Which people are the most ancient on earth? Haplogroups: description of ancient genera and famous representatives of haplogroups Which haplogroup is the most ancient.

In various kinds of pseudo-historical reasoning concerning the historical origin of Russians exclusively from the Slavs, it is now fashionable to weave in “haplogroups”. With the light hand of a certain “scientist” (not a biologist at all) Klesov, who lives (like “academician” Levashov) in the USA (hence the ridiculously familiar trick - an appeal to the authority of “Western science” - “American scientists have proven that Russians are 4500 years old!” ) this completely scientific method of determining paternity and dynasticity began to be used for constructions for which it was not at all intended. As a result, many posts contain monstrously distorted results of its use. The purpose of this post was to clarify the obvious points, so that the numerous references to the fact that “haplogroups have been proven”, given by the authors in place and out of place, would not be perceived uncritically when reading some texts.

Let me clarify some commonplaces in the form of popularly given answers to questions.

Question 1 Can a specific haplogroup indicate a specific nationality? In other words, is there a Russian or German (without quotes) haplogroup?

Answer: No. Why? Because any currently existing ethnic group consists of people with at least two or three Y-chromosomal haplogroups. In other words, you can be Russian with haplogroup I1, R1a1, R1b, N3, I2, J2 and even E. The same applies to other peoples. for example, among Ashkenazi Jews - about 12% are carriers of the supposedly "marker" haplogroup R1a1 for Russians - and it is emphasized that not among "half-breeds" and "goyim", but among the most real, typical representatives of their ethnic group. And so on.

Thus, the correlation of a certain haplogroup with modern nationalities and individual representatives of ethnic groups can only be of a statistical, relative nature. “Measuring skulls” by haplogroups won’t work - it’s quite likely that you’ll classify a Jew as a Russian, and a Russian as a Jew. The presence of R1a among Poles - 56.4%, and... Kyrgyz - as much as 63.5% speaks about whether peoples can be defined as “Aryans” by only one criterion - the presence of a statistical marker haplogroup. And the Volga Tatars are no different from the Russians in terms of the set of haplogroups. I hope that conclusions have been drawn? In other words, no ethnic community will emerge that unites people from the conventionally “Aryan” haplogroup R1a1. At the same time, there is no objective difference between the classical Russians living in the same region, but with the conditionally “Finnish” haplogroup N, and the same classical Russians, carriers of the “Aryan” haplogroup R1a. The entire rest of the gene pool (and in many ways more significant than the haplomarker) of the descendants of the “ancestral Finnish men” and the “ancestral Aryan men” was mixed a long time ago.

Question 2. What do haplogroups actually talk about and what can’t they talk about?

Answer: As follows from answer 1 and as correctly noted by the author of another detailed post dedicated to haplogroups: “Those sections of the Y chromosome that serve as markers for identifying haplogroups themselves do not encode anything and have no biological meaning. These are markers in their pure form "They can be compared to the orange and green LEDs in the film "Kin-dza-dza", which were used to identify Chatlans and Patsaks, and there was no other difference between these "races" except the color of the light bulb."

By haplogroup one can judge - statistically(!!! this is important - precisely statistically, i.e. with inevitable errors, but still possible) about the difference, dissimilarity in the origin of certain large ethnolinguistic massifs and the degree of proximity of their contacts (sexual ones). For example, all Turkic peoples are carriers of specific haplogroups. Even if some of the Turks do not have or have very few of their “markers” and C, O and Q, which are absent among the Slavs, then D, R1b1b1 or N1b, which are less common among the Turks, are still statistically absent among Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians. We can conclude, therefore, that contacts with the Turks throughout history among the Eastern Slavs are statistically insignificant, and the statement that “we are Asians” is incorrect. Such conclusions are quite scientific. It can also be argued that the typical “Mongoloid” haplogroups C and Q are not found among Russians at all, and if so, the contacts of the population of Rus' with the Mongols during the period of the yoke were minimal. This, however, is clearly evidenced by all historical sources - 20 years after 1240, all Mongol military formations were withdrawn from the territory of Rus' and the Russian princes carried the tribute collected in Rus' to the Horde themselves. Thus, most likely the average Russian peasant of the late 13th and 14th-15th centuries never saw a single living “Mongol” (Horde) in his life. And this is not a “discovery” at all - haplogroups only confirm what we already know (another thing is that in “popular” ahistorical literature, including in textbooks, the content of which is now practically not controlled by scientists, about little is written about this).

Further, from answer 1 it is clear that if representatives of a certain ethnic group belong to several haplogroups, then this DOES NOT MEAN that this ethnic group is a kind of mechanical combination of populations with different gene pools. The rest of their gene pool, except for the Y chromosomes, will be mixed without any practical possibility of differentiation. 16% of haplogroup N among Russians in the regions north of Moscow does not mean that 16% of them are supposedly “more Finns than Slavs” - both for the reason stated above (mixing the rest of the, much more important, gene pool to the point of unrecognizability) and for reasons statistical - because Among the population of Finland, only 60% of the population have this haplogroup, and among Estonians in general there are 40%.

I will quote again - “The peculiarity of the Y chromosome is that it is passed from father to son almost unchanged and does not experience “mixing” or “dilution” by maternal heredity. This allows it to be used as a mathematically accurate tool for determining paternal origin. If the term "dynasty" has any biological meaning, then it is precisely the inheritance of the Y chromosome. a specific mutation has occurred on the Y chromosome."

Modern science is inclined to believe that these mutations could have occurred between 50 and 10 thousand years ago, and the creationist version, which seems more truthful to me, speaks of the complete uncertainty of the results of using the “biological clock” methods (they give completely different values) and says about the probable practical simultaneity of the appearance of these mutations associated with the legend of the Tower of Babel and the dispersion of peoples. Whether one or the other is right is, in principle, not very important for us living today.

