How many haplogroups are there on earth? What do the remains of long-gone people tell us?

20 genera of humanity: what mark does each bear within itself?

Why can’t you read about haplogroups on Wikipedia? How does DNA genealogy work? How many gene mutations have there been during the development of the human race? What was the first human ancestor like 200-250 thousand years ago? What is the difference between the 20 main DNAs - the 20 genera of humanity? Do ethnic groups, nations, and religions have anything to do with the haplogroup? How did it happen that Pushkin is a carrier of haplogroup R1a? Why are there so many representatives of haplogroup R1b in Africa? Can different races meet along the path of a clan? Why do the races continue to be kept separate? Is there a Russian genome? Anatoly Klyosov, founder of DNA genealogy, Doctor of Chemistry, vice president of the American pharmaceutical company Galectin Therapeutics, tells how anthropology is changing, but the haplogroup remains unchanged.

Anatoly Klesov: Firstly, when you ask about haplogroups, do not open Wikipedia. Wasting time and getting incorrect information. The fact is that Wikipedia is a wonderful source, but then when you are looking for established information, say, how many digits are in the number "pi", there are no questions here, or the definition of a triangle. These things have long been debugged and linked to consensus, for such things Wikipedia. When you want to look at haplogroups, I’ll say right away that the people who write there are people who don’t understand anything about it. People who think, perhaps, that they understand, but in fact do not understand anything, are guided by something unclear, there is simply a dump of information that is absolutely empty and distorted. The fact is that for this purpose it will be necessary to answer the question of what a haplogroup and a genus are, and why they are completely unrelated, these are such perpendicular concepts. Let's say, ethnicity, nationality, party affiliation, profession, all these things, in fact, are not connected to the same extent with the concept of haplogroup and clan. The point is, what is a haplogroup? And there is a scientific explanation for this, there are scientific criteria. When they began to study DNA, this, I think, is a well-known concept; even people don’t know the details of what it is, but they know that DNA is something in us, in the body, that determines our anthropology and appearance, and hair color, often behavior, in short, all the characteristics that we express and show to each other, it’s all embedded in DNA. DNA is a giant molecule, there are billions of links in this DNA, and every generation it intertwines, half comes from mom, half from dad, and therefore contributes from both the male and female sides, and again a new interweaving is formed. DNA looks like a double helix. One part of the spiral is from mom, the other from dad, here it is a double helix, to some extent, this is also connected, and then the next children again come from the new mom, the dad is intertwined, so each branch is a change. However, part of the DNA is called the Y chromosome, scientifically speaking, the male sex chromosome, it is precisely the sex chromosome, because it determines gender, only men have it, women do not have it, so now archaeologists who are digging are finding the little finger, a fragment of the little finger , before, of course, it was impossible to determine male or female. And then the DNA is extracted, if it works, and there is a Y chromosome, then it is a man, a boy, if there is no Y chromosome, it is a woman. Such things are now much easier to determine in archeology, things that were practically not determined before. So, the fact is that a woman does not have a Y chromosome, and it has nothing to do with gender; she bears a child, a boy or a girl. This is actually such a function from the point of view of the DNA of things. And so a person receives DNA, that is, a man, in this case, he receives the Y chromosome only from his father, not from his mother. And the father from his father, the father from his father, and so on for millions of years without involvement. The same Y chromosome comes from the ancient ancestors of man, the most ancient ancestors of man. Moreover, its structure is almost identical to the one we have. Now, if you take a chimpanzee from a zoo, and take its Y chromosome and analyze it for DNA, then it is 98% the same as ours. Can you imagine how much time has passed? one side and 5 million years in the other direction, that is, our chimpanzee is separated by 10 million years, back to the ancestor and there, it is impossible to measure directly. And over 10 million years, 98% of the Y chromosomes remained unchanged, so the data here is reliable and can be determined, DNA is being studied. And since this is almost unchanged, the chromosome is transmitted, the Y chromosome, it is clear that there are few changes from father to son. Indeed, in the entire Y chromosome, only one mutation occurs per generation, that is, in 22 years, mathematically let’s take approximately a generation, just for the entire Y chromosome. And therefore, this is one mutation per generation, some 1000 generations, 25,000 years, only 1000 mutations are formed, which is elementarily determined by modern methods, each of them can be counted, and each one has already been counted and numbered. And it turned out that if we start from about 200,000 years ago, this was the common ancestor of Homo Sapiens, Homo sapiens, the data may be as follows - the first human ancestor lived 200,000-250,000 years ago, and before that there were already deeper, more archaic ancestors , they had a different anthropology, a different chest shape, they are no longer considered Homo Sapiens, Homo sapiens. It turned out that there are 20 lines of basic DNA, over these 200,000 years they diverged, here are 20 lines, they called it 20 human genera. And each line is determined by one specific mutation, which only this line has. Here the word “line” can be misunderstood; it’s not a line, but actually a bush. At the base of each line there is a point, that is, a person, from him a bunch of descendants, from another line, from him his own cluster of descendants, and the third has his own. These 20 bushes are all of humanity, and each has its own mark, which no other bush has, so this mark determines which bush any of us belongs to. This is a haplogroup, this bush, it’s also a genus. Why genus? The same definition, at the core there was an ancestor, a patriarch, from whom the bush was formed. The word “genus”, in everyday life it has a somewhat vague concept, let’s say. For example, I am from the Klyosov family, and before that there were no surnames, but the family continued to exist, so you can say I am from the family of my grandfather, great-grandfather, and I am from the family of Prince Golitsyn. But before that there were no princes either, so the clan, it shifts, what concept they put into the clan is what they put into it, it’s in everyday life. But this does not contradict anything with what is in science, because in science it is all one big genus, but breaks up into many small subgenera, right down to families, everyday units of humanity. Therefore, I repeat, a haplogroup is one bush, and the age of the haplogroup is often, and it happens that a bush, it then diverges into different bushes, some of which are more massive, and they cover a large part of the population, there are hundreds of millions of people in one bush. And sometimes a bush is singled out, which later formed, but is very massive, while the others almost all died out from the previous bush, so this bush, which is very massive, is called a haplogroup. Now a conditional definition has been adopted, let’s say that a haplogroup is a bush in which there are at least 100 million people, this is a genus, at the heart of this genus there was also one person. Moreover, you understand that it has nothing to do with nationality, because the haplogroup was formed according to different sources, some young 20 thousand years ago, some 40 thousand years ago, 60 thousand years ago, and the oldest 200 thousand years ago. Of course, the concept of “nationality” does not correspond in any way with the concept of “haplogroup”; nationalities were formed quite recently by historical standards. Ethnic groups quite recently too. Ethnicity is again a community of territory, language and place of residence, well, yes, territory is a place of residence, language, and often cultural things, often religion includes the concept of “ethnicity”. Let's say there is an ethnic group, a common large group of Slavs, but the ethnic groups are different. The ethnicity of the Poles, say, is not the ethnicity of the Russians. The ethnicity of Ukrainians, the ethnicity of Belarusians may well, because the language is slightly different, again they have differences in language and territory, and cultural characteristics. Therefore, ethnic groups, nationalities, religion, party affiliation have nothing to do with the haplogroup, with the clan, but it happens that it so happened that this group was formed, it lives in one place, and this ethnic group was formed just within these frameworks, and then This may be quite consistent with the haplogroup; this cannot be ruled out. For example, there are Basques, they have 90% the same haplogroup, R1B. And there is the Basque ethnicity, that is, in this case, the ethnicity and the haplogroup, they are almost simpatico, almost overlapping each other. The fact is that race is a very flexible concept, let's remember Pushkin, such a visiting example. Pushkin has haplogroup R1A, we learned this from his children, his grandchildren, great-grandchildren, this question is already clear. Moreover, Pushkin comes from such a not very important, but noble family, his long-standing ancestor was the governor Radsha, who is sometimes called Racha, and he served under Alexander Nevsky. He has just R1A, the classic Russian titular, if you like, haplogroup in terms of size. And he is R1A, but we know that he is not black, not to a small extent, he is, scientifically speaking, a mestizo, that is, he has anthropology, race, he already has somewhere at the junction between the Caucasian race and the Negroid, African . And, let’s say, he would marry a black woman again, and his children would be even more in the black direction, and they would marry again, that is, 2-3 generations, and it would no longer be distinguishable from black Africans, but the haplogroup was would be R1A, Pushkins. Here is an example that R1A, and these are Negroid. All haplogroups live in Africa, I don’t know, R1A has not yet been found, but R1B millions of people, that is, those who at one time did not come to Europe, but chose freedom, South Africa, their migration path, they settled in the Cameroon region and Chads, and there are millions of people there, they speak local Bantu languages, but they are in haplogroup R1B. Same thing, race is black and R1B. Therefore, the race changes, I repeat, literally in 2-3 generations. I have a collection of photographs, let's say one of them is Khakass. The Khakass, they are Mongoloid, a Siberian people, and he, a Khakas, purely Mongoloid in face, married a blonde Muscovite, it happened, and they had children, the children have grandchildren. And I have a photograph of my granddaughter, they are already Muscovites, as I understand it, and they are playing somewhere in the sandbox, completely blond blondes, indistinguishable from Russians, and my grandfather or great-grandfather was a complete Mongoloid. So here anthropology is changing at the moment. You will leave, I repeat, although it is already clear to everyone, you will go to the American Indians, 2-3 generations cannot be distinguished, but the haplogroup will remain. Therefore, the usual concept, they ask, how can this be, R1A in Altai, where the Mongoloids live, this cannot be, that is, people do not understand that these are different things. A genus that has been going on since ancient times, along this genus path there can be any variations in race, there is no correlation here. For the same reason that in their time the ancient Aryans, they passed through the entire Russian Plain, went further through the southern territories, passed through Central Asia and left many descendants among the Kyrgyz. Among the Kyrgyz, anyone who lived there, was there or passed by knows that there are many blue-eyed, fair-haired Kyrgyz, completely different, he is a Kyrgyz, and therefore here, again, the anthropology of the race, the shape of the eyes, etc. are in no way connected with R1A. Related, in what sense, if you go to a Russian village, of course, you are unlikely to meet many Australian aborigines, American Indians or black Africans there, everyone there will more or less look the same, they will all be fair-haired, the type is known. Why? Yes, because they marry their own people. The point is, why do the races continue to be kept separate? Because they usually marry their own people. Why would a peasant from a Russian village rush to marry the daughter of an American Indian? This happens, but extremely rarely. Firstly, this is true, purely geographically, according to possibilities, we are always on our own. Further, the Mongols have their own standards of beauty, a flat round face, they are like the moon, but for a Russian this is not included in the standard of beauty, he has his own ideas about beauties, so they choose again according to their standards of beauty. And so it turns out that he is more or less alone. If we take the genome, by the way, the question is asked, but what about the genome, is there a Russian genome? No, there is no Russian genome, but, nevertheless, because the Russian genome is again three different, as a rule, basically, three different genera put it together, and each made contributions, some more, some less, but if you take all of Russia go through, make an average genome, and then for Africa an average genome, for Australia, let’s say, an average genome for an aborigine, then, of course, it will be different, so the question always comes down to what we want to see, and what question can you answer with this answer, and what methods we work with, what we actually do. Therefore, the answer, I repeat once again, is important, a haplogroup is neither an ethnicity, nor a race, nor a nationality, and as I say, nor a party affiliation, to emphasize that this is in no way connected, and not a profession, a profession can have different types. This must be differentiated because thousands of people are mistaken in thinking that it has to do with nationalities and races.

