includes all types of non-biological human activity, as well as its results (both with a plus and a minus sign). Culture is everything that is created and created by people.

ALTERNATIVE CULTURES - cultures that oppose the traditional, dominant culture in society and try to act as a more promising, “saving” alternative. These are the so-called “new cultures”. Alternative cultures include most youth subcultures.

AMBIVALENCE – (from Greek amphi – around, around, on both sides + Latin valentia – strength) – duality; recognition of presence in actions, phenomena, etc. both pros and cons.

UNDERGROUND - (from the English Under - under + ground - earth, subway, underground) - an underground, illegal (disapproved or persecuted by official authorities) movement in art, which is an unorthodox, unbiased direction, for example underground rock music. The term first began to be used in American cinema in the 40s. to designate non-commercial films created for home viewing by aspiring directors with their own money on narrow format film.

ANIMISM - (from Latin anima - soul) - one of the forms of primitive beliefs. Belief in the existence of spirits, in the animation of all objects, as well as the presence of an independent soul in people, animals, and plants. The term was introduced into scientific circulation by E. B. Tylor (in his work “Primitive Culture”), who considered animism to be the most ancient basis of religion. Animism has survived to this day, being an essential element of any religion.

Antiquity - (goes back to lat. antiquitas- antiquity) a historical period that took place in the 8th century. BC. – V century AD in the Mediterranean. The era of the emergence and development of classical philosophy, anthropocentric worldview.

ANTHROPOGENIC – (from Latin anthropos – man + Greek genes – giving birth, born) – something made by people, artificial.

Anthropocentrism - (Greek. anthropos- man and lat. centrum- center) characteristic of the cultural concept, according to which man is the main subject and object of culture. It is a key basis for understanding the cultural thought of antiquity. Man was included in the Latin concept of “culture” thanks to the works of the orator and philosopher of the Roman Republic period, Marcus Tullius Cicero, who substantiated the goal of philosophy as the “cultivation” of the citizen. The anthropocentrism of ancient cultural ideas gave way to theocentrism in the Middle Ages. Man again became the basis of culture in the era of humanism, the beginning of which is associated with the work of Dante Alighieri and the influence of his “Divine Comedy”.

“APOLLONIAN” AND “DIONYSIAN” are concepts proposed by the German romantics, as well as Schiller, Schelling and others and subsequently developed by F. Nietzsche (in the work “The Birth of Tragedy from the Spirit of Music”) to metaphorically designate the two principles of being and artistic creativity, personification which the latter saw in two gods of the Greek pantheon, representing opposite symbolic types: Apollo and Dionysus. The “Apollo” beginning is bright, contemplative, rational; “Dionysian” – violent, dark, chaotic, irrational. It is with these two principles that, according to Nietzsche, the forward movement of culture is connected. Achieving an ideal, a masterpiece (in particular in art) is possible only if there is balance, harmony of these two principles.

ARTEFACT - (from Latin artefactum - artificially made) - any artificially created object (for example, objects, things, equipment, tools, clothing, artistic utensils, housing, roads, etc., created by people).

ARCHETYPE – (from grsch. Аrсе – beginning + typos – image) – the original primary form, prototype, pattern imprinted in the human soul. In the psychoanalytic concept of K. Jung, the concept of archetype correlates with the unconscious activity of people. According to Jung, an archetype is an innate psychic structure that is the result of the historical development of humanity. They are hidden in the collective, unconscious, common to all humanity and are a set of innate forms of human imagination. Archetypes appear in dreams, myths, fairy tales, and act as source material for artistic creativity.

ASPECTS OF CULTURE – (from Latin aspectus – look, appearance) – points of view from which culture is viewed. In cultural studies, the following five aspects of culture are distinguished: 1) genetic; 2) epistemological; 3) axeological; 4) normative; 5) sociological.

CULTURAL ASSIMILATION - (from the Latin assimilatio - assimilation, similarity) - mechanical assimilation of new values, absorption (full or partial) of one culture by another (as a rule, a weaker culture dissolves into a stronger one). The process of cultural assimilation is facilitated by conquest, enslavement, targeted cultural policies, mixed marriages, etc. Complete cultural assimilation ends with the loss of language and the death of the weaker culture.

BUDDHISM is one of the world religions. Originated in Ancient India in the VI-V centuries. BC. The founder is considered to be the Indian prince Sidhartha Gautama (623-544 BC), later nicknamed Buddha, i.e. enlightened. Distributed in Central and Southeast Asia.

According to Buddhism, everything in the world is transitory, impermanent, and therefore full of sorrow and dissatisfaction. Each individual being is a combination of active vital forces, which, in accordance with eternal laws, arise, interact and disappear (dharmas).

Buddhism is anthropocentric: according to its teachings, man is the most perfect being. Only he can achieve the highest state of nirvana, i.e. achieve higher spiritual development. Together with nirvana, a person achieves immortality, the end of the eternal cycle of suffering (samsara).

At the center of Buddhism is the “teaching of the four noble truths”: there is suffering, its cause, the state of liberation and the path to it. In Buddhism there is no opposition between subject and object, spirit and matter, there is no God as a creator and supreme being.

OPTIONS FOR INTERPRETING THE CONCEPT OF “CIVILIZATION” – options that were established in the second half of the 18th – early 19th centuries. and retaining their relevance in our time: local-historical, in which civilizations are considered as qualitatively different unique ethnic or historical social formations; historical-stage, in which civilizations are considered as stages of the progressive development of humanity as a single whole; and world-historical (unitary), in which civilization is viewed as the ideal of the progressive development of humanity as a single whole.

Renaissance (Renaissance) is a historical era in Europe in the XIV-XVI centuries, chronologically located between the Middle Ages and the New Age. It is characterized by the revival of ancient humanistic ideas and ideals of artistic culture.

WORLD HISTORICAL (UNITARY) INTERPRETATION OF THE CONCEPT “CIVILIZATION” is a variant whose representatives believe that at a certain stage of interaction between local civilizations, the phenomenon of world history arises and, according to some researchers, the process of formation of an ecumenical civilization begins (K. Jaspers, L. Vasiliev, A. . Toynbee).

HEDONISM - (from the Greek hedone - pleasure, fun, pleasure) - a direction in ethics, according to which the highest goal of life and the main motive of human behavior are pleasure and pleasure. A distinctive feature of beatnikism, hippieism and a number of other youth subcultures is precisely their hedonistic attitude towards the world.

GENESIS – (from the Greek genesis – origin) – origin, emergence; the process of formation and formation of a developing phenomenon.

GEOGRAPHICAL INTERPRETATION OF THE CONCEPT OF “CIVILIZATION” is an approach presented by supporters of geographical determinism, according to which the geographical environment of a particular people has a decisive impact on the nature of civilization. Thus, according to L. Mechnikov, the geographic environment primarily influences the forms of cooperation of people who gradually change nature.

HERMENEUTICS - (from the Greek hermeneutike (techne) - interpretative (art)) - tradition and methods of interpreting polysemantic or indefinable texts (mostly ancient, for example, the Bible, etc.), the art of explanation and translation.

GESTALT - (from German Geschtalt - image, form) - Gestalt psychology - a direction in Western psychology that arose in Germany in the first third of the 20th century. and put forward a program for studying the psyche from the point of view of integral structures (gestalts), primary in relation to their components (“the whole is before the part”).

GLOBAL PROBLEMS - modern problems of civilization, on the solution of which the survival of humanity as a whole depends (for example, preventing global thermonuclear war, regulating rapid population growth in developing countries, stopping catastrophic environmental pollution, preventing the negative consequences of the scientific and technological revolution, etc.). For the first time formulated and analyzed within the framework of the activities of the Club of Rome.

Humanism (from lat. humanitas- humanity) is a worldview that defines a person as the highest value. Characteristic of the ancient idea of ​​culture. The return and spread of the ideas of humanism in the late Middle Ages (XIV century) marked the beginning of the Renaissance (the so-called Renaissance humanism).

DEVIANT – (from Latin deviatio – deviation) – deviating from generally accepted norms. For example, “deviant behavior” is behavior deviating from the norm.

DEHUMANIZATION – (from Latin de – prefix denoting separation, removal, + humanus – humane) – loss of spiritual and moral values ​​by society; rejection of a worldview based on justice, attention and respect for the individual and individual qualities of a person.

DENOTATE – (from Latin denotare – to mark, designate) – an object that has a symbolic expression in the language.

DIACHRONY – (from the Greek dia – through, through + chronos – time) – historical development in time of phenomena or processes.

DIACHRONIC APPROACH TO CULTURAL ANALYSIS - (from the Greek dia - through, through + chronos - time) - a research approach, the main requirement of which is the presentation of phenomena, facts, cultural events in chronological order. The goal of D.P. is to study the changing states of culture over time.

DYNAMICS OF CULTURE – (from the Greek dinamikos – related to strength, strong) – change in culture, description of culture in motion; those means, mechanisms and processes that describe the transformation of culture, its change.

DYNAMIC ANALYSIS - the study of the processes of generation of a cultural object, its formation, changes occurring with it, up to its destruction.

DIFFUSIONISM - (from Latin diffusio - spilling, seeping) - a cultural school that for many years acted as an alternative to evolutionism. Main representatives: France - G. Tarde (1843-1904); USA - F. Boas (1858-1942); Germany - F. Graebner (1877-1934). According to diffusionism, cultural development is based on the processes of borrowing and spreading culture from one center to another. This approach made it possible to turn to the study of interaction between cultures, to reveal the mechanism for mastering the achievements of other peoples, which makes it possible for society not to go through the required stages of development (as in evolutionism). Among the means of spreading culture, diffusionism recognized conquest, trade, colonization, migration, voluntary imitation, as well as intrasystemic development factors.

CULTURAL DIFFUSION - the spread of the properties and characteristics of a given historical culture to other cultures.

“LAWS OF HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF CULTURAL-HISTORICAL TYPES” - introduced by N. Ya. Danilevsky in his work “Russia and Europe” (1861): 1. “Any tribe or family of peoples, characterized by a separate language or group of languages, quite close to each other in order to so that their kinship is felt directly, without deep philological research, constitutes an original cultural-historical type, if at all, in terms of its spiritual inclinations, it is capable of historical development and has already emerged from infancy; 2. In order for a civilization characteristic of a distinctive cultural-historical type to arise and develop, it is necessary that the peoples belonging to it enjoy political independence; 3. The beginnings of a civilization of one cultural-historical type are not transmitted to peoples of another type. Each type develops it for itself under the greater or lesser influence of alien, previous or modern civilizations; 4. Civilization, characteristic of each cultural-historical type, only reaches completeness, diversity and richness when the ethnographic elements that make it up are diverse - when they, without being absorbed into one political whole, taking advantage of their independence, constitute a federation or political system of states; 5. The course of development of a cultural-historical type is closest to those plants in which the growth period is indefinitely long, but the period of flowering and fruiting is relatively short and depletes their vitality once and for all” (Danilevsky N. Ya. “Russia and Europe”) .

SIGN – a material object (phenomenon, event), acting as a representative of some other object, property or relationship and used for acquiring, storing, processing and transmitting messages (information, knowledge).

ZOROASTRIANism is a religion named after the prophet Zoroaster (in Iran - Zarathushtra). It was widespread in antiquity and the early Middle Ages in Central Asia, Iran, Azerbaijan, Afghanistan and a number of other countries of the Near and Middle East. Adherents of Zoroastrianism can now be found in the East, for example in Iran and India. The basic principles of Zoroastrianism are: the opposition of two principles - good and evil, light and darkness; faith in the victory of good. Fire plays the main role in the ritual.

GAME DIRECTION IN CULTURAL STUDY is a direction based on the interpretation of play as the most important phenomenon of human existence and the source of culture. The starting points were laid down in the works of I. Kant and W. Schiller.

Main representatives: The Netherlands - J. Huizinga (1872-1945); Spain – X. Ortega y Gasset (1883-1955); Germany - E. Fink (1905-1975), G. Gadamer (1900-2002).

IDEALISTIC TYPE OF CULTURE is a term introduced into scientific use by P. Sorokin to designate a transitional type in the dynamic model of culture (from ideational to sensual or vice versa). Being a supersystem, the idealistic type of culture is characterized by a harmonious combination of two main types, which recognizes the importance of both ideas and tangible objects. The main premise of the idealistic type of culture is the recognition that “objective reality is partly supersensible and partly sensual, it covers supersensible and superrational aspects plus the rational and, finally, the sensory aspect, forming the unity of this infinite diversity” (Sorokin P. “The Crisis of Our Time” ).

The values ​​of the idealistic type of culture belong to both Heaven and Earth. The world of the idealistic type of culture is both supersensible and sensual (but sensuality of the most sublime manifestations). Examples of the idealistic type of culture are the Golden Age of Ancient Greece (approximately from the 5th to 4th centuries BC), the era of the European Renaissance.

IDEAL TYPE is a concept introduced by the German sociologist Max Weber (1864-1920). An ideal type is a theoretical construct obtained as a result of emphasizing, strengthening, and logical linking of phenomena occurring in different eras in different cultures; a kind of simplification, an image-scheme, and not an objectively existing (existing) sociocultural reality, since it has no direct analogue in the real history of culture. An example of an ideal type from other fields of knowledge can be such an abstract theoretical construct as the “ideal gas” in physics, i.e. a gas characterized by certain ideal parameters, a gas that does not actually exist. By ideal types we mean important scientific abstractions that make it possible to study many phenomena of real cultures on a quantitative basis. The ideal typification methodology makes it possible to organize empirical material. Used by M. Weber to study the causes and nature of the deviation of real cultural types from ideal ones.

IDEAL TYPE OF CULTURE – a type of culture capable of forming and perceiving ideas. The concept was introduced into scientific use by P. Sorokin (“The Crisis of Our Time”). The basis of the ideational type of culture is the Absolute, the principle of the supersensibility and superintelligence of God as the only reality and value. In the ideational type of culture, according to Sorokin, “the dominant morals and customs, way of life, thinking supported their unity with God as the only and highest goal, as well as their negative or impersonal attitude towards the sensory world, its wealth, joys and values.” Sorokin includes the European culture of the Middle Ages, the culture of Brahman India, Buddhist and Laoist cultures, and Greek culture from the 8th to the end of the 6th century as an ideal type of culture. BC. The style of the ideational type of culture is symbolic, art is religious, its heroes are gods, angels, saints, sinners; little attention is paid to the individual, its goal is to bring the believer closer to God.

INCULTURATION – entry into culture; the process by which an individual acquires the traditional ways of thinking and acting characteristic of the culture to which he belongs.

INNOVATION – (from Latin innovatio – renewal, innovare – to update) – the emergence and spread of an object or trait that was not previously available within a given culture; modernization; reform. Innovation can be the result of intracultural invention or intercultural borrowing.

ART is a process and the total result of human activity, expressed in the practical and spiritual development of the world. Various forms of art are literature, architecture, sculpture, painting, graphics, decorative and applied arts, music, dance, theater, cinema, etc. The basis of art is the human ability to form images.