What matters is that Y - chromosome does not determine the gene pool. It is not a carrier of some “ethnically specific” information in the genome. From more than 20,000 genes human genome, the Y chromosome contains only about 100 pieces. They encode mainly the structure and functioning of the male genital organs. There is no other information there. Facial features, skin color, mental and thinking characteristics are spelled out on other chromosomes which, during inheritance, go through recombination (the paternal and maternal sections of the chromosomes are randomly mixed). The carrier of the “Aryan chromosome” after hundreds of generations can be a typical black man (if, say, his black mother got pregnant in the 16th century from a Portuguese father). And vice versa.

Thus. people who talk about “Aryan”, “Semitic”, “Russian”, “Finnish”, “Celtic” haplogroups not in their conventional marker meaning tied to MODERNITY, but in a literally understood one, and even transfer these definitions to the distant past - are mistaken and confuse others. The phrase “4500 years ago in the Voronezh region they found a skeleton identified by haplogroup as Russian, Russians began to exist 4500 years ago” does not make any sense. Russians have several haplogroups, - once. The skeleton does not represent a statistically significant sample - that's two(maybe this is the same Ashkenazi Jew from the 12% of carriers of the “Aryan” haplogroup R1a1? Or Kyrgyz?). Three: Why on earth was it concluded that the mutation arose (and continued) exactly 4500 years ago? Were the skeletons of his father and grandfather, as well as the skeletons of his offspring, examined? Why didn't it arise 10 thousand years ago? And so on.

Question 3: is R1a1, a Russian haplogroup, an “unconditional enic marker”? Is it true that Russians, in terms of their purity (i.e., the frequency of occurrence of this haplogroup), are the most stable and pure among Europeans?

Answer: No. And it's not true. The stability of Russians as a people, their ethnic uniqueness is not determined by haplogroups, and neither is haplogroup R1a1. Let's look at the data: if we take an average sample from several different studies with a 100% fit. then (remember that haplogroups are named according to MODERN distribution among peoples):

47% of Russians have the “Aryan” haplogroup R1a1, which they inherited from the Proto-Slavs and other autochthons of Eastern Europe.

16% of Russians- conditionally “Finnish” haplogroup N3.

7% of Russians- conditionally “Celtic” haplogroup R1b, which dominates among many peoples of Western Europe. This is a legacy of the presence of the Proto-Slavs in Central Europe.

5% of Russians– “Northern European” haplogroup I1 (I1a according to the old classification), common in Scandinavia and Northern Europe. Apparently, these are the descendants of the notorious “Varangians”.

15% of Russians– “Balkan” haplogroup I2 (formerly I1b), characteristic of the peoples of the Balkan Peninsula. This is an indirect consequence of Slavic expansion in the Balkans in the 6th-9th centuries, when Slavic newcomers actively mixed with the local autochthonous population. Some of the Slavs subsequently left the Balkans to the north and northeast (see “The Tale of Bygone Years”).

4%- “Eastern Mediterranean” haplogroup J2, typical of the ancient Greeks and even more ancient representatives of the Minoan civilization. For the Russians, this is most likely an integral part of the “Balkan heritage”, and perhaps of the earlier Hellenic colonization of the Northern Black Sea region.

6% Russians are represented by the “Afrasian” haplogroup E, the frequency of which among Jews, Greeks, Balkan Slavs and southern Italians reaches 20% or more. This is the “Balkan trace” again. In total, the descendants of “Byzantine refugees” (settlers from the Balkans and the Black Sea region) make up more than 25% of Russians.

We see, therefore (as expected from the answer to the second question) that haplogroups DO NOT determine “Russianness”. The purely statistical “predominance” of R1a1 is 47 percent. 53 percent of Russians DO NOT HAVE this haplogroup and are still Russian. Consequently, if we do not fall into Russophobia and do not say that 53 percent of modern Russians are “unclean” (which we will not do), we will inevitably be forced to once again draw the same conclusion that was made above - the haplogroup does not have any specific characteristics ethnically defining features, and ethnicity is indefinable through haplogroups.

Question 4: is the reconstruction of ethnic migrations and processes based on the analysis of modern haplogroups justified?

Answer: No. There are several problems here.

One can perceive with great skepticism and rather negatively the reports about the “correspondence of the distribution of haplogroups to historical migrations,” and all “haplogroup” conclusions about the time of the emergence of a particular people are likely to be considered at least unverifiable and strained. Why? Because you need to not uncritically quote the “Klesovs” (“a scientist wrote!”) but THINK. First of all, with your own head, using logic and the education you have received.

Firstly, the historical migrations of certain peoples in preliterate times are not an axiom. but the subject of scientific debate and discussion - both in terms of whether the bearers of a particular archaeological culture were representatives of a certain ethno-linguistic unity (we will never be able to say this with accuracy - pots and axes do not speak), and in terms of accuracy of correspondence of archaeological culture to a specific ethnic group or ethnocultural unity. Archaeological cultures are a complex of objects of material culture, things, their remains, or rather. From the point of view of an archaeologist of the 30th century, throughout Russia and Europe. In the United States in the 21st century, there will be a single, with local variations, archaeological culture of “tires, plastic bags, bottles, cans and computers”, in which the differences between nations in their material culture will not be visible. Although there is little reason to imply such globalization in antiquity, it is worth remembering. that the older the archaeological culture, the more blurred its ethnicity. Thus, the thesis “such and such a skeleton is undoubtedly Indo-European... has such and such a haplogroup” is immediately called into question. The fact that he is “undoubtedly” Indo-European, and not a foreigner who slipped in here and adopted the way of life of this tribe, still needs to be proven. And with an extremely unrepresentative sample(agree, a dozen or a hundred burials over a huge area is not a sample, or at least a sample incomparable in terms of representativeness with a modern sample among living people) this is made almost equally probable, that is, uncertain.