I was prompted to write this article by the incessant conversations that Ukrainians are Slavs, and Russians are not Slavs at all, but have long been Mongols.

Naturally, the initiators of such disputes are the so-called Ukrainian patriots. In this case, conclusions are drawn on the basis of the theories of some newly-minted historians, hitherto unknown historical documents, etc. But besides history, and often pseudohistory, there is also such a science as genetics, and you can’t argue with genetics, my dears. So whether we like it or not, we have the same genotype.

What is a haplogroup?

Y-chromosomal haplogroups, which have become popular in biopolitical circles, are statistical markers for understanding the origins of human populations. But in most cases, such a marker does not say anything about the ethnicity or race of an individual (unlike other DNA analysis techniques). To see an ethnicity, subethnicity, race or other unity of a similar kind in the totality of carriers of a particular haplogroup, and to try to put together some kind of identity on this basis is nonsense. And, of course, the haplogroup is in no way “reflected in the spirit of a person.”

The peculiarity of the Y chromosome is that it is passed from father to son almost unchanged and is not “mixed” or “diluted” by maternal heredity. This allows it to be used as a mathematically accurate tool for determining paternal ancestry. If the term “dynasty” has any biological meaning, it is precisely the inheritance of the Y chromosome. (Follow the link for a detailed but easy-to-understand explanation of the phenomenon)

The Y chromosome is another matter: it consists of genes directly responsible for the male reproductive system, and the slightest defect, as a rule, makes a man sterile. The “marriage” is not passed on further, and the Y chromosome “purifies itself” in each generation.

But in addition to harmful mutations, neutral mutations occur in the male chromosome from time to time, ignored by natural selection. They are concentrated in “junk” regions of the chromosome that are not genes. Some of these mutations, which occurred 50 to 10 thousand years ago, turned out to be convenient markers for identifying ancient ancestral populations that subsequently spread throughout the Earth and formed modern humanity.

The Y-chromosomal haplogroup determines the set of men united by the presence of such a marker, i.e. descended from a common patriarchal ancestor, who many thousands of years ago had a specific mutation on the Y chromosome.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Y-chromosome_DNA_haplogroup

ORIGIN OF HAPLOGROUP R1a1 - SOUTH OF RUSSIA!

Any modern ethnic group consists of representatives of several, at least two or three Y-chromosomal haplogroups.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y-DNA_haplogroups_by_ethnic_group

The geographic distribution of haplogroups is associated with the history of migrations of ancient populations that became ancestral for ethnic groups or groups of ethnic groups. For example, haplogroup N3 can be called “Finno-Ugric”: if it is found among representatives of a certain area, it means that in the past the population there mixed with Finno-Ugric peoples. Or maybe “mixed” tribes came here.

The study of haplogroup statistics has allowed anthropologists to reconstruct the picture of migrations of human populations over the past tens of thousands of years, starting with the African ancestral home. But this data can also be used to debunk a variety of racist and xenophobic myths.

Ethnogeographical distribution of haplogroup R1a

Currently, high frequencies of haplogroup R1a are found in Poland (56% of the population), Ukraine (50 to 65%), European Russia (45 to 65%), Belarus (45%), Slovakia (40%), Latvia (40%), Lithuania (38%), Czech Republic (34%), Hungary (32%), Croatia (29%), Norway (28%), Austria (26%), Sweden (24%), northeast Germany (23%) and Romania (22%).

It is most widespread in Eastern Europe: among Lusatians (63%), Poles (approx. 56%), Ukrainians (approx. 54%), Belarusians (52%), Russians (48%), Tatars 34%, Bashkirs (26%) ) (among the Bashkirs of Saratov and Samara regions up to 48%); and in Central Asia: among the Khujand Tajiks (64%), Kyrgyz (63%), Ishkashimi (68%).

Halogroup R1a is most characteristic of the Slavs. For example, the following haplogroups are common among Russians:

R1a - 51% (Slavs - Aryans, Poles, Russians, Belarusians, Ukrainians)
N3 - 22% (Finno-Ugrians, Finns, Balts)
I1b - 12% (Normans - Germans)
R1b - 7% (Celts and Italics)
11a - 5% (also Scandinavians)
E3b1 - 3% (Mediterraneans)

The most common haplogroup among Ukrainians:

R1a1 - about 54% (Slavs - Aryans, Poles, Russians, Belarusians, Ukrainians)
I2a - 16.1% (Balkan peoples, Fracians, Illyrians, Romanians, Albanians, Greeks)
N3 - 7% (Finno-Ugrians)
E1b1b1 - 6% (African peoples, Egyptians, Berbers, Kushnirs)
N1c1 - 6% (Siberian peoples, Yakuts, Buryats, Chukchi)

As studies show, according to Y-chromosome markers, the tested Ukrainians are most genetically close to their neighboring southwestern Russians, Belarusians and eastern Poles. Three Slavic-speaking peoples (Ukrainians, Poles and Russians) form a separate cluster according to Y haplogroups, which indicates the common origin of the listed ethnic groups.

Myths.

Everyone knows the myth that Russians are largely descendants of the Mongols who enslaved Rus' in ancient times. Haplogroup statistics leave no stone unturned for this myth, since typical “Mongoloid” haplogroups C and Q are not found among Russians at all. This means that if Mongol warriors once came to Rus' with raids, then all the women they caught were killed or taken away with them (like the Crimean Tatars in later times).