ISLAM, MUSLIM – one of the world religions that arose in the 7th century. in Arabia. The founder of Islam is considered to be Muhammad, whom, according to legend, Allah chose as his messenger and prophet. The basis of the teachings of Islam is strict monotheism (monotheism - belief in Allah). According to Islam, Allah is one, omnipotent, and the creator of the universe; The Koran is an eternal, uncreated holy book; one must believe in the resurrection of the dead and the end of the world, observe prayers, fasting and other rituals. Islam places the search for human happiness in heaven; does not recognize the separation of spiritual and secular functions, reinforcing the non-separation of spiritual and secular power, religion, politics and the state.

HISTORICAL-STADIAL INTERPRETATION OF THE CONCEPT “CIVILIZATION” - an option within which oral, written, book and screen are distinguished; cosmogenic, technogenic and anthropogenic; traditional and modern (liberal); evolutionary and innovative types of civilizations. The technocratic variety of this option includes agrarian (pre-industrial), industrial (industrial) and information (post-industrial) civilizations.

CANON - (from the Greek kapop - rule, norm, measure) - normative model; in fine art, a set of artistic techniques and rules that are considered mandatory in a particular era (norms of composition and color, a system of proportions, iconography of a given type of image).

CATHARISS - (from the Greek katharsis - purification) - spiritual cleansing and internal liberation that a person experiences in the process of communicating with the highest examples of culture. The term was introduced by Aristotle in his work “Poetics” to denote the sublime satisfaction and enlightenment that the viewer experiences after experiencing suffering with the hero of the tragedy and being freed from it.

KITCH, KITCH - (from German kitsch - hack-work, bad taste) - a cheap, hack-work picture, a literary craft, a tasteless film. A specific phenomenon belonging to the lowest layers of mass culture; a synonym for stereotypical pseudo-art, devoid of artistic and aesthetic value and overloaded with primitive details designed for external effect. The term originated at the beginning of the 20th century. in the circles of Munich artists.

CULTURE CODE - (from the French Code) - a set of signs, symbols, meanings (and their combination) that are contained in any subject of human cultural activity.

COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS - universal human prototypes-archetypes (for example, the image of mother earth, a wise old man, a demon, etc.). Archetypes are expressed in myths, fairy tales, magic, alchemy, etc. The term was introduced into scientific use by the German psychologist C. Jung (1875-1961).

CONNOTATION – (from connotare – (to) mean) – individual semantic coloring of the original, dictionary meanings of words. Since each speaker has his own, different from others, experience of contact with things and phenomena, he gives each dictionary meaning his own coloring.

CONTEXT - (from Latin contextus - connection, coordination, connection) - general meaning, socio-historical and cultural conditions that make it possible to clarify the semantic meaning of the results of human creative activity.

CONTENT ANALYSIS – (from the English content analysis, content – ​​content, essence + analysis – analysis) – a method for identifying and assessing the specific characteristics of information carriers, texts. In cultural studies, with the help of machine processing of large arrays of texts, the frequency of use of a concept over a long period of time is determined, as a result of which the trend in the development of the topic is revealed.

COUNTERCULTURE - (from the Greek contra - against) - the direction of development of modern culture, opposing traditional, “official” culture; a form of protest against the culture of “fathers”, which became widespread among some American youth in the 60s and early 70s. It marks an open rejection of social values, moral norms and moral ideals of consumer society, standards and stereotypes of mass culture, a way of life based on respectability, social prestige, and material well-being.

The term “counterculture” was created by Theodor Rojak during the student revolution of the 60s. in USA. The only positive slogan of that revolution - “Creating a counterculture” - suggested three main points: 1) the education of a new type of personality with new forms of consciousness and action; 2) the formation of new relationships between people; 3) the formation and acceptance of new values, the development of new social, moral norms, principles, ideals, ethical and aesthetic criteria.

One of the ways to create and develop counterculture provisions was the communitarian movement (creation of communes). The components of the counterculture are drug culture and the sexual revolution.

Classic counterculture is characterized by a rejection of established social values, moral norms and ideals, standards and stereotypes of mass culture, and a way of life based on respectability, social prestige, and material well-being. Refusal, as a rule, was expressed in negativity towards the cultural achievements of mankind and an extravagant manner of thinking, feeling, and communicating. The cult of reason and science was replaced by the cult of the unconscious manifestation of natural passions and the mystical ecstasy of the soul, Puritan morality - by the openness of intimate relationships, work - by mass orgies, drug addiction, etc. The protest against “mass society” and mass culture received practical completion in the organization of various communes, in which the manifestation of a person’s truly humane attitude towards the world, other people and himself was to be realized.

Counterculture brought together concepts that were an eclectic mixture of various positions of existentialism, Freudianism, vulgarized Marxism, Rousseauism, anarchism, cynicism, Eastern philosophy and religion.

Currently, counterculture, in addition to a form of expression of spiritual protest against modern bourgeois culture, which became widespread among part of the youth of the West in the 60-70s, has come to be understood as any cultural forms of deviant behavior.

CONFORMISM - (from Late Latin conformis - similar, similar, conformable) - socio-psychological orientation of the individual, which does not develop as a result of an independent choice of cultural values, but only as a passive, adaptive acceptance of the existing order of things, prevailing opinions, opportunism, lack of one’s own position, unprincipled and uncritical adherence to any model that has the greatest pressure.

CONFORMITY is the voluntary consent of an individual to choose behavior that is fully consistent with generally accepted social norms, standards, principles, values, views or requirements of other members of the community; a person’s readiness to yield to real or imagined group pressure, which manifests itself in the fact that he accepts the position of the majority that is not initially shared by him.

CREATIONISM is a theological version of the emergence of culture and man, their creation by God.

CROSS-CULTURAL ANALYSIS is a comparative method of studying cultures used within the framework of social and cultural anthropology. Originated within the framework of classical evolutionism, which argued that all societies and cultures go through the same stages of progressive development.

Cross-cultural analysis is based on the existence of universal cultural models (patterns). At the same time, those applying this analysis proceed from the fact that similarities and differences in cultural models can be identified by comparing their statistical data.

Cross-cultural analysts take the view that, firstly, it is impossible to truly understand a culture without comparing it with another, and, secondly, any theories and hypotheses must be tested.

The main scientists who used cross-cultural analysis: E. B. Tylor, J. P. Murdock, A. L. Kroeber and others.

CULT - (from Latin cultus - care, veneration) - a set of actions, rites, rituals associated with belief in the supernatural. Occurs in traditional culture. One of the obligatory elements of any religion, expressed in special magical rituals, actions of clergy and believers in order to have the desired effect on supernatural forces. The center of worship is a temple, a house of worship with various religious objects (icons, frescoes, crucifixes, etc.). In addition, cult is worship of someone or something; reverence for someone or something.

CULTURE – (from Latin – cultura) – an open category denoting the content of people’s social life, “representing biologically non-inherited, artificial, human-created objects (artifacts). Culture refers to organized collections of material objects, ideas and images; technologies for their manufacture and operation; sustainable connections between people and ways to regulate them; evaluative criteria available in society. This is an artificial environment of existence and self-realization created by people themselves, a source of regulation of social interaction and behavior.”

THE CULTURE OF AN ORGANIZATION is a specific, inherent only to a given organization, a self-sufficient system of connections, interactions, relationships, elements necessary for its functioning.

“CULTURE AS AN ORGANISM” is a cultural school that considers society and culture as an organism in which social institutions are likened to organs and parts of the body, and sociocultural processes are like physiological processes. So, for example, G. Spencer, who said: “Society is an organism. Culture is an organism,” he identified three systems in society: “nutritional” (production), “distributive” (trade) and “regulatory” (state apparatus).

The understanding of culture and society as an organism was due to the fact that, firstly, social and cultural institutions are interconnected like the organs of the body, and their renewal is similar to the renewal of cells in the body; and, secondly, by the fact that it is possible to draw an analogy between the social division of labor and the specialization of the functions of various organs of a living organism. At the same time, organicists noted that, unlike organisms, cultures do not reproduce, and their structures and functions are not so closely related.

The significance of this cultural school is that it made it possible to understand culture as an integral system.

Main representatives: England - G. Spencer (1820-1903); Germany - W.F. Ostwald (1853-1932).

CULTURAL HOMOGENEOUSNESS – homogeneity in the composition of a culture.

CULTURAL EVOLUTION OF LESLIE WHITE is a concept of an American cultural anthropologist, author of the term “cultural studies,” which is one of the varieties of the modern materialist approach to the study of culture.

For L. White, ever-increasing complexity and integration as the main direction of evolution was not an end in itself, but a means of achieving the real goal of evolution: the maximum possible and most efficient use of energy. He viewed culture as a specific “thermodynamic” mechanism for the accumulation, storage, transmission and transformation of the energy of society.

White argued that energy use was a universal measure of cultural evolution, and expressed this in the formula:

Energy ×Technology → Culture,

where energy is understood as the totality of wealth, natural resources and factors, human energy, etc.

White divided culture into 4 subsystems:

· main: technological (tools of production, means of subsistence, means of defense and attack, materials for building homes, etc.);

· and 3 derivatives: social (including relations between people, political, economic systems, systems of equality, etc.);

ideological (ideas, beliefs, knowledge);

· behavioral (covering types of collective and individual behavior).

In L. White's understanding, culture is a way of mastering the world, transforming and regulating natural processes with the help of symbols. Marxism had a great influence on White's views, so material and technical culture plays the main role in his concept among the diverse components. It is the basis of any culture, which determines the spiritual, intellectual, and social levels.

CULTURAL-HISTORICAL SCHOOL is a direction in Western ethnography, archeology, anthropology of the early 20th century, which arose as an alternative to evolutionism. Its supporters (L. Frobenius, F. Graebner, etc.) believed that every cultural phenomenon arises once and in one place; they explained the fact that we find the same phenomenon among different peoples by its spread from one center. In a given territory, a certain combination of cultural elements is identified and a “cultural circle” is constituted. According to their concept, all history comes down to the movement and stratification of “cultural circles”, divorced from specific creators of culture. Supporters of the cultural-historical school adhered to diffusionist views on the issue of cultural dynamics.

CULTURAL-HISTORICAL ERA – a historical period of time during which people are united by a certain cultural community, for example, antiquity, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, etc.

CULTURAL-HISTORICAL TYPES are integral sets of characteristic elements of the life of an ethnic group, manifested in religious, socio-economic, political and other relations. The concept of cultural-historical types was first formulated by N. Ya. Danilevsky in his work “Russia and Europe”. According to his concept, the result of the positive activity of a particular people is the creation of a unique, isolated, local cultural and historical type. Danilevsky identifies in chronological order ten cultural and historical types that have completely or partially exhausted the possibilities of their development. These are types such as: 1) Egyptian, 2) Chinese, 3) Assyrian-Babylonian-Phoenician, 4) Indian, 5) Iranian, 6) Jewish, 7) Greek, 8) Roman, 9) Arabian, 10) Germanic Romanesque or European. To these types the author adds two more American types: Mexican and Peruvian, who died a violent death and did not have time to complete their development. Each of the ten types showed itself as a bright individual. All 10 + 2 peoples realized themselves in cultural, and not in destructive activities and not as ethnographic material.

CULTURAL SUPERSYSTEMS – systems of cultures of the highest ranks. The concept was introduced into scientific use by P. Sorokin (work “The Crisis of Our Time”). According to Sorokin, in the course of its development, society creates various cultural systems: cognitive, religious, ethical, legal, etc. The main property of all these cultural systems is the tendency to unite them into a system of higher ranks. As a result of the development of this trend, cultural supersystems are formed. Each of these cultural supersystems, according to Sorokin, “has its own mentality, its own system of truth and knowledge, its own philosophy and worldview, its own religion and model of “holiness,” its own forms of fine literature and art, its own rights, laws, code of conduct, its own dominant forms of social relations, its own economic and political organization, and finally, its own type of personality with its own mentality and behavior.”

These cultural supersystems are not just a collection of various coexisting, but in no way connected phenomena, but represent a unity based on a fundamental principle that permeates all its component parts and expresses the basic, main value. This value constitutes the basis, the foundation of any culture, manifested in worldview, attitude, and worldview. In accordance with different types of worldviews, Sorokin identified three sociocultural systems, two of which (ideational and sensual) are basic, and the third (idealistic) is transitional.

CULTURAL UNIVERSALS - (from the Latin universalis - general, universal) - norms, values, rules, traditions, aspects of culture that are universal in nature, present at all stages of the development of the human race, and do not depend on the geographical location or historical structure of society.

CULTURAL ORGANISM – the perception of culture as a living biological organism, which in its development goes through the stages of origin, growth, flourishing, aging and dying. This point of view was shared by many authors, including G. Spencer, N. Ya. Danilevsky, O. Spengler, and most evolutionists.

CULTURE SHOCK is the result of immersion in an unfamiliar culture by an unprepared visitor. Culture shock occurs when familiar psychological factors that help a person function in society disappear and are replaced by unknown and incomprehensible ones. Culture shock reflects the conflict between the old, inherent in the individual as a representative of the society he left, and the new, i.e. representing the society in which he arrived, cultural norms and orientation; conflict of two cultures at the level of individual consciousness. The concept was introduced into scientific use by the American anthropologist F. Boas.

"CULTURAL CIRCLES" THEORY - a theory developed by Fritz Graebner (1877-1934), according to which each element of culture emanates from a single center, appears only once in history in a certain place and belongs to one "cultural circle", together with which is distributed to other countries. Graebner identified 6 such circles, including the Sumerians, Ancient Egypt, and the Yellow River Valley. Such a “cultural circle” is an artificially created combination of arbitrarily selected elements, which does not develop in time, but only interacts with other “circles” in geographical space. The spread of cultural elements or complexes in space occurs as a result of migration or displacement. In other words, elements of one "circle" can spread by diffusion and overlap with elements of another "circle". “Cultural circles” that replace each other over time form cultural layers. The entire history of culture is the history of the movement of several “cultural circles” and their mechanical interaction (“stratification”).

CULTUROLOGICAL APPROACH TO THE CONCEPT OF “CIVILIZATION” is an approach in which civilization is considered as a special socio-cultural phenomenon, limited by a certain space-time framework. In most cases, the basis of this phenomenon is religion (M. Weber, A. Toynbee). Some scientists point to clearly defined parameters of technological development (A. Toynbee).

The culturological approach to the definition of the concept of “civilization” assumes that, in a broad sense, civilization is the totality of material and spiritual achievements of society in its historical development; in the narrow sense, civilization is only material culture. Within the framework of the cultural approach, “civilization” is mainly defined as a sociocultural community with qualitative specificity; a holistic concrete historical formation, distinguished by the nature of its relationship to the natural world and the internal features of its original culture.

CULTURAL STUDY – (from Latin cultura + Greek logos – knowledge, teaching, word) – a scientific discipline that studies culture as a natural integrity through the prism of the cultural formation of society and man; "explaining culture." Culturology is an integrative field of knowledge, born of the needs of the modern era at the intersection of cultural philosophy, cultural psychology, cultural and social anthropology, ethnology, sociology of culture, history and theology of culture. The basis of cultural knowledge is the individual sciences about culture, within the framework of which the initial analytical synthesis of its various facts and phenomena is formed. Culturology is a methodological basis that combines all the diversity of aspects of the study of culture into a holistic system. Cultural research is aimed at an empirical description of culture, comparative analysis of cultures, intercultural communication, studying the origins of the general and specific, stable and changeable in culture. Culturology acts as a system-forming factor of the entire complex of cultural sciences, its methodological basis.