Secondly, tracing such migrations by haplogroups is extremely problematic due to the fact that (in the case of the Indo-Europeans, for example) among the many archaeological cultures of the Bronze Age - “cuisines of ancestral ethnic groups”, the funeral rite of cremation of corpses in its various variations is common, the same in some territories and in the Iron Age. The DNA material of the carriers of these cultures is irretrievably lost and we can say absolutely nothing about their haplogroups. Thus, the “haplogroup” approach does not work here - vast territories and entire millennia fall out of its scope completely, depriving us of the opportunity to build any kind of succession chain of already extremely scarce and essentially unrepresentative material.

Third, mutations occur on the Y chromosome randomly and can both increase and “decrease” (or return to the original, source code). This indicates that you cannot determine the time and place of the emergence of this or that “group” due to constant migrations, which could be by land or sea, and mutations that occur throughout the life of a particular historical human community.

Fourthly, theoretically, the very accuracy of the study of the modern distribution of haplogroups can be questioned - i.e. that initial material extrapolated to the past (difficulty in determining the ethnicity of persons taking the test - who is stopping you from calling yourself Russian or Belarusian?). With relatively small samples and controversial issues like “Russian-Ukrainian” (in fact, a free question of self-designation), this is extremely important and can decide everything.

In other words, transferring the modern distribution of sets of haplogroups into the past is unjustified, and if so, then it is impossible to draw conclusions about the ethnicity of certain human remains, passing them off as someone’s ancestors only on this basis. It's forced and superficial.

To summarize everything described.

References to haplogroups as an “unconditional indicator of ethnicity” are untenable.
- Haplogroups are research tools, statistically significant markers. Real, objectively observed Y chromosomes do not carry significant ethnic information in the gene code.
- Russians (like Germans, Finns and Turks, etc.) exist and are unique not due to haplogroups.
- Any nation has not one, but two, three or more haplogroups in its set, and there is no reason to make some “less pure” and others “more pure”, for the reason described in the thesis above.
- We a priori cannot reconstruct reliable migrations based on haplogroups. and even more so - the date of origin (emergence) of this or that modern ethnic group.

Thus, you can safely throw Klesov’s works and fairy tales into the same trash bin where we have Fomenko, Levashov and Chudinov.

The formation of chromosomes occurs at the time of meiosis, when, in the process of crossing over, each randomly takes approximately half from the maternal chromosome and half from the paternal chromosome; which specific genes will be inherited from the mother and which from the father is not known, everything is decided by chance.

Only one male chromosome, Y, does not participate in this lottery; it is entirely passed from father to son like a relay baton. Let me clarify that women do not have this Y chromosome at all.

In each subsequent generation, mutations occur in certain areas of the Y chromosome, called loci, which will be transmitted to all subsequent generations through the male gender.

It was thanks to these mutations that it became possible to reconstruct the genera. There are only about 400 loci on the Y chromosome, but only about a hundred are used for comparative haplotype analysis and genera reconstruction.

In the so-called loci, or they are also called STR markers, there are from 7 to 42 tandem repeats, the overall pattern of which is unique for each person. After a certain number of generations, mutations occur and the number of tandem repeats changes up or down, and thus on the general tree it will be seen that the more mutations, the older the common ancestor for a group of haplotypes.

The haplogroups themselves do not carry genetic information, because Genetic information is located in autosomes - the first 22 pairs of chromosomes. You can see the distribution of genetic components in Europe. Haplogroups are just markers of days gone by, at the dawn of the formation of modern peoples.

What haplogroups are most common among Russians?

Y-DNA of Famous historical and modern personalities. Due to the almost unchanged Y-DNA line, passed from father to son over generations, this article contains analyzes of both the carriers themselves and their ancestors/descendants.

DNA of famous people

Cao Cao and the Japanese Takamuko family

Y-DNA: O2*-M268

Chinese commander, author of works on military affairs and poet, first minister of the Han Dynasty. The actual ruler of the Han Empire at the beginning of the 3rd century AD. e. Haplogroup O2* was determined by analysis of descendants. Analysis of older DNA taken from the tooth of Cao Cao's ancestor, Cao Ding's great-uncle, showed O2*-M268.

The Japanese Takamuko clan originates from the eldest son of Cao Cao named Cao Pi and accordingly belongs to the same haplogroup.

Zia Long

Y-DNA: O2a

Gia Long, aka Nguyen Phuc Anh, aka Nguyen The To, is the last of the Nguyen Princes and the first emperor of Vietnam from the Nguyen dynasty. Haplogroup O2a has been determined from analyzes of some descendants, but additional data is required for a final decision.

Somerled and the Scottish clans MacDougall, MacDonald and MacAlister

Y-DNA: R1a-L448

Somerled (Gaelic: Somhairle) was a Gaelic-Norse commander, founder and first ruler (1156-1164) of the kingdom of the Isles in the Hebrides and the west coast of Scotland. Somerled's son King Dougal is the founder of the MacDougall clan, which dominated the west coast of Scotland until the mid-14th century. Somerled is also the male-line ancestor of the Donald, MacDonald and MacAlister clans. DNA examination of Somerled's documented relatives identified the Norwegian variant R1a-L448 of the L176.1 subclade. In 2005, geneticist Bryan Sykes analyzed the clan leaders (Lord Godfrey Macdonald, Sir Ian Macdonald of Sleat, Ranald MacDonald of Clan Ranald, William McAlester of Loup and Ranald MacDonnell of Glengary) and the results confirmed R1a-L448. At the same time, not all members of the listed clans are descendants of Somerled and according to the overall results, 70% belong to the Celtic R1b.