Another common myth is that Russians in Central and Northern Russia are for the most part not Slavs, but descendants of Finno-Ugric aborigines, in whose sea the few Slavs supposedly disappeared. From here they derive “Russian drunkenness”, “Russian laziness”, etc. Meanwhile, the share of the “Finnish” haplogroup N3 among Russians in Central Russia is approximately 16% (in sparsely populated regions north of Moscow in some places it reaches 35%, and in densely populated regions south and west of Ryazan it decreases to 10%). Those. out of every six fathers, only one was Finnish. It can be assumed that the ratio in the maternal gene pool is approximately the same, since the Slavs and Finno-Ugrians, as a rule, coexisted peacefully.

By the way, Among the Finns of Finland, haplogroup N3 is represented in approximately 60% of the population. This means that out of every five fathers, two were not “original Finns”, but “passing fellows”, perhaps tribute collectors from Novgorod. Among ethnic Estonians and Latvians, the “share of Finnish fathers” is even smaller – approximately 40%. The “passing fellows” of German and Slavic origin clearly dominated the hot Estonian guys. But Lithuanian girls fell in love with them: Lithuanians, despite the Indo-European language, are the same 40% descendants of Finno-Ugric peoples.

Among ethnic Ukrainians, the “share of Finnish fathers” is also present, although three times less than among Russians. However, Finno-Ugric tribes did not live in Ukraine, and this share was brought from Central Russia. But if the “share of Finnish blood” among ethnic Ukrainians is only three times less than among Russians, then at least a third of them are descendants of Russian fathers. Apparently, in the past, “irresponsible” southern Russian girls loved to fool around with the “Muscovite occupiers.” While the Ukrainian boys were having fun in the Zaporozhye Sich in an all-male company, their sisters and daughters found understanding with the friendly Suvorov miracle heroes with weighty Finnish Y-chromosomes.

Helping to understand the inconsistency of certain myths, haplogroups, in turn, can give rise to new myth-making. There are people who give them a racial meaning. It is important to understand that haplogroups themselves cannot serve as a criterion for racial, ethnic or subethnic identity. When applied to a specific person, they don’t say anything at all. For example, no adequate community uniting people from the “Aryan” haplogroup R1a1 can be formed. And vice versa, there is no objective difference between Russians living in the same region, carriers of the “Finnish” haplogroup N, and Russians, carriers of the “Aryan” haplogroup R1a. The entire rest of the gene pool of the descendants of the “ancestral Finnish men” and the “ancestral Aryan men” has long been mixed.

Of the more than 20,000 genes in the human genome, only about 100 are included in the Y chromosome. They encode mainly the structure and functioning of the male genital organs. There is no other information there. Facial features, skin color, mental and thinking characteristics are registered in other chromosomes, which during inheritance go through recombination (the paternal and maternal sections of the chromosomes are mixed randomly).

If representatives of a certain ethnic group belong to several haplogroups, this does not mean that this ethnic group is a mechanical combination of populations with different gene pools. The rest of their gene pool, except for the Y chromosomes, will be mixed. Subtle differences between representatives of different Russian haplogroups may be of interest only to people who professionally specialize in blowjobs.

Conversely, people from the same haplogroup may belong to different ethnic groups and even different races, and have fundamental differences in terms of genotype and phenotype.

For example, the record holders for the presence of the “Aryan” haplogroup are such dissimilar peoples as the Poles (56.4%) and the Kyrgyz (63.5%). The “Aryan” haplogroup is found in more than 12% of Ashkenazi Jews, and not in some “half-breeds,” but in the most real, typical representatives of their ethnic group.

If a Russian sailor, having visited Angola, “gives” a native woman a boy child, then he, and all his descendants in the male line, will have the father’s haplogroup. 1000 generations will change, the descendants in all respects will turn into the most typical Angolans, but will still carry the “Aryan” Y chromosome. And this fact cannot be revealed in any way other than DNA analysis.

In the distant past, carriers of haplogroup R1a1, the ancestors of modern Indo-Europeans, set off from Southern Russia and the Urals to explore Europe, the Middle East, Iran, Afghanistan, India and other neighboring countries, to whose population they imposed their customs and passed on their language. But if their historical success was somehow connected with advanced biology (let's say), then it was rooted not in the characteristics of the Y chromosome, but in other genes that were present in the ancestral population. This “advanced gene pool” was associated with a certain haplogroup only statistically. Modern representatives of haplogroup R1a1 may lack these “advanced” genes. Possession of an “Aryan” chromosome does not in any way reflect “in the spirit.”

Those sections of the Y chromosome that serve as markers for identifying haplogroups do not themselves code for anything and have no biological meaning. These are markers in their purest form. They can be compared to the orange and green LEDs in the movie “Kin-Dza-Dza”, which were used to identify Chatlans and Patsaks, and there was no other difference between these “races” except the color of the light bulb. So the presence of an “Aryan” haplogroup in itself does not guarantee a person not only Aryan brains, but even an Aryan penis (“racist blowjobs” may be disappointed). 

Russian blood - descendants of the Aryans.Haplogroup R1a1.

Although the scientific data obtained by American scientists is not classified and has already been published in scientific journals, for strange reasons, a Conspiracy of Silence remains around them... What kind of discovery is this? This mystery is connected with the origin of the Russian people and the thousand-year historical path of the Slavic ethnic group.
What is the essence of the discovery of American geneticists?

Genetic code- a method of encoding the amino acid sequence of proteins using a sequence of nucleotides, characteristic of all living organisms. There are 46 chromosomes in human DNA, each person inherits half of the chromosomes from the father, half from the mother. Of the 23 chromosomes received from the father, only one - the male Y chromosome - contains a set of nucleotides that is passed from generation to generation without changes for thousands of years.

Geneticists call this set of DNA haplogroup.

DNA research has united all people on Earth into genealogical groups and designated them with letters. People of the same haplogroup have one common ancestor in distant prehistory.
The haplogroup, due to its hereditary immutability, is the same for all men of one nation. Each biologically distinctive people has its own haplogroup, different from the haplogroups of other peoples. In fact, this is the genetic marker of the entire people.
The goal is to trace the path of one ethnic group, one people over thousands of years of its history.

DNA studies have shown that Asians and Europeans diverged about 40,000 years ago. Most scientists believe that approximately 10,000 or 8,000 years ago, the Indo-Europeans still spoke the same language! Over time, the Indo-European community begins to fragment and migrate to different parts of the world.
American scientists found that 4,500 years ago, the people of the Central Russian Plain experienced a mutation of their haplogroup R1a, as a result of which a person appeared with a new modification, R1a1, which turned out to be unusually resilient.

Approximately 5,000 years ago, there was an archaeological Yamnaya culture (more precisely - the Ancient Yamnaya cultural and historical community (3600-2300 BC) This archaeological culture dates from the late Copper Age - early Bronze Age. During archaeological excavations of mounds in this area, human remains were found subclade of Y-DNA R1a1, Copper and bronze tools were found, people believed in an afterlife.

A characteristic feature of the Yamnaya culture is the burial of the dead in pits under mounds, lying on their backs, with their knees bent. The bodies were sprinkled with ocher. Burials in the mounds were multiple, and often took place at different times. Fragments of animal bones (cows, pigs, sheep, goats and horses) were also discovered. Burials of the mound type characteristic of Proto-Indo-Europeans.

Andronovo archaeological culture(2300 – 1000 BC) comes from an older Yamnaya culture (3600 BC) and is the culture of the Proto-Indo-European community. American scientists analyzed ancient remains on the territory of the Andronovo archaeological culture (2300 - 1000 BC) and discovered the predominance of the Y-DNA subclade R1a1. Out of 10 men, 9 people have Y-DNA R1a1a - this is a type of fair-haired and light-skinned people with blue (or green) eyes. The Maykop culture (3700-2500 BC), in the North Caucasus, is also represented by haplogroups R1a1 and R1b1.

American geneticists have discovered that subclades of Y-DNA R1a are common throughout Europe and northern India. The Aryans, who first settled in the north of India, also influenced the construction of the statehood of ancient India, dividing society into castes.