Culturology is characterized by integrity, systematicity and an integrated approach to the study of culture. Integrity presupposes consideration of culture (as an object of study) in its internal unity, when the properties of the whole are not reduced to the properties of its parts. The principle of systematicity allows us to analyze culture as a system that reveals integrity, to identify types of connections between cultural elements.

Culturology studies the interaction of cultural elements (traditions, norms, customs, social institutions, cultural codes, ideologies, technologies, etc.); a reasonable human form of existence, i.e. those meanings with which the world is filled for a person. The goal of cultural research is to understand both one’s own and another culture. It includes the study of the basic structures responsible for the preservation and transmission of sociocultural experience of human activity; studying the factors that weaken the “bricks” underlying cultural and historical formations, rebuilding their “code” in the process of creativity; studying the cumulative consequences of the real history of the “humanization” of the world.

The subject of cultural studies is culture, or the content of social life. Culturological knowledge is ultimately intended to provide an understanding of what a person is, what world he lives in, what he should do and what he can hope for, what should be the ways of his communication with the surrounding reality.

Culturological knowledge represents the unity of theoretical and historical approaches to understanding the forms of cultural life. But the processes of cultural and historical development are of interest to cultural studies to the extent that this allows us to understand and explain modern culture. It includes not only the construction of models, but also explores the sociodynamic processes of culture.

Culturological knowledge is systematic, that is, it is a holistic view of human existence, according to which each element acquires meaning, function and content in relation to the whole. It is theoretical in nature not only in content, but also in function, that is, it explains phenomena, their genesis, and predicts the emergence of new ones. Culturological knowledge is the result of theoretical activity, revealing the universal form of existence of cultural phenomena. This knowledge reflects the general foundations of various cultural facts, determines the order of their system formation and interaction as a form of existence, constitutes the content of the indicative basis for solving life problems, and determines methods of behavior in various situations in sociocultural practice.

Culturology is developing in the general integrative process of interaction between the socio-humanitarian, natural and technical sciences, with its ever-increasing connections with the particular sciences of culture. At the same time, cultural knowledge has a direct practical application related to planning and forecasting, regulation of social life in general, with the management of diverse areas of sociocultural practice, the activities of groups, organizations, etc.

Culturology as an integrative socio-humanitarian discipline is a necessary component of the professional training of specialists in almost all areas of human activity, since the search and adoption of adequate decisions, their optimal implementation today urgently require analysis and consideration of the entire complex of sociocultural factors, as well as knowledge of the history of their formation and development.

CULTURAL PHILOSOPHY – (from German Kulturphilosophie) – a section of philosophy that studies the essence and meaning of culture. This is an understanding of culture. Cultural philosophy denotes approaches to the study of the essence, purpose and value of culture, its conditions and forms of manifestation. The term was introduced into scientific circulation by the German romantic Adam Müller (1779-1829) at the beginning of the 19th century. The same as the philosophy of culture.

LIBIDO - (from Latin libido - attraction, desire, passion, aspiration) - mental energy, which is based on sexual need, transforming in the sphere of the unconscious into various types of mental activity. One of the main conceptual concepts of psychoanalysis. In K. Jung's interpretation, this concept is deprived of its sexual nature and is considered primarily only as psychic energy in general, hidden in the unconscious.

LIMINAL COMMUNITIES - (from the Latin limen - threshold) - communities that arise and exist in intermediate areas of social cultures. Examples of liminal communities include hippie communes. Liminal personalities are characterized by an uncertain status, usually by “dropping out” from society.

LOCAL CIVILIZATION is a region of the world that, in the sociocultural sense, develops independently, regardless of the processes occurring in other regions, on the basis of its own cultural norms and values, a special worldview, usually associated with the dominant religion.

LOCAL-HISTORICAL OPTION OF INTERPRETING THE CONCEPT OF “CIVILIZATION” is an option in which civilizations are considered as qualitatively different unique ethnic or historical social formations. Among the supporters of this option there is no unity on the question of how many civilizations there were in the past and how many exist at the present time. The criteria for identifying civilizations are: chronological order (N. Ya. Danilevsky), unity of type (according to A. Toynbee, societies of the same type “are usually called civilizations”), religious (A. Toynbee: “Orthodox-Christian”, “Islamic” ", etc.), tropical (L. White identifies types of civilizations: ironic - Western Europe, metaphorical - the Middle East, synecdotal - India and metonymic - China).

LOCAL TYPES OF CULTURES – closed, self-sufficient types of cultures that do not maintain dialogue with other types.

MAGIC - (from the Greek mageia - magic, witchcraft) - a set of rituals and actions associated with the belief in the possibility of influencing the surrounding reality with the help of imaginary supernatural forces. Magic is one of the forms of primitive religious beliefs that has survived to this day and is an integral element of all modern religions. It is expressed in a number of symbolic actions and rituals with spells and ceremonies. D. Fraser (“The Golden Bough”) noted that symbolic thinking is based on the magic of similarity (sympathetic), which manifested itself in attempts to harm the enemy by manipulating his image, and the magic of contact (contagious), which includes witchcraft techniques based on law of contact. Usually there are “white”, “black” and economic magic. The first two magics are respectively focused on “good” (removing damage, love spells, treatment, etc.) and “evil” (causing damage, injury, etc.), economic magic is aimed at success in economic activities (causing rain in drought, abundant harvest, successful completion of work, etc.).

CULTURAL MARGINALITY - (from Late Lat. marginalis - located on the edge; adjective originating from margo - edge, border) - a concept indicating the intermediate, non-adaptive, “borderline” position of a person between any social groups, and, accordingly, types of culture . Cultural marginality arises as a result of changes in normative value systems under the influence of intercultural contacts, social changes and technological factors. A marginal personality arises when a person of a certain culture is forced to master other social roles, lifestyles, and cultural values ​​that are alien to him. All this leaves a certain imprint on the human psyche.

The term was introduced into science by the American sociologist R. Park, who believed that the “marginal personality” has a number of characteristic traits: anxiety, aggressiveness, ambition, sensitivity, constraint, and self-centeredness.

Initially, this term was used to refer to the socio-psychological consequences of incomplete adaptation of migrants from rural areas to the demands of the urban lifestyle. Subsequently, the term acquired a broader meaning and marginal culture began to include “cultural hybrids” who find themselves between a dominant social group that does not fully accept them, and a group of origin that repels them. Marginalized people also mean individuals who have lost their former social ties and do not fit into a certain sociocultural situation.

MASS CULTURE - (from Latin massa - lump, piece) - a cultural phenomenon of the 20th century, generated by the scientific and technological revolution, urbanization, the destruction of local communities and the blurring of territorial and social boundaries. The mass dissemination of cultural phenomena is associated with the development of information and communication systems, radio, television, cinema, etc., which contributed to the creation of a mass audience of consumers of cultural products. Mass culture is characterized by the peculiarities of the production of cultural values ​​in a modern industrial society designed for mass consumption (mass production is understood by analogy with conveyor technology in industrial production). Popular culture initially emerged as a market for businesses specializing in entertainment. Mass culture, shallow, standard, is the culture of everyday life and is manifested in the leveling of creative individuals, in the replication and accessibility (in the sense of intelligibility to everyone) of cultural values, and the priorities of metropolitan forms of existence. It is designed for the “average” person and is formed under the influence of the mass consciousness’ perception of sociocultural stereotypes generated by the media.

MATERIALIST DIRECTION IN CULTURAL STUDY is a direction that began with the concepts of K. Marx and F. Engels.

K. Marx identified two levels in any society: base and superstructure. According to his concept, “being determines consciousness,” that is, “the mode of production and material life determines the basic character of the social, political and spiritual processes of life.” Thus, the economic factor is the foundation on which other aspects of society are built. Therefore, diversity and cultural change are directly related to the basis (the mode of production and the economy).

Currently, there are three types of materialist trends in the study of culture: 1) cultural materialism, the representative of which is M. Harris (b. 1927); 2) cultural evolution - Leslie White (1900-1975); 3) cultural ecology - Y. Steward (1902-1972). In all varieties it is argued that there are three levels in culture: 1) technological, 2) sociological, 3) ideological. Moreover, the technological aspect underlies, shapes and influences the other two aspects of culture. Thus, following Marx, modern materialists consider the main and fundamental “technological and economic factors” that play a major role in the creation of culture.

The main provisions of M. Harris' cultural materialism and L. White's cultural evolution somehow coincide with Marx's concept. According to the cultural ecology of Yu. Steward, the environment is an addition, a factor that contributes to giving shape to cultures.

MATERIAL CULTURE is a concept whose scope of definition includes: 1) culture of labor and material production; 2) culture of life; 3) topos culture, i.e. place of residence (home, house, village, city); 4) culture of attitude towards one’s own body, etc. According to W. Osborne, the author of the term, material culture is all material objects, as well as inventions and changes in the development of technology. The concept of “material culture” is a consequence of the philosophical tradition of dividing existence into spirit and matter. It should be noted that the division of culture into material and spiritual is very arbitrary, since any artifact is a complex combination of both material and spiritual elements of culture.

MATRIARCHAL AND PATRIARCHAL TYPES OF CULTURE – one of the classifications of cultures based on value bases. An example is the concept of I. Ya. Bachofen (1815-1887), set out in the work “Maternal Right” (1861): at the dawn of human history, blood ties could only be traced through the maternal line, so the woman-mother acted as a ruler and legislator both in family and in society as a whole. This left an imprint on the structure of the family and society, and was clearly reflected in religion. The value foundations of the matriarchal type of culture were connections with the land and blood ties. Its most important characteristic is passive perception and attitude towards nature. For a matriarchal culture, equality of people is natural, since they are all children of mothers and children of Mother Earth. Unconditional maternal love, which makes no distinction between children, despite their merits, achievements or failures, is the most important value on which this type of culture is based. For him, nothing is more important than human life, there is no other goal than the happiness of people. The long course of history has led to a change in this value paradigm: men have become the ruling force in the family and society. A patriarchal structure was established, which is characterized by a monogamous family (mainly for women), the unconditional dominance of the father in the family and a social hierarchy. In the sphere of religion, the mother goddess is replaced by gods personifying the masculine principle. They become the supreme deities. The patriarchal type of culture, in contrast to the matriarchal one, is characterized by an active principle: the desire to make efforts to change the natural environment, the predominance of rational thinking and the priority of laws. Equality is being replaced by the principle of the beloved (or eldest) son in the hierarchy; submission to authority is considered the most important value.

The concept of L. Frobenius (1873–1938) assumes the existence of two primary cultures: matriarchal, which includes Russians, Germans and African peoples, and patriarchal - Anglo-Saxons, Berber Arabs, Romanesque peoples, etc. Patriarchal peoples have a worldview “from the cave”, activity in conquering nature, animal nature, rationality, magic. The worldview of matriarchal cultures is characterized by a plant origin and unity with nature; this is a worldview of open spaces and emotions.

According to Frobenius, history is alternately dominated by either one or the other type of culture. This process of leadership change acts as a source of human development.

MATRIARCHY - (from Latin mater - mother + Greek arche - beginning, power; literally: the power of the mother) - a form of social structure characterized by the dominant position of women (matrilineal inheritance of property, social status), matrilocality or dislocality of settlements. Existed mainly at the stage of the early period of the primitive system, in some peoples it was preceded by patriarchy (“the power of the father”); sometimes persisted during the transition from the tribal system to mass society.

MEM - (short for the Greek mimeme - memory) is a culturally inherited unit of information, similar to a gene. Memes are analogues of a biological genotype. The author of the term and idea of ​​memes, R. Davkin, introduced the concept of “meme” in the book “The Selfish Gene” (1975), giving it the following definition: a meme is “a cognitive-behavioral pattern transmitted from one person to another through communication.” Davkin argues that since the person who transmitted the meme continues to be its carrier, transmission can be considered duplication (or "propagation") of memes: a copy of the meme ends up in the cognitive system of another person, turning him or her into the carrier of the meme. The process of self-reproduction, leading to the ever-increasing spread of memes, defines them as “reproducers”, similar in this respect to genes. Examples of memes include melodies, ideas, catchphrases, clothing styles, production technologies, construction technologies, etc. According to Davkin, memes "jump" from one person's brain to another's, causing a process of "imitation."

Memes are ideas that mutate and are inherited like genes and spread like viruses.

MEMETICS is a science that studies memes and their distribution in the human community; one of the branches of the modern stage of the evolutionary direction in the study of culture. Memetics has not yet developed into an exact science: it lacks formalization, definite results, and empirically verifiable hypotheses.

MENTALITY – (from Latin mentalis – mental, spiritual) – attitude, worldview; mindset, mental attitude, image, way of thinking of an individual or social group; deep psychological level of collective and individual consciousness. Mentality is a set of psychological and behavioral attitudes of an individual or social group, which is formed in the depths of culture under the influence of traditions, social institutions, and the human environment. A person’s holistic way of life is determined by a mentality that unites value forms of consciousness (morality, religion, philosophy, etc.) with the world of unconscious mental states.

MIMESIS - (from the Greek mimos - imitation, reproduction) - a method of artistic creativity (mainly in art), expressed in imitation of nature, accurate reproduction of the appearance of people and objects. The term "mimesis" was introduced by Aristotle. Democritus wrote: “Man sees that he can create the same thing that happens in nature. A swallow builds its nest - architecture appears. The spider weaves its web - weaving appears. A person hears how a nightingale sings and how a swan sings, and singing appears.”

MYTH - (from the Greek mythos - legend, legend) - an archaic story about the deeds of gods and heroes, about the gods and spirits who rule the world. A myth is a person’s attempt to explain to himself the entire structure, the meaning of the universe, the cosmos, of which he is a part, in which he lives. Myth is a sensory idea of ​​the world, when a person does not oppose himself to nature, therefore a generalizing principle is always present in myth. Mythologemic consciousness is characteristic of man throughout history, and not only in its early stages. Modern man also creates myths, sensually generalizing the phenomena of modern life.

MYTHOLOGEM – conscious borrowing of mythological motifs and transferring them into the world of modern artistic culture.

MYTHOLOGY – (from the Greek mythos – legend + logos – teaching) – a way of understanding and explaining the universe, society in the early stages of human development. In mythology, the norms and rules of political, social and industrial human activity were “coded” and consolidated.

FASHION – (from Latin modus – measure, method, rule) – change of cultural patterns; the short-term dominance of a certain taste in any area of ​​life or culture. Unlike style, fashion reflects more short-term and superficial changes in the external forms of everyday objects and works of art.

YOUTH SUB-CULTURE is a set of values, traditions, customs inherent in young people, for whom leisure and recreation as the leading forms of life have replaced work as the most important need. In this case, satisfaction with life in general depends on satisfaction with leisure. The youth subculture acts as an alternative to the existing way of life and culture. It is characterized by attempts to form one’s own worldview, one’s own manners of behavior, style of clothing and hairstyles, forms of leisure, etc.

MORAL CULTURE is a historically established system of normative relations between people, forming an area of ​​cultural practice. Moral culture is based on fixed norms of relationships, sanctified by tradition.