Ottomans

Y-DNA: R1a-Z93

The dynasty of Turkish sultans and caliphs that reigned from 1299 to 1924. Haplogroup R1a-Z93 has been determined from analyzes of some descendants, but additional data is required for a final decision.

Stuarts

Y-DNA: R1b-L21

The dynasties of the kings of Scotland (1371-1651, 1660-1707), England (1603-1649, 1660-1694, 1702-1707), Ireland (1603-1649, 1660-1694, 1702-1714) ) and Great Britain (in 1707-1714).

Saxe-Coburg-Gotha Dynasty

Y-DNA: R1b-U106

A branch of the Ernestine line of the ancient Saxon Wettin dynasty, which ruled in several European states and is the ruling dynasty in Belgium and Great Britain.

Romanovs from Peter III

Y-DNA: R1b

The line of the Oldenburg dynasty (11th century), separated from its Holstein-Gottorp branch, and thanks to inheritance through the female line, took the name of the Romanovs, and from 1762 the crown of the Russian Empire. Duke Karl Friedrich of Holstein-Gottorp and Anna Petrovna, parents of Peter III, the founder of the Holstein-Gottorp branch of the Romanovs.

Habsburgs

Y-DNA: R1b-U152 (L2+)

One of the most powerful dynasties in Europe. Representatives of the dynasty are known as the rulers of Austria (from 1282), which later transformed into the multinational Austro-Hungarian Empire (until 1918), which was one of the leading European powers, as well as the emperors of the Holy Roman Empire, whose throne the Habsburgs occupied from 1438 to 1806 (with a short break in 1742-1745). According to the Habsburg Family Project, the Habsburgs belong to R1b-U152 (L2+).

George Washington

Y-DNA: R1b-U152 (L2)

George Washington - American statesman, first President of the United States of America, Founding Father of the United States, Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army, participant in the War of Independence, creator of the American institution of the presidency. Haplogroup R1b-U152 (L2) was determined by analyzing data from the Washington DNA Project with the territorial allocation of Oxfordshire and Lancashire, from which George Washington was from.

Y-DNA: R1b

Many US presidents belong to R1b (Zachary Taylor (12th), Franklin Pierce (14th), William McKinley (25th), and Woodrow Wilson (28th)).

Tutankhamun

Y-DNA: R1b1a2

According to the Swiss laboratory iGENEA, based on data from the Discovery Channel film, Tutankhamun belongs to the haplogroup R1b1a2. Since the publication of this result, the data have not been scientifically refuted, which confirms iGENEA's correctness.

Y-DNA: E1b1a

In December 2012, the same group of researchers who worked with Tutankhamun's DNA identified Ramesses III as belonging to haplogroup E1b1a.

Napoleon

Y-DNA: E1b1b1c1* (E-M34*)

Napoleon's haplogroup E1b1b1c1* is most concentrated in Ethiopia. Lucotte (2011) argues that Napoleon knew about his origins. His ancestor Francesco Buonaparte was a mercenary nicknamed “The Maur of Sarzane”.

Y-DNA: G-M201

Richard III

Y-DNA: G2-P287

Richard III and possibly the entire Plantagenet dynasty belonged to haplogroup G2-P287+. Only G-M201, G1-M285, and G2-P287 were tested. There is also the possibility of belonging to G2a2b-L30.

Y-DNA: G2a2b

Ice mummy of a Chalcolithic man, discovered in 1991 in the Tyrolean Alps on the Similaun glacier in the Ötztal valley at an altitude of 3200 meters as a result of strong melting of ice. The age of the mummy, determined by radiocarbon dating, is approximately 5300 years. In Austria, the mummy is called Ötzi after the place where it was discovered.

Y-DNA: J-CTS1460

According to the Georgian DNA Project, this descendant of an Alan noble family is assigned to haplogroup J-CTS1460. The history of the rise of the Bibiluri clan begins with the Sidamont clan, whose members in Transcaucasia became the eristavis of Ksani and Aragvi. They found themselves in the new place of Sidamont after the Tatar-Mongol invasion. The history of their rise is reflected in the chronicle “Monument of the Eristavis,” created between 1405/6-1410. in the Largvis monastery.

Olaf II

Y-DNA: I1

Olaf II (Olaf the Holy, Olaf Haraldsson, Olaf the Thick; other Scand. Olafr Digre, Norse Olav den hellige/Heilag Olav; 995-1030) - king of Norway from 1015 to 1028, representative of the Horfager dynasty, son of Harald the Greenlander . The Saga of Olaf the Saint is dedicated to him. One of the most revered general Christian saints in Scandinavia (also revered in Rus')

Lev Tolstoy

Y-DNA: I1 - M253

The Tolstoys are a Russian noble (count) family. According to family legends, the family descended “from the honest husband Indris”, who left “from the Germans, from the Caesar’s land” and settled in Chernigov in 1353 with two sons and a squad of three thousand people. Indris converted to Orthodoxy and received the name Leonty. His great-grandson Andrei Kharitonovich moved from Chernigov to Moscow and received the nickname Tolstoy from Grand Duke Vasily the Dark. In the count branch of the Tolstoys, the famous writer Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy is separated from Indris by 20 tribes. The first representative of the Tolstoy family to be tested was Peter Tolstoy, a famous Russian TV presenter, great-great-grandson of the writer Leo Tolstoy. The study took place as part of the “My Pedigree” program.

Christian theologian, initiator of the Reformation, leading translator of the Bible into German. One of the directions of Protestantism is named after him. According to the Luther Surname DNA Project and ySearch (ySearch ID: YTE6E), Martin Luther belongs to haplogroup I2a-Din-N (L147.2+).