It is known that haplogroup R1a1 appeared in northern India 3500 years ago. At that time in northern India there was Harappan civilization, it was replaced by the more developed Aryan civilization. The Harappan period of Indian history gave way to the Aryan, the Indo-Aryans appeared, and the civilization of the Saraswati River valley appeared. It is known that the Indo-Aryans spoke Vedic Sanskrit; the Rig-Veda, the oldest part of the Vedas, was written in this language. The Aryans considered themselves to be the highest caste of society - the Brahmans - they were the ones who possessed secret knowledge (Rig-Veda) and a secret language that the Indians did not know. Vedic Sanskrit and classical Saeskrit are two different languages.

In those days there was no concept of “Aryan race”. Word Arias translated from ancient Indian. Ā́rya, ari ̯ a meant “lord”, “master of the house”. With the prefix “a-” the word acquired a negative meaning: anārya - anarya - “non-Aryan”, “ignoble”, “barbarian” or “dasyu”, “robber, enemy, demon, stranger”. The word "Arya" was never used in a racial or ethnic sense. "Arya" meant "spiritual", "noble person". Aristoi - aristoi - “the most noble”, hence the word “aristocrat”. Etymology words arya - ari ̯ a comes Vedic Sanskrit root kars (ar) - “to plow, cultivate the land”, and the word “Aryan”, in the original meaning of the word, meant “farmer”, the word was preserved in the ancient Russian language “yell” - plow, “oratay” - plowman.

Vedic Sanskrit is the oldest language in which the Rig Veda was written (3900 BC). Vedic Sanskrit contains the origins of the Indo-European group of languages.

Founder of comparative historical linguistics. William Jones (1746 - 1794) the creator of the theory of the Indo-European family of languages ​​in 1786 said about Sanskrit: “No matter how ancient Sanskrit is, it has an amazing structure. Sanskrit, whatever its origin, reveals an amazing structure: being more flawless than Greek and richer than Latin, it is more refined than both of them.Moreover, it has such noticeable similarities with these languages ​​in verb roots and grammatical forms that it could not have arisen by chance.The similarity is so strong that not a single philologist who has studied all three languages ​​would doubt their origin from a common ancestor, which may no longer exist.”

People with haplogroup R1a1 then looked exactly the same as we do now; the ancient Rus did not have any Mongoloid or other non-Russian features. Scientists recreated from bone remains the appearance of a young woman with haplogroup R1a1, who lived several thousand years ago, and the result was a portrait of a typical Russian beauty , millions of the same live in our time in the Russian outback.

A connection between haplogroup R1a1 and speakers of Indo-European languages ​​was noticed in the late 1990s. Spencer Wells and his colleagues concluded that R1a1 was widespread in the Caspian steppes.

Currently, holders of the R1a1 haplogroup make up a high percentage among the male population of Russia (47), Ukraine (48 and Belarus (52), and in ancient Russian cities and villages - up to 80%. The greatest distribution of the R1a1 haplogroup is in Eastern Europe: among the Lusatian Germans (63 , Poles (57 .

R1a1 is a biological marker of the Russian ethnic group.

A set of DNA nucleotides called a haplo

Indeed, the haplogroup in the Y-chromosome DNA, unlike language, culture, religion and other creations of human hands, is not modified or mixed with the genetic codes of other peoples. The genetic hereditary biological sign is not washed away, therefore the genetic history is the main one, and everything else can only complement or clarify it, but not refute it in any way.

American geneticists began to take tests from people and look for biological “roots”, their own and others. What they accomplished is of great interest to us, since it sheds true light on the historical paths of the Russian people and destroys many established myths.

So, the ethnic center of the Russian people arose 4500 years ago on the Central Russian Plain - this is the place of maximum concentration of R1a1, from here it emerged and spread to the territories of Eastern Europe and Siberia. The question of that “area of ​​ancient Indo-European territory where the Slavs originated” also remains controversial. (Lubor Niederle).

The history of the development of haplogroups R1a and R1b are inextricably linked with each other.

Subclades R1a and R1b are closely related to the spread of Indo-European languages, as evidenced by its presence in all regions of the world where Indo-European languages ​​were spoken in ancient times, from the Atlantic coast of Europe to India. Almost all of Europe (except Finland and Bosnia-Herzegovina), Anatolia, Armenia, European Russia, southern Siberia, many areas around Central Asia (notably Xinjiang, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan and Afghanistan), not forgetting Iran, Pakistan, India and Nepal.

The settlement of peoples speaking Proto-Indo-European languages, representing Subclades of haplogroups R1a and R1b settled to the west (from the Don to the Dniester, Danube) and to the east (to the Volga-Ural region).Men of both haplogroups R1a and R1b probably lived in the Pontic steppes.

In Poland, holders of the Russian haplogroup R1a1 make up 57% of the male population, in Latvia, Lithuania, the Czech Republic and Slovakia - 40%, in Germany, Norway and Sweden - 18%, in Bulgaria - 12%, and in England - the least (3.

It is known that the European clan aristocracy has Aryan roots. One of the royal houses of Europe, the House of German Hohenzollern, of which the English Windsors are a branch, has Aryan roots. Windsor dynasty- the current ruling royal dynasty of Great Britain, a junior branch of the ancient Saxon house of Wettin (until 1917 the dynasty was called Saxe-Coburg-Gotha).
The Wettins (German: Wettiner, English: House of Wettin) are a German princely family, now represented by the Windsor dynasty, ruling in Great Britain, as well as Saxe-Coburg-Gotha dynasty of kings of Belgium. The Wettin dynasty dominated for more than 800 years in the Central German area of ​​the southeastern foothills of the Harz in Saxony in the 10th century. Witekind, leader of the Saxons, who converted to Christianity under Charlemagne, is considered the legendary founder and ancestor
Vettinov

.

63% of Lusatian Germans - Lusatians - a national minority in Germany, have a haplogroupR 1 a1. It is known that 60 thousand German citizens have Serbian Sorbian roots: 40 thousand live in Upper Lusatia (Saxony) and 20 thousand live in Lower Lusatia (Brandenburg).

the R1a1 group is “Russianness” from a genetic point of view.
Thus, the Russian people in a genetically modern form were born in the European part of present-day Russia about 4,500 years ago.

Original taken from servicefree in post Oleg Timofeevich Vinogradov, an outstanding Russian surgeon and writer, served in the Armed Forces of the Soviet Union for more than 30 years, awarded 15 medals and one order. Since 1980, he began to study professionally the ancient history of the Slavs.
Monograph by Vinogradov "Ancient Vedic Rus' is the basis of existence" was published in 2008 and immediately sold out. In order to declare the book extremist, in 2011 the author was accused of standard “Russian typing” under Article 282

Book "Ancient Vedic Rus' - the basis of existence"(download) :
http://narod.ru/disk/36694522001/vinogradov_drevn.zip.html

The scientific data below is a terrible secret. Formally, this data is not classified, since it was obtained by American scientists outside the field of defense research, and was even published in some places, but the conspiracy of silence organized around it is unprecedented. The atomic project at its initial stage cannot even be compared: then some things still leaked into the press, and in this case, nothing at all.
What is this terrible secret, the mention of which is a worldwide taboo? This is the secret of the origin and historical path of the Russian people.

Agnation.

Why information is hidden - more on that later. First, briefly about the essence of the discovery of American geneticists.

There are 46 chromosomes in human DNA, half of which he inherits from his father, half from his mother. Of the 23 chromosomes received from the father, only one - the male Y chromosome - contains a set of nucleotides that is passed on from generation to generation without any changes for thousands of years. Geneticists call this set a haplogroup. Every man living now has in his DNA exactly the same haplogroup as his father, grandfather, great-grandfather, great-great-grandfather, etc. for many generations.

The haplogroup, due to its hereditary immutability, is the same for all people of the same biological origin, that is, for men of the same nation. Each biologically distinctive people has its own haplogroup, different from similar sets of nucleotides in other peoples, which is its genetic marker, a kind of ethnic mark. In the biblical system of concepts, one can imagine the matter in such a way that the Lord God, when He divided humanity into different nations, marked each of them with a unique set of nucleotides in the Y-chromosome of DNA. (Women also have such marks, only in a different coordinate system - in the mitochondrial DNA rings.) .

Of course, there is nothing absolutely unchangeable in nature, for movement is a form of existence of matter. Haplogroups also change (in biology such changes are called mutations), but very rarely, at intervals of millennia, and geneticists have learned to very accurately determine their time and place. Thus, American scientists found that one such mutation occurred 4,500 years ago on the Central Russian Plain. A boy was born with a slightly different haplogroup than his father, to which they assigned a genetic classification R1a1. Paternal R1a mutated and a new one arose R1a1.