MORPHOLOGY OF CULTURE – (from the Greek morphe – form + logos – teaching) – the study of typical forms and structures of culture. The starting point of cultural morphology is the belief that the development of culture is determined by the internal laws of society. Within the framework of cultural morphology, with the help of comparisons and analogies, attempts are made to identify the sources and factors of the development of cultures and the stages of their existence - from birth to death. A great contribution to the morphology of culture was made by the German philosopher of cultural history Oswald Spengler (“The Decline of Europe”).

MASCULINE AND FEMALE PRINCIPLES OF CULTURE are two characteristics inherent in culture, inextricably linked, competing and mutually complementing each other. The predominance of masculinity determines the priority of power, the value of things, sovereignty and independence, ambition and representativeness. The feminine principle provides culture with values ​​of a different order: quality of life, caring, interdependence and, in the highest sense, humanity. Both principles play an equal role in the life of humanity, being realized as the desire for change, innovation and the desire for stability and sustainability. J. Bachofen viewed world history as an eternal struggle between light and darkness, heaven and earth, birth and death, male and female principles. The Earth, according to Bachofen, is “the bearer of motherhood,” while the Sun “carries out the development of the paternal principle.” N. Berdyaev reflected on the “femininity” of Russian culture and the “masculinity” of German culture.

FOLK CULTURE is a non-professional, anonymous, collective culture. Includes myths, legends, tales, epics, fairy tales, songs, dances.

SCIENCE is a specialized field of culture, oriented towards knowledge. The main functions of science are to form a system of logically ordered knowledge based on a specially organized theoretical and empirical study of reality; constructing rational forecasts; control of the processes under study based on experiment.

“THE SCIENCE OF CIVILIZATION” is an attempt by the Polish philosopher F. Konecny ​​in the 30s. XX century to create a science whose main goal is to develop a theory of civilization, to clarify the origin and nature of the diversity of civilizations. “The science of civilization” understands the latter as a social integrity, “a special form of organizing the collectivity of people,” “a method of organizing collective life.” The structure of life and the uniqueness of civilizations are determined by five categories, or factors: good, truth, health, well-being and beauty. The inner life of civilization

ACCULTURATION (English from Lat. – education, development) is a process of mutual influence of cultures, as a result of which the culture of one people is fully or partially perceived by the culture of another people, usually less developed, this is a variety of processes of assimilation and ethnic consolidation.

ANIMISM (from lat. – soul) is one of the primitive forms of religion, associated with belief in the existence of spirits, in the animation of all objects and phenomena, in existence; an essential element of any religion.

ARCHETYPE (Greek – beginning + image) – prototype, primary form, sample. In the analytical psychology of K. Jung, the concept of A. correlates with the unconscious activity of people. An archetype is an innate mental structure that is the result of the historical development of humanity. According to Jung, A. serve as a fertile ground for creative and productive things, incl. and artistic imagination and fantasy; are embodied in dreams, myths, fairy tales, and act as source material for fiction and art.

ARTIFACT (lat. – artificial + made) is a process or formation that is not characteristic of an object in its normal state and usually arises during its study.

BUDDHISM is one of the three world religions. Originated in Dr. India in the VI-V centuries. BC. The founder is considered to be Siddhartha Gautama. Distributed in Southeast and Central. Asia. At the center of Buddhism is the “teaching of the four noble truths”: there is suffering, its cause, the state of liberation and the path to it. In Buddhism there is no opposition between subject and object, spirit and matter, there is no God as a creator and an unconditionally supreme being.

FAITH is a special psychological state of confidence in achieving a goal, the occurrence of an event, in the expected behavior of a person, in the truth of an idea, subject to a lack of accurate information about the achievability of the goal, the outcome of the event, the implementation of the expected behavior in practice, and the result of the test. Faith arises in relation to those processes, events, ideas that have a significantly significant meaning for people and represent a fusion of emotional and volitional moments. Because belief occurs in a probabilistic situation, acting on it involves risk. Despite this, it is an important fact of integration of the individual, group, mass, and a stimulus for the determination and activity of people.

GENESIS (Greek) – origin, emergence; the process of formation and formation of a developing phenomenon.

HUMANISM (lat. – humane, humane, educated) is a progressive direction in social thought, characterized by the protection of the dignity and rights of the individual, its free development, considering the well-being of man as a criterion for evaluating social institutions, and the principles of equality, justice, humanity as the desired norm of relations between people.

HERMENEUTICS (Greek interpretive art) – traditions and methods of interpreting ambiguous or indefinable texts (mostly ancient, for example, Homer, the Bible, etc.). During the Renaissance, architecture emerged as the art of translating monuments of ancient culture into the language of living, modern culture. Philosophical philosophy, following this tradition, defines the superiority of understanding over reason, language over consciousness. This emphasizes the possibility of reconstructing the “life world” (E. Husserl) of past cultures in order to understand the meaning of their individual monuments.

SOCIO-CULTURAL DYNAMICS - changes or modification of cultural features in time and space as a result of the influence of external or internal forces.

CULTURAL DETERMINISM (lat. – define) is a philosophical concept. Considering culture as a relatively autonomous entity, independent of other spheres of public life and playing a decisive role in social development.

SIGN – a material object (phenomenon, event), acting as a representative of some other object, property or relationship and used for acquiring, storing, processing and transmitting messages (information, knowledge).

ISLAM (Muslim) is one of the world religions (along with Christianity and Buddhism), which arose in the 7th century in Arabia. The beliefs of Islam are set out in the Koran. The founder of Islam is considered to be Muhammad, whom, according to legend, Allah chose as his “messenger”, a prophet. The basis of Islamic teaching is strict monotheism (monotheism - belief in the omnipotence of one Allah), recognition of the Koran as an eternal, sacred uncreated book, belief in the resurrection of the dead and the end of the world, observance of prayer, fasting and other rituals. Islam places the search for human happiness in heaven. It does not recognize the separation of spiritual and secular functions, reinforcing the non-separation of spiritual and secular power, religion, politics and the state.

ART is an integral part of the spiritual culture of humanity, a specific kind of spiritual mastery of reality by a social person, forming and developing the ability to creatively transform the world around him and himself. Appearing at the earliest stages of the development of society, it gradually emerges as an independent form of social consciousness, a way of understanding the world and a means of spiritual development of people. Art is multifunctional, i.e. performs various social functions in society: cognitive, hedonistic (hedonism - pleasure), aesthetic, educational, communicative (means of communication), etc.

IDEAL (Greek – idea, concept, idea) – perfection; a perfect example of any object, phenomenon, event, process from the point of view of a specific person or group of people; the highest goal of activity.

GAME is a form of free self-expression of a person, which presupposes real openness to the world of the possible and unfolds either in the form of a competition or in the form of a presentation of any situations, meanings and states. Modern cultural thought puts forward play as an independent field of study (J. Huizenga, D. Likhachev) and substantiates the cross-cutting significance of play in the development of the main cultural forms of human activity: art, science, philosophy, politics, etc.

IRRATIONALISM (Latin - unreasonable, unconscious) is a philosophical direction that limits or denies the possibility of the process of rational cognition of reality.

IDEAL TYPE is a theoretical construct, an abstract model that has no direct analogue in reality and represents an image-scheme of the object being studied. Ideal typification was proposed by M. Weber for the analysis of sociocultural reality; it made it possible to organize the empirical material of specific sociocultural studies, identifying the reasons and nature of the discrepancies between real types and ideal ones.

INCULTURATION is the process of mastering by a human member of a particular society the main features and content of the culture of his society, mentality, cultural patterns and stereotypes in behavior and thinking.

CULTURAL INNOVATION (Latin – renew, update, change) – objects, institutions, features, norms, values, etc. appearing for the first time in a given culture (society). as a result of invention or borrowing from other cultures.

CULTURE – the word, term and concept of culture are multi-valued. Etymologically, it goes back to the Latin term “cultura” (cultivation, processing). In the teleological interpretation, it is correlated with “cult”, faith, believing that cult is the bud from which culture grows. K. is defined as a system of signs, a symbolic shell of human activity; how what is done by man is opposed to nature (nature), like the world of artificial facts (artifacts); as a process of progressive self-liberation of a person; as a form of traditional behavior, a lifestyle program, etc.. Many of these definitions (no matter how different they are from each other) are quite legitimate, but only in complementarity, in integrative unity, can they highlight its spherical appearance. K. in its internal essence is a technology (a method of creative activity) of a social person, it is a supra-natural way of accumulating and transmitting human generic and individual experience, its evaluation and comprehension, this is what distinguishes a person from the outside world and opens the path of original free development. K. includes both activity and its results, meanings and evaluations.

CULTURAL MYTH (from the Greek methos - “before-speech”, in contrast to logos a as “word-thought”) replaces totemistic mythology, when anthropomorphic mythology takes the place of animal-like figures mythology. In the new worldview, the cultural hero personifies not the elemental forces of nature, but the tribal community itself, opposing itself to the wild, i.e. uncultivated nature.

CULTURAL VALUES - culture is a concept that has two aspects: 1) desaxiological (value-free, objectivist), according to which culture includes everything created by man: both the means of creation and the instruments of destruction; and literary language, and criminal jargon, etc. 2) axiological (value-based), when the facts of culture are correlated with the accepted system of values. Sometimes they say that nature is reality without values, and culture is reality from the point of view of values.

CULTUROGENESIS is the process of the emergence of the material and spiritual culture of mankind, occurring in close connection with the formation and development of tool activity and social patterns.

COUNTERCULTURE (lat. – against) - the direction of development of modern culture, opposing the established spiritual atmosphere of modern industrial society. K. became widespread among young people in Western countries in the 60-70s. XX century K. is characterized by a rejection of established social values, moral norms and ideals, standards and stereotypes of mass culture; the cult of the unconscious manifestation of natural passions and the mystical ecstasy of the soul. K.'s theory set as its goal the overthrow of modern culture, which appears to be organized violence against the individual. In the 1970s, the K movement reached a dead end and split into many different groups.

MAGIC (Greek - magic, witchcraft) - a set of rituals and actions associated with the belief in the possibility of influencing the surrounding reality with the help of imaginary supernatural forces. M. is one of the forms of ancient spiritual culture.

MARGINALITY is the qualitative state of a person or group of people who, due to circumstances (migration, interethnic marriages, etc.) find themselves on the border of two cultures; they participate in the interaction of these cultures, but do not completely adhere to any of them, as a result, a dual self-awareness is formed, mental tension arises, etc.

MENTALITY – attitude, worldview, formed at the deep mental level of individual or collective consciousness; a set of psychological and behavioral attitudes of an individual or a social group. Mentality is formed in the depths of culture under the influence of traditions, social institutions, and the environment and is a very stable formation, changing slowly and imperceptibly for those who possess it.

MYTHOLOGY (Greek mythos - legend and logos - word, teaching): 1) scientific discipline that studies surviving myths; 2) these myths themselves in their totality. The set of myths included the entire spiritual and psychological life of ancient society. Every myth ascribes the content of the psyche (mythical reality) to being itself.

SCIENCE is a sphere of human activity, the function of which is the development and theoretical systematization of knowledge about reality.

NOOSPHERE (Greek – mind, mind + ball) is a new evolutionary state of the biosphere, in which intelligent human activity becomes a decisive factor in its development. IN AND. Vernadsky developed the doctrine of N. as a qualitatively new form of organization that arises from the interaction of nature and society. N. is characterized by the interrelation of the laws of nature with the laws of thinking and with socio-economic laws. These laws are embodied in human activity as a determining factor in its development, comparable in its impact on natural processes with geological disasters.

PROGRESS (Latin – movement forward) – a transition from a lower, less perfect level to a higher one.

RATIONALISM (Latin - reasonable) is a philosophical direction that recognizes reason as the basis of human cognition and behavior.

SYMBOL (Greek) – 1) a conventional material identification sign for members of a certain social group; 2) an object, action, etc., serving as symbols of some image, concept, idea; 3) an artistic image that embodies an idea.

SYNCRETISM (Greek - connection, unification) - unity, indivisibility, characterizing the original, undeveloped state of something (for example, the symbol of primitive art characterizes the indivisibility of human activity and thinking in primitive culture).

SUB-CULTURE is a set of norms, values, ideals, symbols of any social group that exists relatively, regardless of the culture of society as a whole. For example, urban and rural S., youth S., etc.

SEMIOTICS (Greek – sign) is a discipline that deals with the comparative study of sign systems from the simplest signaling systems to natural languages ​​and formalized languages ​​of science. The main functions of the sign system are: a) the function of transmitting a message or expressing meaning; b) communication function. There are three main sections of semiotics: 1) syntactics, or the study of the internal structure of sign systems regardless of the functions they perform; 2) semantics, which studies sign systems as a means of expressing meaning; 3) pragmatics, which studies the relationship of sign systems to those who use them.

TOTEMISM is a complex of beliefs and rituals of a primitive society associated with the idea of ​​kinship between groups of people (usually clans) and totems (animals or plants that are represented by a patron ancestor). Totemism was widespread among all peoples of the world, remnants of totemism were preserved in all religions.

TEXT (Latin – fabric, connection) – a sequence of symbols that form a message. There are five functions of communication (according to Yu. Lotman): 1) a message sent from the information carrier to the subject; 2) collective memory, capable of continuous replenishment and updating of some aspects of information and temporary or complete oblivion of others; 3) the reader’s communication with himself, thereby T. actualizes certain personal aspects; 4) T. becomes an interlocutor; 5) communication between T. and cultural subtext. In semiotics, a symbol represents a meaningful sequence of any signs, any form of communication; in linguistics - a sequence of verbal signs. The whole world is perceived by the subject of culture as an endless, limitless text.

TECHNOLOGY is a set of human-created tools, artifacts and methods, mechanisms for carrying out any activity, enriching and improving the content of human life, expanding the relationship between man and the environment.

TECHNOLOGY is a method, a mechanism for carrying out any activity, any action and behavior.

TECHNOLOGICAL CULTURE – the degree of technological improvement.

TECHNOCRATISM is a style of thinking and action that limits the content of technology and technology only to the technical and technological meaning, technical and technological optimality and efficiency, without taking into account (and even limiting) the humanistic and sociocultural meanings of technology and technology. This is a style of thinking and action in which technical activity turns from a means of life into the goal of life, when engineering and technical thinking and activity are unilaterally focused only on the positive results and consequences of technology and technology, and when only from these positive technological positions, outside of any “human measurements”, all other aspects of human life and society are assessed in the process of their historical development.

TECHNOGENICITY; TECHNOGENIC CHARACTER OF MODERN CIVILIZATION - the promotion of technology and technology to the fore, a priority, dominant place in the system of values ​​accumulated by humanity, constituting the spiritual, cultural content of civilization, when the dominance of technology and technology as value orientations subjugates all other aspects of people's lives, and technocratism as a style thinking becomes the main thing in determining the nature and type of civilization.

UNIVERSALIES OF CULTURE – unique invariants of development, elements of culture; These are norms, values, rules, traditions and properties that are inherent in all cultures, regardless of geographical location, historical time and social structure of society. There are more than 70 cultural universals: the manufacture of tools, joint labor, body decoration, prohibitions on incest, dancing, sports, language, education, religious rites, etc. The purpose of cultural universals is seen in the fact that various cultures should contribute to the satisfaction of basic (physiological, psychological , social) human needs.