Rurikovich

Y-DNA: N1c1, R1a1a

According to the Russian Nobility DNA Project, the Rurikovichs from Vladimir II Monomakh, including Alexander Nevsky (1220-1263) and Ivan the Terrible (1530-1584), belonged to haplogroup N1c1. Despite this, the alleged cousin of Vladimir II Monomakh Oleg Svyatoslavich, Prince of Chernigov and his descendants belonged to R1a1a. Studies of the Protorurikovichs also show N1c1 coinciding with Vladimir Monomakh, and the marker DYS390=23 determines their Scandinavian, not Ural origin. Well, this confirms the Varangian origin of Rurik himself (830-879), the founder of Kievan Rus.

Gediminovichi

Y-DNA: N1c1

It is believed that the Lithuanian Gedimin family belongs to the Rurik line. However, despite the fact that both have haplogroup N1c1, they have different subclades with a common ancestor 2500 years ago.

Aisinghioro Nurhaci

Y-DNA: C3b2b1*-M401(xF5483)

The founder of the Manchu Empire, named after its dynasty Da Jin - “Great Golden” (aka Hou Jin - “Late Golden”; The first, or Early, was considered the Jurchen Jin Empire (1115-1234), in 1636 renamed Da Qing - “ Great Pure" (according to Chinese tradition, the ruling dynasty was always designated with the prefix Da - "great", and previous dynasties were mentioned with the index chao - "dynasty, house". The Qing version of the recording - "Pure" - is commonly used in scientific and popular science literature ).

Xue et al. (2005) determined that Aisinghioro Nurhaci belongs to haplogroup C3c with the age of the subclade being about 500 years. Shin Yan et al. (2014) tested modern descendants and identified C3b2b1*-M401(xF5483).

Thomas Jefferson

Y-DNA: T

President of the United States, a prominent figure in the American War of Independence, one of the authors of the Declaration of Independence (1776), 3rd President of the United States in 1801-1809, one of the founding fathers of this state, an outstanding politician, diplomat and philosopher of the Enlightenment. DNA analysis of Jefferson's descendants from his slave Sally Hemings, as well as data published by Family Tree DNA in 2007, identified haplogroup T (formerly K2).

Feth Ali Shah

Y-DNA: J1

Feth Ali Shah (1772-1834) - the second Shah of Iran of the Qajar dynasty, reigned from 1797 to 1834, nephew and successor of the founder of the Qajar dynasty - eunuch Aga Mohammed. Based on analyzes of several descendants of his sons, haplogroup J1 with DYS388 = 13 was identified.

Each person has 23 pairs of chromosomes in which all the genetic information inherited from their parents is recorded. Chromosomes are formed at the moment of conception by crossing, each takes half from the mother's chromosome and half from the father's; what exactly will come from the mother and what from the father is not known, everything is decided by chance.

Only one male chromosome, Y, does not participate in this lottery; it is entirely passed from father to son like a relay baton. It should be noted that women do not have it at all.

With each new generation, mutations occur in some parts of the chromosome - loci, and it is thanks to these mutations that it becomes possible to reconstruct genera. There are several hundred loci on a chromosome.

It is not yet clear why, but for some reason nature repeatedly duplicates the genetic information recorded in loci. There are from 5 to 40 repeats. Once every few generations, a mutation occurs in each locus, the number of repeats suddenly decreases by 1-2 repeats or increases.

What haplogroups are most common among Russians?

HR. 2.7.50.4. History of the emergence and migrations of the most ancient haplogroups.

Alexander Sergeevich Suvorov (“Alexander Suvory”).

CHRONOLOGY OF THE HISTORY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT.

Experience in reconstructing the sequence of historical events in time and space in correlation with solar activity.

Book two. DEVELOPMENT OF HUMANITY BCE.

Part 7. The era of mythical civilizations.

Chapter 50.4. History of the emergence and migrations of the most ancient haplogroups.

A wonderful illustration map from the open Internet (Wikipedia). Many thanks to its authors.

Pay attention to the contours and boundaries of the antediluvian land shelf of continents and continents, to the boundaries of internal and external seas, to the designation of real antediluvian countries - Berengia, Okhotia, the land shelf of East Asia, Meganesia-Lemuria-Mu-Sunda, the Australian-New Guinea-Tasmanian continent of Sahul etc.

The whole world. Migrations of primitive people. Modern humanity. Homo sapiens neanderthalensis is a race of humanity of classical intelligent Neanderthals. Homo sapiens sapiens is the race of humanity of the classical Cro-Magnons. Classic primitive communal system. Socio-economic formation. Modern civilization. Raceogenesis. History of the emergence and migrations of the most ancient haplogroups. 49,000 BC

The existence of archaeological traces of three main routes of migration and settlement of Homo sapiens sapiens or neoanthrope, classical Cro-Magnon, modern man across the continents of the Earth - Austrian, Boreal and African (back to Africa) - exactly corresponds to the routes and regions of origin, migration and settlement of Y-chromosomal (Y) -DNA) and Mitochondrial (mtDNA) haplogroups of the indigenous inhabitants of the Oikumene (inhabited world).

Modern “population genetics” of a person or “population genetics” (a branch of genetics - the science of the patterns of heredity and variability of genetic information or “genetic code”) allows us to determine the occurrence and distribution of changes in the human genetic code in time and space, that is, in the history of mankind ( of humanity) and in the Ecumene (inhabited world).

Changes in genetic information or genetic code inevitably, naturally and naturally occur under the influence of corresponding environmental phenomena (“phenomena of evolution”): mutagenesis of cells of organisms, random drift of genes in a population, natural selection of individuals and migrations of individuals in the environment.

The fact is that each person has his own individual “phenotype” - his appearance, his character, his disposition, his temperament, that is, a set of external and internal characteristics of the body and personality that are formed and formed as a result of individual development or human life activity (ontogenesis ).

Naturally, people have different intellectual abilities, skills, talents and physical capabilities, so they have different phenotypes.