The mutation turned out to be very viable. The R1a1 genus, which was started by this same boy, survived, unlike millions of other genera that disappeared when their genealogical lines were cut off, and multiplied over a vast space. Currently, holders of haplogroup R1a1 make up 70% of the total male population of Russia, Ukraine and Belarus, and in ancient Russian cities and villages - up to 80%. R1a1 is a biological marker of the Russian ethnic group. This set of nucleotides is “Russianness” from a genetic point of view.
Thus, the Russian people in a genetically modern form were born in the European part of present-day Russia about 4,500 years ago. A boy with the R1a1 mutation became the direct ancestor of all men now living on earth whose DNA contains this haplogroup. All of them are his biological or, as they used to say, blood descendants and among themselves - blood relatives, together making up a single people - the Russians.

Biology is an exact science.

It does not allow for double interpretation, and genetic conclusions to establish kinship are accepted even by the court. Therefore, genetic and statistical analysis of population structure, based on the determination of haplogroups in DNA, allows us to trace the historical paths of peoples much more reliably than ethnography, archeology, linguistics and other scientific disciplines dealing with these issues.

Indeed, the haplogroup in the Y-chromosome DNA, unlike language, culture, religion and other creations of human hands, is not modified or assimilated. She's either one or the other. And if a statistically significant number of indigenous inhabitants of a territory have a certain haplogroup, we can say with one hundred percent certainty that these people descend from the original carriers of this haplogroup, who were once present in this territory.

Realizing this, American geneticists, with the enthusiasm inherent in all emigrants in questions of origin, began to wander around the world, take tests from people and look for biological “roots”, their own and others. What they accomplished is of great interest to us, since it sheds true light on the historical paths of our Russian people and destroys many established myths.

So, having emerged 4500 years ago on the Central Russian Plain (the place of maximum concentration of R1a1 - an ethnic focus), the Russian people quickly multiplied and began to expand their habitat. They looked then exactly the same as we do now; the ancient Rus did not have any Mongoloid or other non-Russian features. Scientists have recreated the appearance of a young woman from the “civilization of cities” from bone remains: the result is a typical Russian beauty, millions of the same live in our time in the Russian outback.

Haplogroup R1a1 in the ancient world.

3500 years ago, haplogroup R1a1 appeared in India. The history of the Russians’ arrival in India is known better than other vicissitudes of the territorial expansion of our ancestors thanks to the ancient Indian epic, in which its circumstances are described in sufficient detail. But there is other evidence of this epic, including archaeological and linguistic.

It is known that the ancient Rus were called Aryans at that time (as they are recorded in Indian texts). It is also known that it was not the local Hindus who gave them this name, but that it is a self-name. Convincing evidence of this has been preserved in hydronymy and toponymy - the Ariyka River, the villages of Upper Ariy and Lower Ariy in the Perm region, in the very heart of the Ural civilization of cities, etc.

It is also known that the appearance of the Russian haplogroup R1a1 on the territory of India 3500 years ago (the time of birth of the first Indo-Aryan calculated by geneticists) was accompanied by the death of a developed local civilization, which archaeologists called Harappan based on the site of the first excavations. Before their disappearance, this people, who had populous cities at that time in the Indus and Ganges valleys, began to build defensive fortifications, which they had never done before. However, the fortifications apparently did not help, and the Harappan period of Indian history gave way to the Aryan.

The first monument of the Indian epic, which talks about the appearance of the Aryans, was written down 400 years later, in the 11th century. BC e., and in the 3rd century. BC e. in its completed form, the ancient Indian literary language Sanskrit emerged, surprisingly similar to the modern Russian language.

Now men of the Russian genus R1a1 make up 16% of the total male population of India, and in the upper castes there are almost half of them - 47%, which indicates the active participation of the Aryans in the formation of the Indian aristocracy (the second half of the men of the upper castes are represented by local tribes, mainly Dravidian).

Unfortunately, information on the ethnogenetics of the Iranian population is not yet available, but the scientific community is unanimous in its opinion about the Aryan (i.e. Russian) roots of ancient Iranian civilization. The ancient name of Iran is Arian, and the Persian kings loved to emphasize their Aryan origin, as eloquently evidenced, in particular, by the popular name Darius. This means that there were Russians there in ancient times.

Our ancestors migrated not only to the east and south (to India and Iran), but also to the west - to where European countries are now located. In the western direction, geneticists have complete statistics: in Poland, holders of the Russian (Aryan) haplogroup R1a1 make up 57% of the male population, in Latvia, Lithuania, the Czech Republic and Slovakia - 40%, in Germany, Norway and Sweden - 18%, in Bulgaria - 12 %, and in England - the least (3%).

Unfortunately, there is no ethnogenetic information on the European patrimonial aristocracy yet, and therefore it is impossible to determine whether the share of ethnic Russians is evenly distributed across all social strata of the population or, as in India and, presumably, Iran, the Aryans made up the nobility in the lands where they came . The only reliable evidence in favor of the latter version was a by-product of a genetic examination to establish the authenticity of the remains of the family of Nicholas II. The Y chromosomes of the king and heir Alexei turned out to be identical to samples taken from their relatives from the English royal family. This means that at least one royal house of Europe, namely the house of the German Hohenzollerns, of which the English Windsors are a branch, has Aryan roots.

However, Western Europeans (haplogroup R1b) in any case are our closest relatives, oddly enough, much closer than the Northern Slavs (haplogroup N) and the Southern Slavs (haplogroup I1b). Our common ancestor with Western Europeans lived about 13,000 years ago.

The settlement of the Russian-Aryans to the east, south and west (there was simply nowhere to go further to the north; and so, according to the Indian Vedas, before coming to India they lived near the Arctic Circle) became a biological prerequisite for the formation of a special language group - the so-called. "Indo-European" (Correct: Slavic-Aryan). These are almost all European languages, some languages ​​of modern Iran and India and, of course, the Russian language and ancient Sanskrit, which are closest to each other for the obvious reason: in time (Sanskrit) and in space (Russian language) they stand next to the original source - Aryan the proto-language from which all other “Indo-European” languages ​​grew.
Note - more about European languages ​​as remakes - “How “national” remake languages ​​were created in the 18th-19th centuries”- http://ladstas.livejournal.com/71015.html

“It’s impossible to argue. You need to shut up.”

The above are irrefutable natural scientific facts, moreover, obtained by independent American scientists. Disputing them is the same as disagreeing with the results of a blood test in a clinic. They are not disputed. They are simply kept silent. They are hushed up unanimously and stubbornly, they are hushed up, one might say, completely. And there are reasons for this.

The first such reason is quite trivial and boils down to scientific false solidarity. Too many theories, concepts and scientific reputations will have to be refuted if they are revised in the light of the latest discoveries of ethnogenetics.

For example, we will have to rethink everything that is known about the Tatar-Mongol invasion of Rus'. The armed conquest of peoples and lands was always and everywhere accompanied at that time by the mass rape of local women. Traces in the form of Mongolian and Turkic haplogroups should have remained in the blood of the male part of the Russian population. But they are not there! Solid R1a1 - and nothing more, the purity of the blood is amazing. This means that the Horde that came to Rus' was not at all what is commonly thought of it: if the Mongols were present there, then in statistically insignificant numbers, and it is generally unclear who was called “Tatars”. Well, which scientist will refute scientific foundations, supported by mountains of literature and great authorities?!
see Myth of the Tatar-Mongol yoke- http://ladstas.livejournal.com/16811.html
No one wants to spoil relationships with colleagues and be branded an extremist by destroying established myths. In an academic environment, this happens all the time: if the facts do not correspond to the theory, so much the worse for the facts.

The second reason, incomparably more significant, relates to the sphere of geopolitics. The history of human civilization appears in a new and completely unexpected light, and this cannot but have serious political consequences.

Throughout modern history, the pillars of European scientific and political thought proceeded from the idea of ​​Russians as barbarians who had recently climbed down from the trees, naturally backward and incapable of creative work. And suddenly it turns out that Russians are the ones arias, which had a decisive influence on the formation of great civilizations in India, Iran and Europe itself! That Europeans owe a lot to Russians for their prosperous lives, starting with the languages ​​they speak. It is no coincidence that in recent history, a third of the most important discoveries and inventions belong to ethnic Russians in Russia itself and abroad. It is no coincidence that the Russian people were able to repel the invasions of the united forces of continental Europe led by Napoleon and then Hitler. Etc.