UNIVERSALITY OF CULTURE is a historically determined system of concepts and a way of understanding the world, where the most general ideas about human activity, about man’s place in the world, etc., characteristic of a given culture, are recorded. Universals of culture ensure the reproduction of the lifestyle and person of a given culture from generation to generation.

FETISHISM - religious worship of material fetish objects, which are prescribed supernatural properties. With the help of F., a person can supposedly exercise indirect power over nature and force a deity to fulfill his desires. In world religions, religion is preserved in the veneration of relics and icons (Christianity), sacred stupas (Buddhism), holy places, and the “black stone” among Muslims.

CHRISTIANITY (Greek - “anointed one”, “messiah”) - one of the three world religions (along with Buddhism and Islam), named after its supposed founder Christ, arose at the beginning of the 1st century in Palestine. In the IV century. became the dominant religion of the Roman Empire. H., like Islam, inherits the idea of ​​a single God, matured in Judaism, the owner of absolute goodness, absolute knowledge, absolute power, having a cause in Himself; in relation to whom all beings and objects are His creations; everything was created by God out of nothing. The Christian religion is based on faith in the redemptive mission of Jesus Christ, who with his death atoned for the sins of mankind; belief in the second coming of Christ, which should take place in the future; to the Last Judgment; into heavenly reward and the establishment of the Kingdom of God.

CIVILIZATION (Latin сivis – citizen, which indicates belonging to city life). The word and concept of culture are as polysemantic as “culture.” Often “civilization” and “culture” are interpreted as synonyms; in literary and journalistic language they are often interchangeable, although stylistically they are different. For many authors, the concepts of culture and culture are separated and even opposed. Culture includes the sphere of spirituality (ideas), and civilization includes the area of ​​the results of material activity (things). The color began to be interpreted as a material apparatus of culture. Another common interpretation of color is when it is presented as a general characteristic of historically specific types sociality and culture. In this case, color is understood as a certain stage in social history, a long period of development of peoples and the world as a whole, determined by the current state of the social structure and spiritual world. The most concise definition is: “C. – socio-cultural complexes that develop at different times in different regions of the Earth and carry within themselves features of social and cultural originality. That is why the expressions “Inca civilization”, “Greek civilization”, “ancient civilization”, etc. are found.”

ETHNOS (Greek - people, tribe) is a historically established stable group of people (tribe, nationality, nation), speaking the same language, recognizing their common origin, possessing a single way of life, a set of customs, traditions and differing in all this from other peoples. The cultural community of members of an ethnic group determines the unity of their mental makeup.

LANGUAGE is a system of signs with the help of which human communication, thinking and self-expression are carried out. It is a means of understanding the world, creating, storing, processing and transmitting information. The essence of language is that it divides the world into discrete concepts, i.e. assigns certain values ​​to individual elements of the world and classifies them in a special way.

Literature

Basic educational and reference literature

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11. Cultural studies. History of world culture / ed. IN AND. Markova. – M., 2004.

additional literature

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(terms used by the authors in the context of this work are marked with an asterisk)

Holdings (cultural)*-spiritual assets of culture that provide the meaning and value of the iconic expressions of the artifact.

Acculturation- changes in material and spiritual culture that occur as a result of direct contact of different cultures.

Axiology- the doctrine of values.

Actor* - subject of cultural creativity. "Sender" of a culturally significant message.

Acceptor* - subject who perceives the product of culture. “Addressee” of a culturally significant message.

Artifact- in cultural studies - any expedient artificial object (material or symbolic). In some cases, it is advisable to distinguish between an artifact as a single object and the cultural form embodied in it.

Archetype- prototype In Jung's “deep psychoanalysis”, it is a formative element of the collective unconscious, embodied under certain conditions in the individual imagination or in cultural creativity.

genotext/phenotext- in poststructuralism (Kristeva) this is a pre-linguistic process of formation of a continuum of meanings (genotext) and structures in which the content of the genotext is revealed, having received cultural design (phenotext).

Hermeneutics- the science of the principles of understanding and interpretation. In philosophy and cultural studies - a generalized theory of the translation of meanings in acts of communication, interpretation and cultural memory.

Gestalt* - in philosophy and cultural studies (but not in psychology) - an image of varying degrees of development (from representation to narration), conveying a fixed meaning, irreducible to conceptual content. In the Goethean tradition - a figurative representation of an ancestral phenomenon.

Discourse- in post-structuralist philosophy and cultural studies - the rules for constructing speech communication, specified by the stylistic or social function. For the analysis of culture, both explicit and implicit discursive “copybooks” are important, according to which this or that topic is framed.

Disparity*-separation of a cultural form from its artifact. Disparate forms can be common among types of cultural phenomena that differ in their external form.

Dominant* - predominant cultural form. Dominant forms, in contrast to recessive ones, are active and preferred methods of cultural creativity.

Identity- identifying oneself with one or another classification type (nation, culture, social group, role, gender, age, etc.). It can be carried out in unconscious forms.

Isomorphemes*– comparable morphemes belonging to different cultural series, but correlating with respect to cultural form. For example, the novel and symphony are isomorphic as a genre solution found in the 18th and 19th centuries.

Enculturation- the assimilation by an individual (less often a group) of the norms and models of a particular culture. Synonym: culturalization. Sometimes socialization is considered a special case of enculturation.

Internalism- recognition of the determining force in the development of a particular area of ​​culture as its own internal substantive and formal factors. The opposite position is externalism. The terms arose in the 30s of the XX century. during methodological debates in the history and philosophy of science.

Intertextuality- the ability of a text to express a reaction to other - previous and synchronous - texts. The term was coined by poststructuralism (Kristeva, Barthes). Intertextuality can be the conscious identification of sources, influences or opponents. But first of all, these are unconscious “quotations”. Poststructuralism argues that every text is an intertext.

Configuration- characteristic of a culture in terms of the peculiar or unique composition of its elements, which may be common to other cultures. With relative flexibility and variability, the configuration retains its basic parameters, which makes it possible to make it the basis for describing the specifics of a given culture. The category was introduced by A. L. Kroeber.

Creature*– an artifact in the aspect of its generation by a cultural subject.

Cultural studies* - a set of sciences about culture and thematic sections about culture in different sciences.

Mentality (mentality)- mental and psychological makeup inherent in an individual, group or culture over significant historical time.

Modernity* - New time. The term in this sense is rarely used in our literature, but the term “Modern”, also used as a synonym for the New Time, seems to us less convenient, since it is easily confused with the designation of the Art Nouveau style accepted in the Russian tradition.

Morphology of culture- a branch of cultural studies that studies cultural forms, structures and patterns of their variability.

Morphogenesis- a branch of cultural studies that studies the origin and formation of cultural forms, as well as their formation into stable systems.

Narrative- a narrative constructed according to certain rules of speech or artistic communication. These rules include, in particular, the system of subjects and levels of narration, various relationships to the addressee and subject of the message, a special type of narrative time, etc. One of the operational categories of poststructuralism. There is narratology as a literary discipline.

Axial time- period of world history from 800 to 200 AD. BC e., when the foundations and goals of civilizational development were laid and such fundamentally new values ​​as personality and history were postulated. The concept was created by Jaspers.

Paradigm- a basic conceptual model for posing problems and methods for solving them, dominant during a certain historical period. The concept was introduced into science by T. Kuhn. From his point of view, paradigm shifts occur during scientific revolutions, which does not allow us to consider the development of science as evolutionary continuity.

Program*- cultural form in terms of the consistent implementation of its capabilities and goals.

Recession- see Dominant.

Semiotics- the science of the properties of signs and sign systems in culture and its individual spheres. He also studies ways of transmitting information in human society and the animal world.

Symbol- a sign that is connected with the objectivity it denotes in such a way that the meaning of the sign and its object are represented only by the sign itself and are revealed only through its interpretation; Moreover, the rules of interpretation exclude both an unambiguous “decoding” of the sign (since the object has no other mode of givenness with which the meaning of the sign could be correlated) and arbitrary interpretation (since the sign is correlated with this particular object and not with another object). Also: 1) a synonym for the concept “sign” (for example, in linguistics, computer science, logic, mathematics); 2) allegorical sign.

Syndrome* - in cultural studies sometimes denotes a combination of signs or characteristics that are repeated in historically specific cases that are not amenable to logical generalization.

Syntax of culture* - a branch of cultural studies that studies ways of combining cultural forms into systems (syntagms) that can become a source of styles and paradigms.

Socialization- see Enculturation.

Subculture- independent holistic education within the dominant culture (for example, confessional, youth subcultures). Often a subculture conflicts with the dominant or opposes it.

Text*- any artifact as a coherent system of signs carrying a potential message. The text can be included as a part of a semantic whole (context) and used (modified) by communicative practice (discourse).

Phenotext- see Genotext.

Cultural form (morpheme)- the way in which an artifact expresses its extra-utilitarian symbolic “message”. For example, the same subject in art, executed in different stylistic manners, has different cultural forms.

Externalism- see Internalism.

Entelechy- a neologism from Aristotle, meaning mastery of goals and the embodiment of goals in individually defined objectivity. Both main interpretations of entelechy - as the possession of completeness and as the content of a goal - presuppose the internal work of the goal (process), leading to execution and embodiment (result). Thus, according to Aristotle, the soul is the entelechy of the body. In the occult-pantheistic natural philosophy of the Renaissance, entelechy is a designation of internal life force. The concept is used by Leibniz in Monadology, by Goethe in his natural philosophical reflections, by Husserl in The Crisis of the European Sciences. As a cultural concept, entelechy works in the cultural studies of G. S. Knabe.

Etabling – transformation of a cultural phenomenon into an institution.

Here and further, the authors pay primary attention to Mediterranean-European cultural history. This is not due to Eurocentrism, but to greater illustrativeness and ease of understanding of the tradition to which our readers belong.

Greek "demiurgos" means "master", "craftsman".

Antigone (332-375). Translation by D. S. Merezhkovsky.

Lurie, 558.

Art. 1448-1455. Per. F. Petrovsky.

321 pp. Transl. V.S. Solovyova.

We, of course, cannot identify this science with cultural studies. There is even an opinion that “the science created by Ibn Khaldun does not coincide in any way with any “analogue” that we could find in Western thought - for the simple reason that there are no such analogues.” In the article: Smirnov A.V. Ibn Khaldun and his new science / Historical and Philosophical Yearbook 2007. M., 2008, pp. 185-186.

It is this term that is used by French thinkers, in contrast to the German educators who chose the term “culture”. It is believed that the word “civilization” in the modern sense was first introduced by the French economist V. R. Mirabeau in the book “The Friend of Men” (1756).

From “Sturm und Drang” - the name of the drama by F. M. Klinger (1752-1831), one of the active figures of the movement. Hence the term “sturmers” in relation to the participants in Sturm and Drang.

“The idea of ​​universal history in the world-civil plan”, 1784; “Answer to the Question: What is Enlightenment?”, 1784; "The Supposed Beginning of Human History", 1786; "Religion within the Limits of Reason Alone", 1793; "The End of All Things", 1794; "Towards Eternal Peace", 1795; "Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View", 1798; "Logic", 1800; "On Pedagogy", 1803.

Kant I. Op. in German and Russian. T. 4. M., 2001, p. 701.

Kant I. Treatises and letters. M., 1980, p. 453-454.

There, p. 454.

Kant I. Op. in German and Russian. T. 4. M., 2001, p. 711.

From Greek hypotypōsis - sketch, essay, sketch, example, sample.

A case discussed in the Critique of Pure Reason.

Kant I. Op. in German and Russian. T. 4. M., 2001, p. 515.

"Das Schöne ist das Symbol des Sittlich-Guten." In the book: Kant I. Op. in German and Russian. T. 4. M., 2001, p. 517.

There, p. 523.

There, p. 525.

Of particular note are the various versions of the phenomenology of spirit given by Hegel and Schelling (and directly related to Kant’s method), and the experience of the morphology of culture in the vitalist, symbolic and hermeneutic directions of cultural studies of the 20th century.

Hegel expounds his original philosophical “myth” in his “Phenomenology of Spirit,” the significance of which was not diminished by later versions of the system. Also important for understanding Hegel are the Lectures, compiled from the notes of his students. In our case, a valuable source is lectures on the philosophy of law, aesthetics, philosophy of religion, philosophy of history, history of philosophy.

Dilthey himself rarely used this term. But it was he who rethought Schleiermacher’s hermeneutics and created the prerequisites for the hermeneutics of Heidegger and Gadamer.

Heidegger critically noted that “the formal structure of the interconnection of life is ultimately determined in Dilthey by the humanistic ideal of Goethe and Humboldt,” but today we can rather see Dilthey’s advantage in this, his ability to preserve the continuity of European humanities.

Dilthey V. View of the world and the study of man since the Renaissance and Reformation. M., 2000.

The aesthetics of early and middle Dilthey, presented in volume 4 of the published collection, are interesting, but less indicative in this regard. See: Dilthey V. Collection. cit.: In 6 vols. T. 4. Hermeneutics and theory of literature. M., 2001.

"Nietzsche's Philosophy in the Light of Our Experience." Collection op. in 10 vols. T. 10, p. 359.

Even the semiotics of everyday life is outlined. See, for example, Samarin’s article “Two words about clothes” in the book: Samarin Yu. F. Articles. Memories. Letters. M., 1997.

Zenkovsky V.V. History of Russian philosophy. Kharkiv; M., 2001, p. 201.

There, p. 231.

Spengler O. Decline of Europe. T. 1. M., 1993, p. 151.

There, p. 265.

There, p. 264.

There, p. 344.

There, p. 342.

Frank S. L. Fr. Nietzsche and the ethics of “love for the distant.” In the book: Problems of idealism. Digest of articles . M., 2002.

Trubetskoy S.N. What the history of philosophy teaches. In the book: Problems of idealism. Digest of articles . M., 2002, p. 492.

There, p. 501.

There, p. 495.

There, p. 504.

See: Struve P.B. Selected works. M., 1999, p. 127-150.

There, p. 135.

There, p. 132-133.

MINISTRY OF GENERAL AND PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

UFA STATE AVIATION TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY

Shiryaev L. A. Korovina WITH.IN.

Dictionary of cultural terms

Preface

The dictionary presented to your attention in a concise, popular form reveals the content of the basic concepts and terms that students encounter when studying the “Cultural Studies” course.

The dictionary provides an analysis of concepts and phenomena of a socio-political and socio-cultural nature. It allows students and anyone interested to significantly enrich their vocabulary and broaden their horizons.

For ease of use, the words are arranged in alphabetical order.

The dictionary uses a unified system of references and abbreviations adopted for reference publications.

1 . Abstract art (Latin abstractio - distraction) - abstract art - a formalist movement in painting, culture and graphics of the 20th century; abstractionists refuse to depict real objects and phenomena; their works are a combination of geometric shapes, color spots and lines.

2. Vanguard (or avant-garde)(French avant-garde) - the name of a number of movements in the art of the 20th century, breaking with existing realistic norms and traditions; avant-garde is an extreme expression of the broader movement of modernism and is distinguished by its rebellious character. It undermines and destroys the traditional features and principles of artistic creativity and helps open the way to the search for a new historical quality of artistic culture. Major representatives of the avant-garde - Kandinsky, Malevich, Picasso, Mathis, Dali and others.