All people (without exception) are born small, naked and defenseless against environmental phenomena. Moreover, they differ from each other in the time of conception, intrauterine development and birth, in weight, in height, in muscle mass, in the level of development of internal organs, in the degree of consequences from the influence of the maternal body and other environmental factors.

However, a person receives the main or “basic” characteristics of the phenotype together with his “genotype” - the set of genes of the whole organism that characterizes the individual (individual). For example, the color and structure of the iris of a person’s eyes (a characteristic of the phenotype) is determined by genetic information or the genetic code formed during the conception of the future person.

Also, the phenotype as a result of natural selection and evolution determines the genetic structure of the population of individuals (individuals). Each phenotype (individual, individual) passes (or does not pass on) its characteristics by inheritance to subsequent generations, to the evolution of the species, to the development of the genotype of the population. This is how “genetic and phenotypic dispersion” occurs.

As a result, over a series of many generations of people, a natural and logical “chain” of cause-and-effect influences is formed:

Hereditary genotype +
genotype of embryo conception +
phenomena (factors) of intrauterine development of the fetus +
environmental phenomena (factors) +
specialization of the development of the organism (individual, individual, personality) +
natural (random) selection and evolution

Together they form =

The corresponding human phenotype, which can be inherited by the corresponding set of genes, followed by conscious cultivation, training, training, education and training. This is ontogenesis...

It is easy to notice that the more significant, energetic, and weighty the impact on a person of the indicated cause-and-effect phenomena (factors), the faster, better and stronger a person adapts, adapts and develops (evolves).

That is why enhanced basic upbringing and education occurs during childhood, adolescence and adolescence - the period of preparation of a young person for an independent “adult” life (dangerous, labor, creative, intense).

Indicators of the phenotype of any person are:

The presence or absence of genetic and hereditary defects (genotype, individual genome);

Indicators of biological tissues and fluids (blood, lymph, juices, etc.);

The level of metabolism in the body at rest and during exercise (strength, endurance);

Level of physical development, type of constitution of the body (morphotype, physique, figure);

Appearance and external behavior (style, role play, presentation);

Norms of functioning and reactions of organs and systems of the body at rest, under load and stress (responsiveness, self-control);

Emotional-volitional dominance of the cerebral hemisphere (left or right);

Type of dominant instinct and temperament (instinct complexes);

Type of mental and intellectual activity (personal capabilities, talent);

Type of dominant needs and goals (wants);

Type of moral values ​​and ideals (assessments, dreams, plans);

Level of social and spiritual aspirations (desires);

Level of social adaptation and degree of recognition of generally accepted practices (discipline);

The presence or absence of signs of illness and disease (immunity).

As a result of ontogenesis in the environment, the phenotypes of the same genotype can be different. In an open, free sunny space, birch and pine trees, for example, grow, as a rule, spreading, spreading, wide, but in a cramped and dark forest - tall, slender, tight...

In human associations and societies, it has long been noticed that in long-term, close, united and strict associations-collectives, people’s phenotypes become typical, similar to each other. Examples of this include hunting groups, robber gangs, military units, monastic orders, etc. It’s not for nothing that they say: “Whoever you mess with, you’ll gain from that”...

That is why the model and example of leaders, who are imitated and followed in literally everything, forms a group and individual phenotype, organizes and streamlines evolution, and passes on the most outstanding (or defective) phenotypes to the offspring. An example is imitation of a leader or Fuhrer...

The author does not even try to hypothetically suggest that intelligent classical Neanderthals and Cro-Magnons of this and subsequent times (50,000-10,000 BC) or the inhabitants of the legendary countries and mythical civilizations of Arctida-Hyperborea, Meganesia-Lemuria-Mu-Sunda and Atlantis knew or could know something about genes, had knowledge of the laws of population genetics.

Otherwise, there would not have been marriage rituals, initiation rites, education of youth through training and training, tests of hunters and warriors, individual or joint rituals of shamans, Vedic and magical practices of sorcerers and witch.

Undoubtedly, primitive people initially honored the phenotypes of their ancestor spirits, totems, parent ancestors, demiour heroes and trickster heroes, stored and protected them in space and time, followed them, imitated them, developed them in their mythological, mythopoetic and abstract thinking and cultural and cult life activity, turned them into archetypes of a clan, people, ethnic group, race.

That is why, in different places of the Oikumene, communities, clans, phratries, tribes, peoples, ethnic groups and races of primitive people inevitably, naturally and necessarily arise with exemplary, stable in time and space, but diverse phenotypes and hereditary genotypes - haplogroups (haploid groups).

A haplogroup is a group of similar haplotypes that have a common ancestor, whose haplotypes had the same mutation (single nucleoid polymorphism).

The author deliberately does not reveal in detail the content of scientific definitions and concepts, leaving this fascinating matter for the most inquisitive, assiduous and persistent readers and researchers. For the purposes and objectives of the “Chronology”, in the author’s opinion, the given definitions are quite sufficient.

So, for example, for the purposes and objectives of “Chronology” it is absolutely necessary to know that haplogroups are Y-chromosomal (Y-DNA), mitochondrial (mtDNA) and MCG haplogroups.

Y-DNA genetic markers are transmitted with the Y chromosome exclusively through the paternal line, that is, from father to sons, but not to daughters.

Mitochondrial mtDNA markers are transmitted through the maternal line, that is, from the mother to all children, sons and daughters.

All female descendants are carriers only of the mtDNA markers of their mothers, grandmothers, and great-great-great-mothers.

All male descendants are carriers of Y-DNA markers of their fathers, grandfathers and mitochondrial mtDNA markers of their mothers, grandmothers, that is, great-great-great ancestors. (Remember this pattern - Author).

MHC or major histocompatibility complex markers are a large part of the genome or a large family of genes that ensure the development and functioning of the immune system. The major histocompatibility complex is an important factor in the formation of full-fledged offspring, a viable and vitally active population (haplogroup).