Great historical tradition

It is no coincidence that behind all this there is a great historical tradition, thoroughly forgotten over many centuries, but remaining in the collective subconscious of the Russian people and manifesting itself whenever the nation faces new challenges. Manifesting itself with iron inevitability due to the fact that it grew on a material, biological basis in the form of Russian blood, which remains unchanged for four and a half millennia.

Western politicians and ideologists have a lot to think about in order to make their policy towards Russia more adequate in the light of the historical circumstances discovered by geneticists. But they don’t want to think or change anything, hence the conspiracy of silence around the Russian-Aryan topic.

The Russian situation itself

The main thing is the very statement of the existence of the Russian people as a biologically integral and genetically homogeneous entity. The main thesis of the Russophobic propaganda of the Bolsheviks and current liberals is precisely the denial of this fact. The scientific community is dominated by the idea formulated by Lev Gumilyov in his theory of ethnogenesis: “From a mixture of Alans, Ugrians, Slavs and Turks, the Great Russian people developed.” The “national leader” repeats the common saying “scratch a Russian and you will find a Tatar.” Etc.

Why do the enemies of the Russian nation need this? The answer is obvious. If the Russian people as such do not exist, but some kind of amorphous “mixture” exists, then anyone can control this “mixture”: be it Germans, be it African pygmies, or even Martians. The denial of the biological existence of the Russian people is the ideological justification for the dominance of the non-Russian “elite” in Russia (formerly Soviet, now liberal).

But then the Americans with their genetics intervene, and it turns out that there is no “mixture”, that the Russian people have existed unchanged for 4500 years, that Alans and Turks and many others also live in Russia, but these are separate, distinctive peoples, etc. etc. And the question immediately arises: why then are Russia not ruled by Russians for almost a century? Illogical and wrong, Russians should be controlled by Russians.

Czech Jan Hus

Czech Jan Hus, a professor at the University of Prague, argued in a similar way 600 years ago:
“The Czechs in the Kingdom of Bohemia, by law and by the dictates of nature, must be first in positions, just like the French in France and the Germans in their lands.”
This statement of his was considered politically incorrect, intolerant, inciting ethnic hatred, and the professor was burned at the stake.

Now morals have softened, professors are not being burned, but so that people are not tempted to succumb to Hussite logic, in Russia the non-Russian government simply “cancelled” the Russian people: “a mixture,” they say. And everything would have been fine, but the Americans jumped out from somewhere with their analyzes - and ruined the whole thing. There is nothing to cover them up with, all that remains is to hush up the scientific results, which is done to the hoarse sounds of an old and hackneyed Russophobic propaganda record.

The collapse of the myth of the Russian people

The collapse of the myth of the Russian people as an ethnic mixture automatically destroys another myth - the myth of the multinationality of Russia.
Until now, they have tried to present the ethno-demographic structure of our country as a vinaigrette from the Russian “you won’t understand what the mixture is” and many indigenous peoples and newcomer diasporas. With such a structure, all its components are approximately equal in size, so Russia is supposedly “multinational.”

But genetic studies provide a completely different picture. If you believe the Americans (and there is no reason not to believe them: they are authoritative scientists, they value their reputation, and they have no reason to lie in such a pro-Russian way), then it turns out that 70% of the entire male population of Russia are purebred Russians. According to the data of the penultimate census, 80% of respondents consider themselves Russian, i.e. 10% more are Russified representatives of other nations (it is these 10%, if you “scrub”, that you will find non-Russian roots). And 20% falls on the remaining 170-odd peoples, nationalities and tribes living on the territory of the Russian Federation. Total: Russia is a mono-ethnic country, albeit multi-ethnic, with an overwhelming demographic majority of natural Russians. This is where Jan Hus' logic comes into play.

About backwardness

Next - about backwardness. Judeo-Christian churchmen thoroughly contributed to this myth: they say that before the baptism of Rus', people lived in complete savagery. Wow, "wildness"! They mastered half the world, built great civilizations, taught the aborigines their language, and all this long before the so-called. “The Nativity of Christ”... The real story does not fit, does not fit in any way with its Judeo-Christian church version. There is something primordial, natural in the Russian people that cannot be reduced to their religious life.

Of course, biology and the social sphere cannot be equated. There are undoubtedly points of contact between them, but how one passes into the other, how the material becomes ideal, is unknown to science. In any case, it is obvious that under the same conditions different peoples have different patterns of life activity. In the north-east of Europe, in addition to the Russians, many peoples lived and now live, but none of them created anything even remotely similar to the great Russian civilization. The same applies to other places of civilizational activity of the Russian-Aryans in ancient times. Natural conditions are different everywhere, and the ethnic environment is different, therefore the civilizations built by our ancestors are not the same, but there is something common to all of them: they are great on the historical scale of values ​​and far surpass the achievements of their neighbors.

“Everything flows, everything changes,” “...except the human soul.”

The father of dialectics, the ancient Greek Heraclitus, is known as the author of the saying “Everything flows, everything changes.” Less known is the continuation of this phrase of his: “...except for the human soul.” While a person is alive, his soul remains unchanged (what happens to it in the afterlife is not for us to judge). The same is true for a more complex form of organization of living matter than man - for the people. The people's soul is unchanged as long as the people's body is alive. The Russian folk body is marked by nature with a special sequence of nucleotides in the DNA that controls this body. This means that as long as there are people on earth with haplogroup R1a1 on the Y chromosome, their people retain their souls unchanged.

The language evolves, culture develops, religious beliefs change, but the Russian soul remains the same for all 4500 years of the existence of the people in its current genetic form. And together, the body and soul, constituting a single biosocial entity under the name “Russian people,” have a natural ability for great achievements on a civilizational scale. The Russian people have demonstrated this many times in the past; this potential remains in the present and will always exist as long as the people live.

It is very important to know this and, through the prism of knowledge, to evaluate current events, words and actions of people, to determine one’s own place in the history of the great biosocial phenomenon called the “Russian nation.” Knowledge of the history of a people obliges a person to try to be at the level of the great achievements of his ancestors, and this is the most terrible thing for the enemies of the Russian nation. That's why they try to hide this knowledge. And we are trying to make it publicly available.

Spirin Vladimir Georgievich

HR. 2.7.50.4. History of the emergence and migrations of the most ancient haplogroups.

Alexander Sergeevich Suvorov (“Alexander Suvory”).

CHRONOLOGY OF THE HISTORY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT.

Experience in reconstructing the sequence of historical events in time and space in correlation with solar activity.

Book two. DEVELOPMENT OF HUMANITY BCE.

Part 7. The era of mythical civilizations.

Chapter 50.4. History of the emergence and migrations of the most ancient haplogroups.

A wonderful illustration map from the open Internet (Wikipedia). Many thanks to its authors.

Pay attention to the contours and boundaries of the antediluvian land shelf of continents and continents, to the boundaries of internal and external seas, to the designation of real antediluvian countries - Berengia, Okhotia, the land shelf of East Asia, Meganesia-Lemuria-Mu-Sunda, the Australian-New Guinea-Tasmanian continent of Sahul etc.

The whole world. Migrations of primitive people. Modern humanity. Homo sapiens neanderthalensis is a race of humanity of classical intelligent Neanderthals. Homo sapiens sapiens is the race of humanity of the classical Cro-Magnons. Classic primitive communal system. Socio-economic formation. Modern civilization. Raceogenesis. History of the emergence and migrations of the most ancient haplogroups. 49,000 BC

The existence of archaeological traces of three main routes of migration and settlement of Homo sapiens sapiens or neoanthrope, classical Cro-Magnon, modern man across the continents of the Earth - Austrian, Boreal and African (back to Africa) - exactly corresponds to the routes and regions of origin, migration and settlement of Y-chromosomal (Y) -DNA) and Mitochondrial (mtDNA) haplogroups of the indigenous inhabitants of the Oikumene (inhabited world).

Modern “population genetics” of a person or “population genetics” (a branch of genetics - the science of the patterns of heredity and variability of genetic information or “genetic code”) allows us to determine the occurrence and distribution of changes in the human genetic code in time and space, that is, in the history of mankind ( of humanity) and in the Ecumene (inhabited world).

Changes in genetic information or genetic code inevitably, naturally and naturally occur under the influence of corresponding environmental phenomena (“phenomena of evolution”): mutagenesis of cells of organisms, random drift of genes in a population, natural selection of individuals and migrations of individuals in the environment.