3. Australopitcus (lat. australis - southern + gr. pithkos - monkey) - fossil ape, close to the ancestral form of man; Australopithecus lived at the beginning of the Quaternary period; remains of Australopithecus have been found in South, East and Central Africa.

4. Authoritt (German - power, influence) - the term denotes the influence of individuals and organizations (state, church, family, etc.) on life choices and a way to solve problems, based on the trust and respect of members of society for them.

5. Adaptation (Latin adaptatia - adapt) - the process of adapting an individual or social group to constantly changing conditions of existence.

6. Axiolgy (Greek: axios valuable + ... ology) is a philosophical and cultural doctrine of evaluative activity, methods of assessing cultural phenomena and developing value orientations and related relationships between people.

7. Alma mater (Latin alma mater - literally nursing mother) - for the subculture of students, the ancient name of a university that provides spiritual food.

8. Undergrund (English underground - underground, located under something) - a certain phenomenon in the development of art in a class society. The term first began to be used in American cinema in the 1940s to refer to non-commercial films made by aspiring directors with their own funds for home viewing; an illegal political or cultural organization, movement, as well as an unorthodox, unbiased movement in art that is not approved and persecuted by the authorities.

9. Animzm (from Latin anima - soul) - 1) belief in the existence of spirits, in the animation of all objects, in the presence of an independent soul in people, animals, plants; one of the primitive forms of religion; 2) philosophical teaching that elevates the soul to the principle of life.

10. Antagonism (from the gr. antagnisma - dispute, struggle) - an irreconcilable contradiction in culture - antagonism between the bearers of mutually exclusive social programs of behavior, worldviews (humanism and misanthropy, nationalism and internationalism).

11. Antique (from Latin antiqnus - ancient) - relating to the history and culture of the ancient Greeks and Romans.

12. Anthropogenesis (from gr. antrpos – man + genos – birth) – 1) the process of evolutionary-historical formation of man; 2) section of anthropology - the doctrine of human origins.

13. Anthroposphra – a concept that captures technology created by people, domestic animals, cultivated plants and part of nature (space) with which people directly interact.

14. Artifact (Latin arte – artificially + factus – made) – in the usual sense, any artificially created object, a product of human activity. In cultural studies, it is a carrier of socio-cultural information, life-semantic meanings, and a means of communication.

15. Archeology (from gr. archaios - ancient + ... logia) - a science that studies the historical past of human society using monuments of material culture (tools, utensils, weapons, dwellings, settlements, burial places), found mainly during excavations.

16. Architecture (Latin architectura, from the gr. architektonik (techn)) – construction (art)) – 1) the art of designing and constructing buildings and structures; architecture; sometimes architecture as the art of design is opposed to construction as the implementation of a project in kind; 2) the artistic nature of the building.

17. Asceticism (from the gr. askts exerciser, ascetic) – 1) teaching and practical method of achieving moral perfection through a person’s self-regulation of his bodily needs (dieting, mastering body culture, etc.) and limiting and suppressing sensual drives and desires (gourmetism, laziness , voluptuousness); in the history of culture, asceticism, as a rule, was carried out within the framework of religious teachings, therefore it is usually perceived as an exclusively religious principle; 2) religious asceticism; 3) extreme abstinence, refusal of life's goods.

18. Astrology (Greek astron star + ... ology) - the doctrine of the supposedly existing connection between the location of heavenly bodies and the historical destinies of people; arose in the Middle Ages and continues to exist in our time.

19. Buhaus (Bauhaus) is a higher school of construction and artistic design, founded in 1919 in Weimar (Germany), transferred to Dessau in 1925, and abolished by the Nazis in 1933. The leaders (W. Gropius, H. Meyer, L. Mies van der Rohe) developed the aesthetics of functionalism, the principles of modern form-building in architecture and design, and the formation of the material and everyday environment by means of the plastic arts.

20. Non-culture – the presence of elements of savagery, barbarism and negative examples in general in modern culture, backwardness of cultural development.

21. Bbliya (Greek biblia, plural from biblion book) - a set of books that make up the Holy Scriptures; The Bible consists of two parts - the Old Testament, which represents the holy books of the Christian and Jewish religions, and the New Testament, which contains Christian teaching itself.

22. Buddhism – one of the world religions (along with Christianity and Islam), which arose in the 6th century. BC e. in India and named after its legendary founder Gautama, who later received the name Buddha (enlightened). Buddhism became widespread in Southeast and Central Asia, as well as Central Asia and Siberia.

23. bourgeoisie (French bourgeois - city residents) - 1) in Western Europe in the Middle Ages - city dwellers, representatives of the middle class, in contrast to the upper classes of feudal society (nobility and clergy); 2) the ruling class of capitalist society.

24. Barbarism (Greek barbaros) - in the cultural and historical periodization adopted in the science of the 18th-19th centuries, the middle of the three eras of human history: savagery, barbarism, civilization. The scheme was substantiated by L. G. Morgan and adopted by F. Engels. Barbarism begins with the invention of pottery and ends with the advent of writing. In modern science, a new periodization of primitive history is being developed. The figurative meaning is extreme cruelty, rudeness.

25. Century – a measure of cultural periodization of human history based on its achievement of a certain level of development of the foundations of culture: Stone Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age, etc.

26. Vra – an element of a worldview through which a person’s attitude to his own vital forces, their source, and their capabilities is expressed. Faith can be positive (confidence) and negative (disbelief, uncertainty); “blind” – trust in feelings, intuition without any evidence; and “sighted” – trust in the understanding of experience, scientific evidence.

27. Verniszh (French vernissage - lit. varnishing) - the grand opening of an art exhibition (initially - the coating of a painting with varnish before the opening of the exhibition).

28. Taste - the concept of cultural studies denoting a person’s ability to show selectivity in consumption, creativity and communication on the basis of the moral and aesthetic norms he has acquired; an aesthetic measure of the selectivity of a person’s evaluative attitude towards the world.

29. Renaissance – see the article "Renaissance".

30. Vkhutems – Higher artistic and technical workshops, a Moscow educational institution, founded in 1920. It had art and production faculties; trained mainly easel painters and architects, created the foundations for training design artists. In 1926 it was transformed into Vkhutein.

31. Heraldry (from Wed - Latin heraldus - herald) - heraldry - compilation, interpretation and study of coats of arms; an auxiliary historical discipline that studies coats of arms as specific historical sources.

32. Gtika (French gothique - from the name of the German tribe of Goths) - an artistic style, mainly architectural, that originated in the 12th century. in France and in the late Middle Ages, spreading throughout Western Europe; Gothic architecture is characterized by pointed vaults on ribs (ribs), an abundance of stone carvings and sculptural decorations, the use of stained glass, and the subordination of architectural forms to vertical rhythm.

33. Graphics (gr. graphik, from graph - I write, draw, draw) - 1) a type of fine art based on a drawing made with strokes and lines without paint, as well as printed artistic images based on such a drawing; 2) the linguistic part of the study of writing, which studies the relationships between letters and sounds.

34. Humanism (from Latin humanus - humane) - a set of ideas and views that affirm the value of a person regardless of his social status and the right of an individual to the free development of his creative powers, proclaiming the principles of equality, justice, humane relations between people; humanism of the Renaissance (Renaissance, XIV-XVI centuries) - a social and literary movement that opposed scholasticism and the spiritual domination of the church, striving for the revival of the ancient ideal of beauty and humanity; humanism is real - a measure of the humanity of social relations.

35. Decadence (French dcadence, from Latin decadentia - decline) - otherwise decadence - the general name for crisis, decadent phenomena in the art of the late 19th - early 20th centuries, marked by individualistic pessimism, rejection of life, aestheticization of non-existence.

36. Activities – way of formation, existence and development of a person. Main types of activity: instinctive labor activity, labor, creativity. The main forms are production, consumption, communication. Activity acts as an expedient process of influence of a subject (person) on an object (nature), the product of which is a modified nature and a renewed person. The basis of culture is formed not by any activity, but by positive activity, creating and accumulating surplus product in material, organizational, normative and spiritual forms.

37. Dialctic (gr. dialektik (techn) – (art) to conduct a conversation, debate) – 1) a method of creativity based on the knowledge of real contradictions that underlie natural and social phenomena and the use of this knowledge for practical purposes through a positive resolution of existing contradictions or conscious connection opposites in innovation; 2) the objective process of development of culture (society) in all its inconsistency, diversity and logical sequence of changing forms.

38. Design (from the English design - to design, construct) - artistic design of objects, interiors; designing the aesthetic appearance of cultural objects.

39. Dost – the name of the 1st stage of human history, which gave way to barbarism. Wildness began with the advent of man and ended with the emergence of pottery. The period of savagery corresponds to the time of the formation of man and the early tribal system (Paleolithic and Mesolithic).

40. Dissident (from lat. dissidens (dissidentis) - disagreement, contradictory) - 1) a person who does not adhere to the dominant religion; 2) a dissident person who does not agree with the dominant ideology, with the dominant worldview, with the existing system.

41. Spirit – a term to denote an intangible principle that differs from the material, natural one. In cultural studies, the concept of “spirit” is used in a broad and narrow sense, as synonyms for the dominant spiritual culture and its core worldview.

42. Shower (Greek psyche, Lat. anima) – a concept expressing historically changing views on the inner world of man; in religion and idealistic philosophy, a special immaterial substance independent of the body; in modern science - a designation of the integrity of ideal mental processes that reflect and express in various sensual and rational forms the external world and the extent of the individual’s involvement in the historical process of creative transformation of nature and society.

43. Genre (from the French genre - genus, type) - 1) a historically established, stable variety of a work of art, for example, in painting - a portrait, landscape, in literature - a novel, a poem; 2) the same as genre painting.

Mythological genre - a type of fine art that draws themes from the mythologies of different peoples. The peculiarity of the mythological genre is the free interpretation of legendary plots. It developed in ancient art, and reached its peak during the Renaissance.

44. Painting – a type of fine art whose works are created using paints applied to any surface. Painting is an important means of artistic reflection and interpretation of reality, influencing the thoughts and feelings of viewers; it has significant social content and various ideological functions.

45. Cultural Law – a theoretical expression of the connection (relationship) between phenomena and processes, which is objectively significant, universal, necessary to ensure internal unity, stability and consistency in the development of culture as a whole or its individual components.

46. Idel (French idal, from the gr. idea - idea, concept, idea) - perfection; a perfect example of something; the highest goal of aspirations and activities.

47. walking (from the gr. idea - concept, representation) - a form of reflection in thinking of the phenomena of the objective world in connection with the desires and aspirations of people. The idea includes the consciousness of purpose and direction for further knowledge and transformation of the world. It can be progressive or reactionary. By mastering the consciousness of the masses, ideas become material force. Lack of ideas means the purposelessness of existence, the loss of oneself by a person.

48. Inventive – a new and significantly different technical solution to a problem in any area of ​​the national economy, socio-cultural construction or defense, which gives a positive effect. The right to an invention is certified by a copyright certificate or a patent.

49. Ikna (from gr. eikn - image, image) - in Orthodoxy and Catholicism - an image of God, a saint (saints), which is the subject of religious worship.

50. Impressionism (French impressionisme, from impression - impression) - a movement in art of the last third of the 19th - early 20th centuries; received its fullest expression in French painting. In an effort to capture the real world in its mobility and variability, to achieve living authenticity of the image, to recreate the unity of man and the environment, impressionist painters developed the plein air system; they painted with separate strokes of “pure color” (that is, they did not use mixed paints), and accurately recreated two-color and colored shadow reflexes. In music, sculpture, literature, and theater, the Impressionists developed ways of conveying impression as the fundamental aspect of all representation, experience, and thought.

51. Individualization – the reverse side of socialization, the socio-cultural process of an individual’s accumulation of special, unique experience, the growth of its scale, creative potential, versatility, independence of freedom and responsibility. The measure of individualization is personal contribution to culture.

52. Individuality – an individual personality as the owner of a unique set of human qualities and properties, manifested in creativity and communication.

53. Hinduism (Sanskrit) - the religion most widespread in modern India; arose around the 5th century. n. e.

54. Engineer (French ingnieur) – a specialist in any field of technology with a higher technical education.

55. Inters (from Latin interest - to have meaning, important) - a concept related to the deep social reason for the actions of a person, class, society. Interest is an expression of the interdependence of people. It is one way or another reflected in consciousness in the form of ideas about benefit, benefit, self-interest in the material sense of the word.

56. Intelligentsia (from Latin intelligens (intelligentis) - knowledgeable, understanding, reasonable) - a social layer of people professionally engaged in mental, mainly complex creative work, ensuring the continuity and growth of culture (workers in science and art, lawyers, teachers, engineers, doctors, journalists and etc.).

57. Irrationalism (from Latin irationalis - unreasonable) - a direction in philosophy that denies the possibilities of reason in the process of cognition and transformation of reality, recognizing the main type of knowledge as revelation, faith, will, intuition or other non-thoughtful aspects of spiritual life. In practice, irrationalism is fixed by the formula “we wanted the best, but it turned out as always.”

58. Art – a specific form of spiritual exploration of the world by man, in which his abilities to creatively transform the world around him and himself according to the laws of beauty are formed and developed. Occurs during the labor process. Main features: 1) its ability to combine all those forms of social activity and knowledge where the individual’s human attitude to reality and to himself is manifested; 2) reflection of this reality in artistic images. Historically it develops as a system of specific types of art (music, painting, later architecture, cinema, etc.).

59. Islam (Ar.) - one of the world religions (along with Christianity and Buddhism), which arose in the 7th century. in Arabia. The founder of Islam is considered to be Muhammad, whom, according to legend, Allah chose as his “messenger” prophet. The creed of Islam is set out in the Koran; Islam is widespread mainly in the countries of the Middle East, North Africa, Southeast Asia, and a number of regions of the former USSR; the same as Islam.

60. Judasm (sob.) – a religion widespread mainly among Jews; arose at the end of the 2nd millennium BC. e.; is monotheistic with the cult of the god Yahweh; Judaism is the state religion of Israel.

61. Calvinism – one of the Protestant faiths, the founder of which was J. Calvin (1509-1564); originated in Switzerland in the 16th century. during the Reformation.

62. Cannes (from gr. kann - rule, prescription) - 1) rule, position of any direction, teaching; that which is firmly established has become traditional and generally accepted; 2) the totality of the books of the Bible recognized by the church as “inspired by God”, sacred scripture; 3) dogma, ritual or rule established and legitimized by the church; 4) in art - a set of artistic techniques or rules that are considered mandatory in a particular era, as well as a work that serves as a normative model; 5) in music: a) a musical form in which all voices perform the same melody, but begin it at different times in strict sequence one after another: each subsequent voice enters before the melody of the previous voice ends (a type of imitation); b) large choral composition (in the Orthodox Church).

63. Carnival (French carnaval, from Italian carnevale) - an open-air folk festival, accompanied by street processions, dances, masquerades, theatrical games, etc.; carnivals were originally held in Italy.

64. Category (gr. katgoria) - a concept that reflects the most essential properties and relationships of objects, phenomena of the objective world as a whole (matter, time, space, movement, causality, quality, quantity, etc. - categories of philosophy) or its parts studied by individual sciences (material, spiritual culture, social research, value, traditions, etc. - categories of cultural studies).