In the history of modern humanity, as a result of gene mutations, descendants (sons and daughters) were born from one pair of male and female people, who formed the corresponding Y-chromosomal (Y-DNA), mitochondrial (mtDNA) and MHC haplogroups.

There are many more open patterns of population genetics: “bottleneck effect” or “founder effect”, “genetic drift”, “random fluctuations of genes”, “classification of haplogroups”, “haplogroup tree”, “molecular clock”, etc.

As a result, it is possible to reconstruct the history and chronology of the emergence, formation and migrations of haplogroups (ethnic groups, peoples) of modern humanity.

To date, the development of modern population genetics and archaeogenetics, the most likely time of residence of the ancestor-founder of the Y-chromosomal (Y-DNA) male part of the haplogroup Homo sapiens sapiens - the entire race of modern humanity of the classical Cro-Magnons - is 138,000-136,000 BC.

This progenitor of the genotype and archetypal phenotype (in particular, external appearance) of all men of modern humanity on the paternal side is called in science (according to the biblical tradition) “Y-chromosomal Adam.” At the same time, the proto-Cro-Magnon forefather of the “Y-chromosomal Adam” himself lived on Earth, perhaps even in the period 579,000-235,000 BC.

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), as is known, is transmitted to all male and female children, but only through the maternal line and mutates more often.

The fact is that during the process of sexual generation, the future child (boy or girl) receives nuclear DNA genes equally - from the father and from the mother, and mitochondrial DNA - only from the mother’s egg, only from the mother. At the same time, mitochondrial mtDNA does not undergo half-recombination; changes in it can only occur as a result of rare random mutations.

The proto-Cro-Magnon forefather of the future “Mitochondrial Eve”, just like the great-ancestor of “Y-chromosomal Adam”, lived on Earth long before the birth of the ancestors of modern humanity - in the period 148,000-99,000 BC, with a maximum probability of 124 000-122,000 BC

The difference in the time of emergence and existence of the Y-DNA of “Y-chromosomal Adam” and mtDNA of “Mitochondrial Eve” is explained by the fact that in zoological harem families, when one male individual has several female wives or due to male-male dominance relationships, intimate communicates with an unlimited number of females, then he sharply limits the ability of other males to pass on their chromosomes (genes) to the next generations of the haplogroup.

At the same time, harem polygamy and/or promiscuity relationships (freedom of sexual relations) do not prevent females from passing on mtDNA to their children - boys and girls. This is why physically and genetically women are more “survivable” in their offspring along maternal genetic lines. In addition, males die for various reasons more often than females...

“Y-chromosomal Adam” and “Mitochondrial Eve” are abstract scientific structural-figurative names for a relatively homogeneous ancestral Proto-Cro-Magnon population of primitive people, whose descendants received the corresponding DNA along the direct genetic lines of paternity and maternity.

Moreover, in accordance with the indicated feature of the transfer of nuclear and mitochondrial DNA in the process of sexual generation of humans, it is likely and possible that all modern humanity received mitochondrial DNA from only one woman - the great-great-great-mother of “Mitochondrial Eve”.

The habitat of the said “Y-chromosomal Adam” and “Mitochondrial Eve” was determined by archaeogenetic scientists in East Africa, a vast region located along the East African Rift System, the largest land fault zone in the earth’s crust.

The male genetic descendants of the “Y-chromosomal Adam” directly became haplogroups A and B (VT).

During the period 120,000-75,000 BC. in Africa, as a result of the M91 mutation of the Y-DNA marker in one of the filial generations on the paternal side of the ancestral group “Y-chromosomal Adam,” haplogroup A or the male ancestral group “Adam” of Homo sapiens sapiens arose - the race of modern humanity of the classical Cro-Magnons.

Approximately 108,000-106,000 BC in another filial generation on the paternal side of the ancestral group of “Y-chromosomal Adam” in Africa, another male ancestral group-population “Adam” arose - haplogroup B (BT) of Homo sapiens sapiens - the race of modern humanity of the classical Cro-Magnons.

The predominant carriers of male Y-chromosomes (Y-DNA) of ancestral haplogroup A are the Khoisan, Bushmen and Sudanese.

The Khoisan or Khoisan peoples are a group of peoples of South Africa (Bushmen and Hottentots) who speak Khoisan languages ​​and/or belong to the Kapoid race or Bushman minor race within the greater African Negroid race.

"Khoi" in the Nama language means "man", and "San" means "Bushman" (man of the steppe). As a result, we get the words-concepts: “man of the steppe people”, ancestor, first ancestor, progenitor or “who who”, “someone”, “whoy who”, “someone”, “why?” and “san” - dignified, dignitary, chief, first, dignified, proud, important.

Bushmen or San, Sa, Sonkwa, Masarwa, Basarwa, Kua is the generally accepted name for the oldest indigenous inhabitants of South Africa, the Kapoid or Bushman small race as part of the large African Negroid race, living the traditional way of life of primitive hunters and gatherers, speaking Khoisan languages.

The Bushmen are actually a real, valid and ancient ethnos (ethnotype) of the original male ancestral haplogroup A - carriers of the hereditary phenotypes and genotypes of the “Adams” of Homo sapiens sapiens - the race of modern humanity of the classical Cro-Magnons.

The Bushmen belong to the capoid race or the Bushmen small race, they differ from the classic representatives of the large African Negroid race, and even more so from the representatives of the Equatorial or Australasian Negroid race, with lighter skin of a reddish tint, short stature (up to 150 cm), Mongoloid facial features, thin lips, a tendency to early formation of wrinkles on the face.

The Bushmen do not have a self-name, but in the language of “Nama” (the Hottentot people related to the Bushmen), their name “san” can mean the concepts: “stranger”, “outcast”, “outsider”, “backward”, “underdeveloped”, “inept”.