The fact is that each person has his own individual “phenotype” - his appearance, his character, his disposition, his temperament, that is, a set of external and internal characteristics of the body and personality that are formed and formed as a result of individual development or human life activity (ontogenesis ).

Naturally, people have different intellectual abilities, skills, talents and physical capabilities, so they have different phenotypes.

All people (without exception) are born small, naked and defenseless against environmental phenomena. Moreover, they differ from each other in the time of conception, intrauterine development and birth, in weight, in height, in muscle mass, in the level of development of internal organs, in the degree of consequences from the influence of the maternal body and other environmental factors.

However, a person receives the main or “basic” characteristics of the phenotype together with his “genotype” - the set of genes of the whole organism that characterizes the individual (individual). For example, the color and structure of the iris of a person’s eyes (a characteristic of the phenotype) is determined by genetic information or the genetic code formed during the conception of the future person.

Also, the phenotype as a result of natural selection and evolution determines the genetic structure of the population of individuals (individuals). Each phenotype (individual, individual) passes (or does not pass on) its characteristics by inheritance to subsequent generations, to the evolution of the species, to the development of the genotype of the population. This is how “genetic and phenotypic dispersion” occurs.

As a result, over a series of many generations of people, a natural and logical “chain” of cause-and-effect influences is formed:

Hereditary genotype +
genotype of embryo conception +
phenomena (factors) of intrauterine development of the fetus +
environmental phenomena (factors) +
specialization of the development of the organism (individual, individual, personality) +
natural (random) selection and evolution

Together they form =

The corresponding human phenotype, which can be inherited by the corresponding set of genes, followed by conscious cultivation, training, training, education and training. This is ontogenesis...

It is easy to notice that the more significant, energetic, and weighty the impact on a person of the indicated cause-and-effect phenomena (factors), the faster, better and stronger a person adapts, adapts and develops (evolves).

That is why enhanced basic upbringing and education occurs during childhood, adolescence and adolescence - the period of preparation of a young person for an independent “adult” life (dangerous, labor, creative, intense).

Indicators of the phenotype of any person are:

The presence or absence of genetic and hereditary defects (genotype, individual genome);

Indicators of biological tissues and fluids (blood, lymph, juices, etc.);

The level of metabolism in the body at rest and during exercise (strength, endurance);

Level of physical development, type of constitution of the body (morphotype, physique, figure);

Appearance and external behavior (style, role play, presentation);

Norms of functioning and reactions of organs and systems of the body at rest, under load and stress (responsiveness, self-control);

Emotional-volitional dominance of the cerebral hemisphere (left or right);

Type of dominant instinct and temperament (instinct complexes);

Type of mental and intellectual activity (personal capabilities, talent);

Type of dominant needs and goals (wants);

Type of moral values ​​and ideals (assessments, dreams, plans);

Level of social and spiritual aspirations (desires);

Level of social adaptation and degree of recognition of generally accepted practices (discipline);

The presence or absence of signs of illness and disease (immunity).

As a result of ontogenesis in the environment, the phenotypes of the same genotype can be different. In an open, free sunny space, birch and pine trees, for example, grow, as a rule, spreading, spreading, wide, but in a cramped and dark forest - tall, slender, tight...

In human associations and societies, it has long been noticed that in long-term, close, united and strict associations-collectives, people’s phenotypes become typical, similar to each other. Examples of this include hunting groups, robber gangs, military units, monastic orders, etc. It’s not for nothing that they say: “Whoever you mess with, you’ll gain from that”...

That is why the model and example of leaders, who are imitated and followed in literally everything, forms a group and individual phenotype, organizes and streamlines evolution, and passes on the most outstanding (or defective) phenotypes to the offspring. An example is imitation of a leader or Fuhrer...

The author does not even try to hypothetically suggest that intelligent classical Neanderthals and Cro-Magnons of this and subsequent times (50,000-10,000 BC) or the inhabitants of the legendary countries and mythical civilizations of Arctida-Hyperborea, Meganesia-Lemuria-Mu-Sunda and Atlantis knew or could know something about genes, had knowledge of the laws of population genetics.

Otherwise, there would not have been marriage rituals, initiation rites, education of youth through training and training, tests of hunters and warriors, individual or joint rituals of shamans, Vedic and magical practices of sorcerers and witch.

Undoubtedly, primitive people initially honored the phenotypes of their ancestor spirits, totems, parent ancestors, demiour heroes and trickster heroes, stored and protected them in space and time, followed them, imitated them, developed them in their mythological, mythopoetic and abstract thinking and cultural and cult life activity, turned them into archetypes of a clan, people, ethnic group, race.

That is why, in different places of the Oikumene, communities, clans, phratries, tribes, peoples, ethnic groups and races of primitive people inevitably, naturally and necessarily arise with exemplary, stable in time and space, but diverse phenotypes and hereditary genotypes - haplogroups (haploid groups).

A haplogroup is a group of similar haplotypes that have a common ancestor, whose haplotypes had the same mutation (single nucleoid polymorphism).

The author deliberately does not reveal in detail the content of scientific definitions and concepts, leaving this fascinating matter for the most inquisitive, assiduous and persistent readers and researchers. For the purposes and objectives of the “Chronology”, in the author’s opinion, the given definitions are quite sufficient.

So, for example, for the purposes and objectives of “Chronology” it is absolutely necessary to know that haplogroups are Y-chromosomal (Y-DNA), mitochondrial (mtDNA) and MCG haplogroups.

Y-DNA genetic markers are transmitted with the Y chromosome exclusively through the paternal line, that is, from father to sons, but not to daughters.

Mitochondrial mtDNA markers are transmitted through the maternal line, that is, from the mother to all children, sons and daughters.

All female descendants are carriers only of the mtDNA markers of their mothers, grandmothers, and great-great-great-mothers.

All male descendants are carriers of Y-DNA markers of their fathers, grandfathers and mitochondrial mtDNA markers of their mothers, grandmothers, that is, great-great-great ancestors. (Remember this pattern - Author).

MHC or major histocompatibility complex markers are a large part of the genome or a large family of genes that ensure the development and functioning of the immune system. The major histocompatibility complex is an important factor in the formation of full-fledged offspring, a viable and vitally active population (haplogroup).

In the history of modern humanity, as a result of gene mutations, descendants (sons and daughters) were born from one pair of male and female people, who formed the corresponding Y-chromosomal (Y-DNA), mitochondrial (mtDNA) and MHC haplogroups.

There are many more open patterns of population genetics: “bottleneck effect” or “founder effect”, “genetic drift”, “random fluctuations of genes”, “classification of haplogroups”, “haplogroup tree”, “molecular clock”, etc.

As a result, it is possible to reconstruct the history and chronology of the emergence, formation and migrations of haplogroups (ethnic groups, peoples) of modern humanity.

To date, the development of modern population genetics and archaeogenetics, the most likely time of residence of the ancestor-founder of the Y-chromosomal (Y-DNA) male part of the haplogroup Homo sapiens sapiens - the entire race of modern humanity of the classical Cro-Magnons - is 138,000-136,000 BC.

This progenitor of the genotype and archetypal phenotype (in particular, external appearance) of all men of modern humanity on the paternal side is called in science (according to the biblical tradition) “Y-chromosomal Adam.” At the same time, the proto-Cro-Magnon forefather of the “Y-chromosomal Adam” himself lived on Earth, perhaps even in the period 579,000-235,000 BC.

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), as is known, is transmitted to all male and female children, but only through the maternal line and mutates more often.

The fact is that during the process of sexual generation, the future child (boy or girl) receives nuclear DNA genes equally - from the father and from the mother, and mitochondrial DNA - only from the mother’s egg, only from the mother. At the same time, mitochondrial mtDNA does not undergo half-recombination; changes in it can only occur as a result of rare random mutations.

The proto-Cro-Magnon forefather of the future “Mitochondrial Eve”, just like the great-ancestor of “Y-chromosomal Adam”, lived on Earth long before the birth of the ancestors of modern humanity - in the period 148,000-99,000 BC, with a maximum probability of 124 000-122,000 BC

The difference in the time of emergence and existence of the Y-DNA of “Y-chromosomal Adam” and mtDNA of “Mitochondrial Eve” is explained by the fact that in zoological harem families, when one male individual has several female wives or due to male-male dominance relationships, intimate communicates with an unlimited number of females, then he sharply limits the ability of other males to pass on their chromosomes (genes) to the next generations of the haplogroup.