65. Catholicism (from the gr. katholikos - universal, universal) - one of the main trends in Christianity (along with Orthodoxy and Protestantism), which took shape as a result of the split of Christian churches in the 11th century.

66. Classic (Latin classicus - first-class, exemplary) - exemplary, outstanding, generally recognized works of literature and art that have lasting value for national and world culture.

67. Classicism (Latin classicus - first-class, exemplary) - an artistic style and direction in European literature and art of the 17th - early 19th centuries, one of the important features of which was the appeal to the images and forms of ancient literature and art as an ideal aesthetic model.

68. Computerization (English computer, from Latin computare - count, calculate) - the widespread introduction of computers in various areas of human activity (for example, for conducting scientific research, managing various production processes, training, diagnostics).

69. Constructivism (from Latin constructio - construction) - a direction in the art of the 20th century, successively associated with cubism and futurism and which gave rise to its own artistic style, which was reflected in Soviet architecture, painting, applied art and poetry of the 20s - early 30s; The main tenet of constructivism was the rapprochement of art with the practice of industrial life along the line of form: geometrization of contours and exposure of the technical basis of construction in architecture, functionally justified design in applied art, stylization of documents and reproduction of production rhythms in poetry, etc.

70. Context (from Latin contextus - close connection, connection) - a semantically complete fragment of written or oral speech, within which the meaning of the individual words, expressions, etc. included in it is most accurately revealed.

71. Conformism (from Late Lat. conformis - similar, similar) - opportunism, passive acceptance of the existing order, prevailing opinions, etc.; lack of one’s own position, uncritical adherence to general opinions, trends, authorities.

72. Confucianism – philosophical and ethical system developed in the 5th century. BC e. ancient Chinese thinker Confucius (Kun Tzu); one of the Chinese religions that defends the inviolability of social orders and social inequality established by heaven; strictly requires the fulfillment of rituals, the veneration of ancestors, and the performance of sacrifices.

73. Korn (Ar.) - the main holy book of Muslims, a collection of religious, dogmatic, mythological and legal texts.

74. Kremlin – (until the 14th century Detinets), the central part of ancient Russian cities, surrounded by fortress walls with towers; a complex of defensive, palace and church buildings. The Kremlin was located on high places, usually on the banks of a river or lake, and was the core of the city, determining its silhouette and layout. Kremlins have been preserved in Novgorod, Pskov, Tula, Nizhny Novgorod, Smolensk, Moscow and other cities.

75. Cult (from Latin cultus - veneration) - 1) one of the mandatory elements of any religion, expressed in special magical rituals, actions of clergy and believers in order to have the desired effect on supernatural forces; 2) admiration for someone, something, veneration of someone, something; excessive exaltation of someone or something (cult of personality, cult of creativity, cult of profit, cult of idleness, etc.).

76. Kultra (lat. cultura) – 1) the basic concept of cultural studies, denoting, firstly, everything that is created by man himself, as opposed to what is created by nature. This definition fixes the external boundaries of culture and its source - purposeful activity. Since in culture the subject, object and final product is the person himself as the value of all values, culture can be called the production of a historically specific type of person; 2) in the socio-historical sense - the dominant method of accumulation and transmission from generation to generation of creative experience (heritage) - primitive culture, feudal, bourgeois, etc.; 3) a specific systemic method of reproduction (cultivation) of certain human qualities, properties and their complexes (professional, emotional, intellectual, physical, environmental, etc.); 4) a measure of assimilation of the personal achievements of humanity and the method of their application in creativity and communication.

"Kultra mssovaya" - (philosophy, sociology), a generalized characteristic of the dominant type of culture in modern bourgeois society, transformed into an industrial-commercial form of production and distribution of standardized spiritual goods through the media. The main features are primitivism in the depiction of human relations, the reduction of social conflicts to clashes between “good” and “bad” people, entertainment, sentimentality, naturalistic relishing of violence, sex, incitement of national and racial prejudices, the cult of success, consumerism, the inculcation of conformism, etc. have the goal of subordinating the consciousness of the masses to bourgeois values ​​and way of life.