Initially, from the moment of its emergence and for a long time (120,000-5000 BC), the Khoisan peoples of haplogroup A lived and live in South Africa isolated from the rest of the population of the Oikumene (inhabited world). There are even local groups of Khoisan who have not communicated with each other and have not bred together for 30,000 years.

Haplogroup A has subclades (genetic branches) A1, A2, A3 and A00 - one of the probable oldest populations of Afro-Eurasians of a certain haplogroup A-T, which arose perhaps 300,000-250,000 BC.

The carriers of Y-chromosomes (Y-DNA) of haplogroup B (BT) of another paternal line of the ancestral group “Y-chromosomal Adam” are men of almost all other peoples of the Oikumene (inhabited world).

These “Adams” of haplogroup B (BT) are the first originators from Africa (75,000 BC), the first fathers, ancestors, first founders of the Y-chromosomal (Y-DNA) male part of all other haplogroups of Homo sapiens sapiens - the race of modern humanity of the classical Cro-Magnons .

The habitat of the “Adams” or the ancestors of men of haplogroup B (HT) are the territories located to the north and east of the South African deserts (savanas) of the Namib. Here in the period 160,000-120,000 BC. inhabited by ancient African hunters and gatherers who communicated with each other in Khoisan clicking languages.

A certain carrier of the great-grandparent Y-DNA of “Y-chromosomal Adam” in the period 59,000-57,000 BC. met with a certain “Mitochondrial Eve”, a carrier of ancestral mtDNA, and together with her gave birth to the entire modern genetic diversity of haplogroups of men and women Homo sapiens sapiens - the entire race of modern humanity, the classical Cro-Magnons.

As a result of evolutionary development, migrations and active communication of the indigenous population of East Africa (possibly robbery of female females), the Y-chromosomes (Y-DNA) of haplogroup B (VT) were concentrated in the territory of the future Ethiopia and Sudan and were preserved in their original form in isolated Ethiopian, Nilo-Sudanese and Pygmy populations.

Here in East Africa, along the maternal ancestral line, the “Mitochondrial Eve” (mtDNA) haplogroups arose - L0, L1, L2, L3, L4, L5, L6, L7.

One of them is the ancestral haplogroup L3 of Homo sapiens sapiens - the race of modern humanity of the classical Cro-Magnons - formed in the period 104,000-84,000 BC. In other regions of Africa, the vast majority belongs to the African maternal mitochondrial haplogroups L1 and L2.

The ancestral maternal haplogroup L3 of Homo sapiens sapiens - the race of modern humanity of the classical Cro-Magnons - will become the ancestor of several and specifically two daughter haplogroups - M and N, from whose women children (offspring) will be born, the future mothers of the majority of all modern non-African peoples (European, Asian, Indian ).

The ancestral haplogroup L3 has 13 subclades and a large number of subgroups.

At this time (50,000-49,000 BC) in the Saharan savannah, in areas near the west-central African rainforest among the Pygmies (Baka, Mbuti) and Hadza in central-eastern Africa, as a result of M60 mutations, M181 Y-DNA marker in one of the filial generations on the paternal side of the ancestral group “Adams” of the BT haplogroup Homo sapiens sapiens - the race of modern humanity of the classical Cro-Magnons - the ancient Y-chromosomal haplogroup B (Y-DNA) arose.

Pygmies are African peoples, tribes or groups of the large African Negroid race, distinguished by their very small stature, which is why they are called “fist-sized people” or “Negrilli”.

The height of adult male pygmies is from 144 to 150 cm, pygmy skin is light brown, hair is curly, dark, lips are relatively thin. The pygmy phenotype classifies them as a distinct African race (subrace).

In appearance, African pygmies are close to the Negritos of South and Southeast Asia, some islands of Melanesia and the northeastern regions of Australia. However, in terms of genotype, African and other “pygmies” have great differences.

The average population of African pygmies is relatively large (up to 280,000 people), since they live in areas of equatorial tropical forests, where they can live secretly and relatively safely for a long time.

The small physical size and capabilities of the pygmies naturally, inevitably, undoubtedly influenced and are influencing their relationships with other surrounding peoples, which is why (perhaps) they lost their pygmy languages ​​and speak the languages ​​of the surrounding peoples (Efe, Asua, Bambuti). Only the pygmy people (ethnic group) “Baka” will retain their native language.

The Pygmies of the Oecumene lead a purely traditional way of life as primitive hunters and gatherers of the subequatorial, equatorial, and tropical zones (regions, regions, districts).

The predominant carrier of Y-DNA haplogroup B is the extremely small African people “Hadza” (800 people in 2000 AD). The Hadza live in the north of modern Tanzania near Lake Eyasi.

The isolation of the Hadza people (Hadzapi, Hadzabe, Hatsa, Kindiga, Vankindiga, Watindiga, Tindiga, Kangeju - cut off, separate) is manifested and conclusively confirmed by the presence of their special isolated, but living and active independent language "Hadza", as well as the absence of pronounced family ties with other African peoples.

The Hadza people, through the male line of haplogroup B, are genetically more related to the West African pygmies (Mbuti, Aka), and phenotypically to the Khoisan peoples of East Africa. On the maternal side, the Hadza people belong to haplogroups L2 (Pygmies) and L3 (East African peoples).

Probably, at this time (50,000-49,000 BC), the original Hadza clan (people) was the carrier of the genotypes of male and female haplogroups B2b and L3a1.

The Hadza, like the pygmies, lead an exclusively traditional lifestyle of primitive hunters and gatherers.

Y-chromosomal haplogroup B of the African Pygmies, Hadza and Khoizan has 18 subclades and subgroups.

The author will tell you in more detail about the phenotype, morals, customs and life activities of indigenous African peoples in subsequent chapters of the “Chronology”...