Ministry of Transport of Russia Far Eastern State Maritime Academy named after Admiral G.I. Nevelskoy E.E. Drobysheva BRIEF DICTIONARY OF TERMS AND CONCEPTS OF CULTURAL STUDIES COURSE Textbook Recommended by the methodological council of the Far Eastern State Maritime Academy as a textbook for all specialties Vladivostok 2000 UDC 008 (075.8) 2 Drobysheva E.E. Brief dictionary of terms and concepts: Textbook. allowance. - Vladivostok, DVGMA, 2000. - 37 p. The dictionary contains the basic terms and concepts necessary in the process of studying the disciplines of the humanities, in particular cultural studies. The range of material offered is quite wide - from information about cultural figures to religious and philosophical terms. Recommended for cadets and students of all specialties studying cultural studies and art history. Reviewers: Kamenev S.V., Ph.D., Associate Professor, Department. History and Philosophy FENSMA Yachin S.E., Doctor of Philology, Professor, Head. department philosophy of Far Eastern State Technical University ©Drobysheva E.E., ©Far Eastern State Maritime Academy named after. adm. G.I. Nevelskoy, 2001. Absolutism (Absolute monarchy) is a form of government in which the monarch has unlimited supreme power. 3 Avant-garde [fr. avantgardisme - vanguard] - a tendency to deny traditions and experimentally search for new forms, manifested in the art of various movements and schools, in the work of individual artists (mainly in the twentieth century). Avesta - ancient Iranian religious literary monument; collection of sacred books in Zoroastrianism; arose in the 1st half of the 1st millennium BC. Hagiography is a type of church literature - biographies of saints. Agnosticism is a philosophical doctrine that denies the possibility of knowing the objective world and the attainability of truth; limits the role of science only to the knowledge of phenomena. A. is consistently presented in the teachings of J. Berkeley and D. Hume. Hades is the god of the underworld and the kingdom of the dead in Greek mythology. Hades is also the kingdom of the dead itself. The Romans have Pluto. Abstractionism is an artistic movement in the fine arts of the twentieth century, based on the extreme abstraction of pictorial images of specific objects and on the refusal to depict real objects and phenomena in painting, sculpture and graphics; one of the directions of modernism. Academicism is an artistic movement based on dogmatic adherence to canons and classical images recognized as ideal. Historically associated with the activities of the first art institutions of the late 16th - early 17th centuries. , in which training was focused on the achievements of antiquity and the Renaissance. Academy - the name of scientific and educational institutions; comes from the name of the area near Athens, where Plato’s Academy arose (387 BC) in the grove of the hero Academus. An aqueduct is a structure in the form of a bridge (or overpass) with a conduit (pipe, canal), which began to be built in Ancient Rome. The Acropolis is the elevated and most fortified part of the ancient Greek city (the so-called “upper city”), in Athens there are city shrines and temples. Axiology [Greek. axia – value] - the doctrine of values. The Library of Alexandria is the largest collection of handwritten books in antiquity (according to various sources, from 100 to 700 thousand volumes); founded at the beginning of the 3rd century. BC e. at the Alexandria Museion - a scientific and cultural center. Part of the library burned down in 47 BC. e., part destroyed in 391 AD. e., remains - in the 7th - 8th centuries. n. e. The Lighthouse of Alexandria is one of the seven wonders of the world according to ancient society, built around 280 BC. e. Allah (Arabic) is the name of God in Islam, originally the name of the tribal God of the Qureish tribe, from which the Prophet Muhammad came. Alchemy is a pre-scientific direction in the development of chemistry that arose in Egypt in the 3rd - 4th centuries. n. e. and became widespread in Western Europe in the Middle Ages. Altruism is the moral principle that holds that the interests and good of another are more important than one's own interests. Ideas of altruism are present in Christianity and Buddhism. The term was introduced by O. Comte in the 19th century. Comte believed that altruism separates man from the animal and allows people to live in society, together. F. Nietzsche was an opponent of altruism, who considered it the destiny of weak people in their unification against the superman. Empire [fr. empire – empire] is an artistic style in architecture and decorative arts of the first three decades of the 19th century, which arose in France and completed the era of the development of classicism. Focused on Roman antiquity (“the era of empire”), it combines Roman and Egyptian motifs. After 1812 it spread to Russia. It is distinguished by its monumental forms and rich decor. Amphiprostyle is a type of ancient Greek temple, rectangular in plan, with columned porticoes on the end facades. 4 An amphitheater is an ancient structure for spectacles: an oval arena, around which there were seats for spectators on ledges. Anarchism [Greek] anarchia - anarchy] - a doctrine that rejects the role and authority of the state in governance. Only the will of the individual is recognized as the guiding principle in society. Anglicanism is one of the directions in Protestantism. The Church of England is the official religion of Great Britain. Animism [lat. anima – soul] - belief in the existence of the soul and spirits, the main element of any religion. Antiquity – [lat. antiquus – ancient] - in the broad sense of the word it is equivalent to “antiquity”, in the narrow sense - Greco-Roman antiquity, the history and culture of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome of the 9th century. BC e. - V century n. e.). Anthropomorphism is likening to a person, endowing objects and phenomena of inanimate nature, celestial bodies, animals and mythical creatures with human properties. Anthropopotism is a type of anthropomorphism, the attribution of human passions to God. Anthropocentrism is the view that man is the center and highest goal of the universe. Anthropogenesis is the process of the origin of man and his historical and evolutionary formation. Apocalypse is one of the books of the New Testament, a revelation of John the Theologian, created in 68-69. n. e. Contains a prophecy about the “end of the world,” the struggle between Christ and the Antichrist, the “Last Judgment,” and the thousand-year reign of God. Apollo in Greek mythology and religion is the son of Zeus, god-healer and soothsayer, patron of the arts. The Romans have Phoebus. Apologist - 1) a collective name for early Christian writers of the 2nd - 3rd centuries. (Justian Martyr, Origen, Tertullian); 2) an ardent supporter of any idea, direction, social structure. The apostles are the closest followers of Christ, wandering preachers. Ares is the god of war in Greek mythology, the son of Zeus and Hera. The Romans have Mars. Arianism is a movement in Christianity of the 4th - 6th centuries, founded by the priest Arius, condemned by the Councils of 325 and 381. as heresy. He denies one of the church dogmas about the consubstantiality of God the father and God the son, and considers Christ to be God's creation. Aristocracy - 1) a form of government in which state power belongs to a privileged noble minority; 2) to know, a privileged part of a class. Aristotle - (384-322 BC) - ancient Greek scientist philosopher; studied with Plato, in 335 he founded the Lyceum, or Peripatetic school. Teacher Al. Macedonian. Archaic is an early stage in the history of the development of any phenomenon. In art history, the early period of ancient Greek architecture and fine arts. (VII - VI centuries BC). An archetype is a stable cultural form, structural elements of the collective unconscious that underlie general cultural symbolism, dreams, fairy tales, and myths. K. Jung's term. Archons - the highest officials in the ancient Greek city-states, formed a collegium (usually 9 people). Asceticism is the restriction or suppression of sensual desires, a system of voluntary self-restraint inherent in the practice of philosophical (cynics) or religious (monasticism) schools and movements. Atheism – [Greek. atheos – godless] - denial of the existence of God or the assertion that if God exists, then people cannot know him 5 (agnostic atheism). Radical atheism is characteristic of Marxism and positivism. Agnostic atheism was common among the philosophers of Ancient Greece (Democritus, Protagoras, Epicurus). Ahinsa [Skt. - non-harm] is one of the most important principles of Indian philosophy and religion. Following this principle means prohibiting harm to all life on earth. In this principle, the essence of Eastern culture is the idea of ​​human inclusion in nature, the kinship of all animal beings. Baroque [Italian] barocco - whimsical, strange] - artistic style of the XVI century - mid. XVIII centuries, characterized by dynamics, emotional expression, drama, and a mystical sense of space. It originated in Italy and spread to Europe in the post-Renaissance era. Basilica is a type of architectural structure, a rectangular building, divided inside by rows of columns or pillars into longitudinal parts (nave), the middle nave rises above the rest, such buildings began to be built in Ancient Rome for judicial and trade purposes, later it was the main type of Christian temple . Bestiaries - in ancient Rome, fighters with wild animals in the circus arena. Bible [Greek biblia – book] - a collection of works of different times and different characters from the 8th century. BC e. - II century n. e. (Old and New Testaments). It lies at the heart of the dogma and worship of Christianity. Boccaccio Giovanni (1313 - 1375) - Italian writer and humanist of the early Renaissance. Boris and Gleb are the first Russian saints. Boris, Prince of Rostov, son of Prince Vladimir I, was killed by supporters of Svyatopolk I. Gleb, his brother, Prince of Murom, was also executed. Brahma is one of the three highest gods in Brahmanism and Hinduism, God is the creator, creator of the Universe and all things. The cult of Brahma is practically absent. Brahman - 1) one of the central concepts of Indian philosophy and the religion of Hinduism, the cosmic spiritual principle, the impersonal absolute that underlies everything that exists; 2) a member of the highest priestly caste. Brahmanism is the 2nd stage (1st millennium BC) of the formation of the Indian religion - Hinduism, which developed as a result of adaptation to the Vedic religion of the Indo-Aryan tribes of local Indian autochthonous cults (Greek. local, indigenous) population. The Bronze Age is a historical period characterized by the discovery and spread of bronze tools and products. Dated to 2500 - 2000. BC e. in the Mediterranean, the period of the Old Kingdom in Egypt, the Homeric era in Greece (late Bronze Age). Buddha [Skt. – enlightened]: 1) the name given to the founder of Buddhism, Siddhartha Gautama (623 - 544 BC); 2) in Buddhism - a being who has reached a state of highest perfection. Buddhism is one of the three world religions, which arose in the 6th - 5th centuries. BC e. in ancient India. Distributed in India, Southeast and Central Asia, partly in Central Asia and Siberia; assimilated elements of Brahmanism and Taoism in India by the 12th century. dissolved into Hinduism, influencing him. “Buridan’s donkey” is a well-known example in the history of philosophy for explaining the concept of “free will.” A donkey standing between two identical armfuls of hay located at an equal distance from him had to starve. With equal motives, he could not decide which armful of hay to eat first. Examples of this kind are found not only in the medieval philosopher J. Buridan, but also in Aristotle and Dante. Vagantes - in medieval Western Europe (XII-XIII centuries) wandering poor students, schoolchildren, low clergy, distributors of free-thinking, anti-church sentiments, mainly in poetic and song form. 6 Stained glass is an ornamental or narrative decorative composition (in a window, door or independent panel) made of glass or other material that transmits light. The most common technique in Gothic. Varnas are the four main classes in Ancient India (brahmanas and kshatriyas are the highest, vaishyas and sudras are the lowest). Vedas [Skt. - knowledge] - monuments of ancient Indian literature (late 2nd - early 1st millennium BC), consist of collections of hymns and sacrificial formulas (Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda), theological treatises. The Vedic religion is an early stage of the formation of Hinduism. The carriers of the Vedic religion were Indo-Aryan tribes. The most revered gods are Varuna, Indra, Agni and Soma. Brahmanism developed from the Vedic religion. Veles (Volos) is the “cattle god” in Slavic pagan mythology, the patron of domestic animals and wealth. Veles' book - texts of ancient Slavic sacred songs and myths. dedicated to the god of wealth and wisdom Veles; presumably written in the 4th century. Novgorod priests, covers the events of the mythical and ancient history of the Slavs at the end of the 2nd millennium BC. e. - end of the 1st millennium n. e. Faith is an ethical and philosophical category that denotes an attitude towards events, theories and even fictions, when they are recognized as reliable and accepted without evidence. This is a central ideological position in religious systems, including, firstly, the acceptance of certain dogmas and the determination to adhere to them despite doubts (“temptations”); secondly, personal trust in God and, thirdly, personal loyalty to him. In religion, faith is higher than reason, and sometimes incompatible with it. The Christian theologian Tertullian said: “I believe because it is absurd.” Virgil Maro Publius (1st century BC) - Roman poet, author of the heroic epic "Aeneid", a classic of Roman poetry who idealized the empire. The Old Testament is the first part of the Bible, a collection of ancient texts canonized by Judaism and Christianity as Holy Scripture. Consists of the Pentateuch of Moses and the books of the Prophets. Literally, “covenant” means God’s covenant with his chosen people (the Jews). The Byzantine Empire is a state of the 4th - 15th centuries, formed during the collapse of the eastern part of the Roman Empire (Balkan Peninsula, Asia Minor, southeastern Mediterranean). It is named after the Greek city of Byzantium, on the site of which its capital, Constantinople, was founded in 330. The culture of Byzantium had a great influence on Rus' and other countries of Eastern Europe (in the spread of Christianity). Stained glass is an ornamental or narrative decorative composition (in a window, door or independent panel) made of glass or other material that transmits light. The most common technique in Gothic. Vishnu is a solar deity in the Vedic religion; in Brahmanism and Hinduism, he is a great guardian God who has several incarnations, including Krishna and Rama. Vitalism [lat. vita - life] - a theory about a special vital force in any organism that determines all manifestations of life. Vitalism denies the possibility of explaining life by chemical or mechanical reasons and believes that life develops purposefully in accordance with internal laws. Renaissance (Renaissance) is an era in the history of culture (XIV - XVI centuries) of Western and Central Europe, which initially acted as a revival of ancient traditions, ideological and aesthetic principles. Renaissance humanism was based on the idea of ​​a creative person, a harmonious and beautiful personality. The period of struggle between medieval ideology and the developing individualistic tendencies of the period of the birth of capitalism. There are several stages in the development of Renaissance culture: Early Renaissance (Boccaccio, Alberti, Petrarch), High Renaissance (Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael, F. Rabelais) and Later (Shakespeare, Cervantes), the crisis of Renaissance humanism. One of the central achievements of philosophical and scientific thought is the idea of ​​experiment, experimental knowledge of reality (F. Bacon, Leonardo da Vinci, Copernicus, Galileo). A vote is a decision made by voting. Time is an objective form of existence of matter, expressing the duration of existence and the sequence of changes in the states of all material systems and processes in the world. Galileo Galileo (1564-1642) - Italian scientist, one of the founders of modern natural science. He was accused by the Inquisition of defending the teachings of Copernicus and was forced to renounce it. Harmony [Greek] harmonia] - correspondence, agreement, consonance) - an aesthetic category denoting the integrity, unity of all parts and elements of a form or object. A concept related to aesthetics. The necessary basis for beauty. Gautama Siddhartha (623 -544 BC) - the founder of Buddhism, a prince from the Shakya family in Northern India (hence another of his names - Shakyamuni, “hermit of the Shakyas”). Hegel Georg William Friedrich (1770 - 1831) - German philosopher, creator of the theory of dialectics. He deduced certain laws for the development of the spiritual culture of humanity, the essence of which is the progressive identification of creative power (“world mind”). Hedonism [Greek] pleasure] - a philosophical and ethical teaching that arose in ancient philosophy; According to him, the main driving force and purpose of human activity is to obtain pleasure. The ancient Greek philosopher believed that pleasure is the basis of happiness, coupled with wisdom and moderation. Christianity rejected the idea of ​​hedonism, contrasting it with asceticism. Currently, the principles of hedonism have been revived by utilitarians, who argue that a person should strive for utility, benefit and pleasure. Heliocentrism is a picture of the world according to which the Sun is at the center of the universe. Author Copernicus. Genesis - emergence, development, origin. Geocentrism is a worldview according to which the Earth is the center of the Universe. Genocide is a type of international crime that involves the physical extermination of entire population groups based on racial, national, ethnic or religious principles. In the sphere of national-cultural genocide should be considered the destruction of a language, religion or culture, any racial or religious group, the destruction of museums, libraries, and historical monuments. Hercules is a hero of Greek mythology, the son of Zeus (in the Roman version - Jupiter), the owner of extraordinary strength. The Romans have Hercules. Heraclitus from Ephesus (554 - 483 BC) is an ancient Greek philosopher, who received the nickname “dark” for the mystery of his thoughts and the complexity of his images. He saw the primary basis of the world in movement (“everything flows, everything changes”). One of the founders of dialectics. He considered fire and its variability to be the basis of the world. He believed that development is based on the struggle of opposites (“war is the father of all things”), and when opposing objects are united, harmony arises. Heraldry is armorial studies, an auxiliary historical discipline. Herder Johann Gottfried (1744 - 1803) - German philosopher, critic, esthetician, one of the founders of cultural studies. Hermeneutics is the study of understanding, the art of explanation and translation. On behalf of Hermes - in Greek mythology, the mediator between gods and people. Geometric style is an artistic style inherent in the archaic period of development of a particular culture. It first appeared in the ornamentation of tools and household items in the Neolithic era (VI millennium BC). The use of simple geometric shapes and ornaments is typical. 8 Hermes (Mercury) - in Greek mythology, the son of Zeus (among the Romans - Jupiter), the messenger of the Olympian gods, the god of trade and profit, the patron of shepherds and travelers. Herodotus (480 - 425 BC) - ancient Greek scientist, “father of history.” Hephaestus (Vulcan) - in Greek mythology, the god of fire, patron of blacksmiths, son of Zeus and Hera. Gymnasium is a state educational institution in ancient Greek cities and the Hellenistic East in the 5th - 4th centuries. BC e. Young men aged 16-18 from noble families studied there, practiced gymnastics, and received literary, philosophical and political education. Glyptic – carving on precious or semi-precious stones. The Globe Theater is a theater in London (1599 - 1644), with which W. Shakespeare collaborated. Epistemology [Greek. gnosis - knowledge and logos - teaching] - theory of knowledge. Golgotha ​​is a hill in the vicinity of Jerusalem on which, according to legend, Jesus Christ was crucified. Synonymous with martyrdom and suffering. Horace Quintus Flaccus (65 - 8 BC) - Roman poet, creator of various works in the spirit of Epicureanism and Stoicism. His treatise “The Science of Poetry” became the theoretical basis of classicism. The famous “Monument” caused many imitations (G. Derzhavin, A. Pushkin, etc.) The state is a form of organization and management of society, based on a system of law. Gothic is an artistic style in Western European art of the 10th - 11th centuries. It arose on the basis of the folk traditions of the Germans, the achievements of Romanesque culture and the Christian worldview. Manifested in the construction of cathedrals, in the art of stone and wood carving, sculpture, stained glass, as well as in painting. Engraving is a type of graphics in which the image is a printed impression of a relief design applied to the board. Originated in Europe at the turn of the 19th-15th centuries. There are varieties: woodcut (convex engraving), etching, aquatint (in-depth), printmaking (easel), book. Greco-Persian Wars (500-449 BC) - wars between Persia and ancient Greek cities - states that defended their independence. Humanism [lat. humanis – humane] - recognition of the value of a person as an individual, his right to free development; affirmation of human good as a criterion for assessing social relations. In a narrow sense, it is the secular freethinking of the Renaissance, opposed to scholasticism and the spiritual domination of the church. Gumilev Lev Nikolaevich (1912 - 1992) - Russian historian, philosopher, geographer, author of the theory of passionarity. He considered world history to be the history of ethnic groups (the lifespan of each of them is 1200 - 1500 years), changing under the influence of the geographical environment, historical time and cosmic forces. Dadaism is a modernist literary and artistic movement (1916-1922), which developed in Switzerland and spread throughout Europe. Its adherents opposed rationalism, aestheticism, and used meaningless phrases, “baby talk” (which is where the name came from), scribbles, and random objects in their works. They advocated for the asocial nature of art. Danilevsky Nikolai Yakovlevich (1822 - 1885) - Russian philosopher, sociologist, natural scientist. He dealt with problems of culture, the author of the idea of ​​“cultural-historical types” (civilizations), and represented history as a succession of types displacing each other. He considered the “Slavic” type to be the most promising and opposed to the culture of the West. Tao is one of the main categories of Chinese philosophy. In Taoism - the law of existence, its generating and organizing principle. In Confucianism, the path of the perfect ruler, moral improvement, a set of moral - 9 ethical standards. Tao (lit. - path, road) - the invisible and omnipresent law of the development of nature and society Taoism is one of the main religious and philosophical schools. How a religious system arose in China in the 6th-5th centuries. BC e. based on shamanic beliefs. The main features are primitive dialectics, naturalism, elements of religious mysticism. The founder is Lao Tzu. Deism [lat. deus - god] - a philosophical doctrine, according to which God does not directly interfere with the events of social and natural life, being only the root cause, the creator of the Universe, which develops according to its natural laws. It arose in the 17th century, during the desire of science to free itself from religious dogmas. Deists advocated freedom of thought and conscience, and opposed reason to faith (Voltaire, Newton, Lomonosov). Decadence [fr. decadence - decay, decline] - a concept with the help of which the decline of cultures and peoples is considered in the history of philosophy. In a narrow sense, these are the crisis phenomena of European culture at the end of the 19th and 20th centuries, marked by sentiments of hopelessness, rejection of life, and tendencies of individualism. It was associated with the disappointment of the creative intelligentsia in the reasonableness of civic ideals and social structure. It was believed that personality and art should be outside of politics. Representatives - P. Verlaine, A. Rimbaud (French), K. Balmont, D Merezhkovsky, Z. Gippius (Russian), M. Maeterlinck (Belgian). Descartes (1596 - 1650) - French philosopher and mathematician, “father of modern philosophy”, founder of modern rationalism. He assigned the main role in the process of cognition to reason and self-awareness, and considered mathematics to be an example of a method of cognition. Demeter (Ceres) - in Greek mythology, the goddess of fertility, patroness of agriculture. Daughter of Kronos and Rhea, sister of Zeus. Demiurge is the term for god in ancient Greek philosophy. The creator of the world from the eternally existing primeval chaos, primal matter. In this he differed from the Christian God, who created the world out of nothing. Democracy is the power of the people; a form of government where the people are the bearers of power. The term is also used to characterize relationships within an organization. Democritus (460 - 371 BC) - ancient Greek philosopher, one of the founders of atomistic teaching. He was the first to develop a theory of knowledge; he considered it to be the beginning of sensory experience coupled with thinking. He was called the “laughing philosopher,” since Democritus considered peace and joy of the soul to be the highest good. Determinism is a philosophical doctrine about the natural and interconnected development of the material and spiritual world. Varieties: theological, anthropological and materialistic (idea of ​​causality). The extreme manifestation is fatalism. Definition – a brief definition of a concept, establishing the main content. Dialectics, in its original meaning, is the art of conducting a conversation, an argument. For Plato, this is a method of cognition of ideas. Socrates used dialectics to prove the truth. In modern times, dialectics is the science of the laws of thinking and nature, the theory and method of cognition of objects of reality in their development and self-motion. The opposite of metaphysics. Diana is the goddess of the Moon, patroness of women in childbirth, and goddess of the hunt in Roman mythology. The Greeks have Artemis. Diderot Denis (1713-1784) - French philosopher and educator. Inspirer and organizer of the publication of the “Encyclopedia, or explanatory dictionary of sciences, arts and crafts” (1751-80). Ideologist of the Great French Revolution. Dionysus (Bacchus) - in Greek mythology, the god of viticulture and winemaking, the son of Zeus. Accordingly, the festivals in his honor were called Dionysia and Bacchanalia. 10 Dionysia - in Ancient Greece, festivals in honor of Dionysus (solemn processions, playwright competitions). In the 6th century BC. Theatrical art developed from Dionysius. Diptera is a type of ancient Greek temple, a rectangular room surrounded by two rows of columns. A dithyramb is originally a choral cult song in honor of the god Dionysus, a more complete literary form close to an ode. The modern meaning is exaggerated praise. Jainism is a religion in India (3 million followers). Founder of Vardhamana (V1 c BC). Post-Vedic religion. They profess ahimsa - non-harm to living beings, therefore they do not engage in agriculture, they are divided into monks and lay traders. Zen Buddhism is the Japanese version of Buddhism, the Mahayana school. Formed in the 7th-8th centuries. “Domostroy” is a work of Russian literature of the 16th century, a set of everyday rules and instructions. He defended the foundations of patriarchal life, including unquestioning submission to the head of the family. Originated in Novgorod. The Doric order is one of the three main architectural orders, which developed in the Dorian regions of Ancient Greece during the transition to the construction of temples and structures made of stone (from the 5th century BC), for example, the Temple of Artemis in Kerkyra. The Dorian order column has no base, the trunk is cut by vertical grooves, the capital consists of a round cushion and a thick square slab. The Doric order is the most important element of late archaic and classical architecture. Dualism [lat. dualis – dual] - a philosophical doctrine according to which there are two principles independent of each other - spirit and nature. Apologists – I. Kant, R. Descartes. Spirit is the essence of God in religion; in art - the main idea of ​​the work; the universal nature of social phenomena (spirit of the era, national spirit). In philosophy, spirit is the opposite of nature. In Hegel, the spirit appears in three forms: individual consciousness, studied by psychology; the general spirit of society (the object of morality and law); their totality, the absolute spirit, takes the form of art, religion and philosophy. Spiritual culture is a type of culture, a multi-layered education that includes cognitive and intellectual culture, philosophical, moral, artistic, legal, pedagogical, religious. Ducento is an Italian name from the 13th century, the period of the Proto-Renaissance. Dharma is one of the most important concepts of ancient Indian culture; the eternal law of development of nature and society. Gospel [Greek] evangelion - good news] - the message of Jesus Christ, as well as early Christian writings telling about the life and teachings of Christ. The Church canonized and included in the Bible (New Testament) four Gospels, called by the names of their alleged compilers (Matthew, Mark, Luke and John). Euripides (480-406 BC) - ancient Greek poet and playwright, the youngest of the three Athenian tragedians (Aeschylus, Sophocles). He introduced into the dramatic action the intonations of sophists in the spirit of philosophical debate, as well as interest in the everyday element. Plays: “The Bacchae”, “Hercules”, “Medea”, “Hippolytus”. Heresy is a deviation from official dogmatic teaching. The first heresies in Christianity arose in the Roman Empire and developed in the Middle Ages (for example, Arianism - IV - VII centuries). They still exist today in the form of religious sects. Genre [fr. genre - genus, type] - historically established internal divisions in most types of art with specific means of artistic expression. The Iron Age is a period in human history that began with the spread of iron tools and weapons, replaced by the Bronze Age mainly at the beginning of the 1st millennium BC