At the same time, harem polygamy and/or promiscuity relationships (freedom of sexual relations) do not prevent females from passing on mtDNA to their children - boys and girls. This is why physically and genetically women are more “survivable” in their offspring along maternal genetic lines. In addition, males die for various reasons more often than females...

“Y-chromosomal Adam” and “Mitochondrial Eve” are abstract scientific structural-figurative names for a relatively homogeneous ancestral Proto-Cro-Magnon population of primitive people, whose descendants received the corresponding DNA along the direct genetic lines of paternity and maternity.

Moreover, in accordance with the indicated feature of the transfer of nuclear and mitochondrial DNA in the process of sexual generation of humans, it is likely and possible that all modern humanity received mitochondrial DNA from only one woman - the great-great-great-mother of “Mitochondrial Eve”.

The habitat of the said “Y-chromosomal Adam” and “Mitochondrial Eve” was determined by archaeogenetic scientists in East Africa, a vast region located along the East African Rift System, the largest land fault zone in the earth’s crust.

The male genetic descendants of the “Y-chromosomal Adam” directly became haplogroups A and B (VT).

During the period 120,000-75,000 BC. in Africa, as a result of the M91 mutation of the Y-DNA marker in one of the filial generations on the paternal side of the ancestral group “Y-chromosomal Adam,” haplogroup A or the male ancestral group “Adam” of Homo sapiens sapiens arose - the race of modern humanity of the classical Cro-Magnons.

Approximately 108,000-106,000 BC in another filial generation on the paternal side of the ancestral group of “Y-chromosomal Adam” in Africa, another male ancestral group-population “Adam” arose - haplogroup B (BT) of Homo sapiens sapiens - the race of modern humanity of the classical Cro-Magnons.

The predominant carriers of male Y-chromosomes (Y-DNA) of ancestral haplogroup A are the Khoisan, Bushmen and Sudanese.

The Khoisan or Khoisan peoples are a group of peoples of South Africa (Bushmen and Hottentots) who speak Khoisan languages ​​and/or belong to the Kapoid race or Bushman minor race within the greater African Negroid race.

"Khoi" in the Nama language means "man", and "San" means "Bushman" (man of the steppe). As a result, we get the words-concepts: “man of the steppe people”, ancestor, first ancestor, progenitor or “who who”, “someone”, “whoy who”, “someone”, “why?” and “san” - dignified, dignitary, chief, first, dignified, proud, important.

Bushmen or San, Sa, Sonkwa, Masarwa, Basarwa, Kua is the generally accepted name for the oldest indigenous inhabitants of South Africa, the Kapoid or Bushman small race as part of the large African Negroid race, living the traditional way of life of primitive hunters and gatherers, speaking Khoisan languages.

The Bushmen are actually a real, valid and ancient ethnos (ethnotype) of the original male ancestral haplogroup A - carriers of the hereditary phenotypes and genotypes of the “Adams” of Homo sapiens sapiens - the race of modern humanity of the classical Cro-Magnons.

The Bushmen belong to the capoid race or the Bushmen small race, they differ from the classic representatives of the large African Negroid race, and even more so from the representatives of the Equatorial or Australasian Negroid race, with lighter skin of a reddish tint, short stature (up to 150 cm), Mongoloid facial features, thin lips, a tendency to early formation of wrinkles on the face.

The Bushmen do not have a self-name, but in the language of “Nama” (the Hottentot people related to the Bushmen), their name “san” can mean the concepts: “stranger”, “outcast”, “outsider”, “backward”, “underdeveloped”, “inept”.

Initially, from the moment of its emergence and for a long time (120,000-5000 BC), the Khoisan peoples of haplogroup A lived and live in South Africa isolated from the rest of the population of the Oikumene (inhabited world). There are even local groups of Khoisan who have not communicated with each other and have not bred together for 30,000 years.

Haplogroup A has subclades (genetic branches) A1, A2, A3 and A00 - one of the probable oldest populations of Afro-Eurasians of a certain haplogroup A-T, which arose perhaps 300,000-250,000 BC.

The carriers of Y-chromosomes (Y-DNA) of haplogroup B (BT) of another paternal line of the ancestral group “Y-chromosomal Adam” are men of almost all other peoples of the Oikumene (inhabited world).

These “Adams” of haplogroup B (BT) are the first originators from Africa (75,000 BC), the first fathers, ancestors, first founders of the Y-chromosomal (Y-DNA) male part of all other haplogroups of Homo sapiens sapiens - the race of modern humanity of the classical Cro-Magnons .

The habitat of the “Adams” or the ancestors of men of haplogroup B (HT) are the territories located to the north and east of the South African deserts (savanas) of the Namib. Here in the period 160,000-120,000 BC. inhabited by ancient African hunters and gatherers who communicated with each other in Khoisan clicking languages.

A certain carrier of the great-grandparent Y-DNA of “Y-chromosomal Adam” in the period 59,000-57,000 BC. met with a certain “Mitochondrial Eve”, a carrier of ancestral mtDNA, and together with her gave birth to the entire modern genetic diversity of haplogroups of men and women Homo sapiens sapiens - the entire race of modern humanity, the classical Cro-Magnons.

As a result of evolutionary development, migrations and active communication of the indigenous population of East Africa (possibly robbery of female females), the Y-chromosomes (Y-DNA) of haplogroup B (VT) were concentrated in the territory of the future Ethiopia and Sudan and were preserved in their original form in isolated Ethiopian, Nilo-Sudanese and Pygmy populations.

Here in East Africa, along the maternal ancestral line, the “Mitochondrial Eve” (mtDNA) haplogroups arose - L0, L1, L2, L3, L4, L5, L6, L7.

One of them is the ancestral haplogroup L3 of Homo sapiens sapiens - the race of modern humanity of the classical Cro-Magnons - formed in the period 104,000-84,000 BC. In other regions of Africa, the vast majority belongs to the African maternal mitochondrial haplogroups L1 and L2.

The ancestral maternal haplogroup L3 of Homo sapiens sapiens - the race of modern humanity of the classical Cro-Magnons - will become the ancestor of several and specifically two daughter haplogroups - M and N, from whose women children (offspring) will be born, the future mothers of the majority of all modern non-African peoples (European, Asian, Indian ).

The ancestral haplogroup L3 has 13 subclades and a large number of subgroups.

At this time (50,000-49,000 BC) in the Saharan savannah, in areas near the west-central African rainforest among the Pygmies (Baka, Mbuti) and Hadza in central-eastern Africa, as a result of M60 mutations, M181 Y-DNA marker in one of the filial generations on the paternal side of the ancestral group “Adams” of the BT haplogroup Homo sapiens sapiens - the race of modern humanity of the classical Cro-Magnons - the ancient Y-chromosomal haplogroup B (Y-DNA) arose.

Pygmies are African peoples, tribes or groups of the large African Negroid race, distinguished by their very small stature, which is why they are called “fist-sized people” or “Negrilli”.

The height of adult male pygmies is from 144 to 150 cm, pygmy skin is light brown, hair is curly, dark, lips are relatively thin. The pygmy phenotype classifies them as a distinct African race (subrace).

In appearance, African pygmies are close to the Negritos of South and Southeast Asia, some islands of Melanesia and the northeastern regions of Australia. However, in terms of genotype, African and other “pygmies” have great differences.

The average population of African pygmies is relatively large (up to 280,000 people), since they live in areas of equatorial tropical forests, where they can live secretly and relatively safely for a long time.

The small physical size and capabilities of the pygmies naturally, inevitably, undoubtedly influenced and are influencing their relationships with other surrounding peoples, which is why (perhaps) they lost their pygmy languages ​​and speak the languages ​​of the surrounding peoples (Efe, Asua, Bambuti). Only the pygmy people (ethnic group) “Baka” will retain their native language.

The Pygmies of the Oecumene lead a purely traditional way of life as primitive hunters and gatherers of the subequatorial, equatorial, and tropical zones (regions, regions, districts).

The predominant carrier of Y-DNA haplogroup B is the extremely small African people “Hadza” (800 people in 2000 AD). The Hadza live in the north of modern Tanzania near Lake Eyasi.

The isolation of the Hadza people (Hadzapi, Hadzabe, Hatsa, Kindiga, Vankindiga, Watindiga, Tindiga, Kangeju - cut off, separate) is manifested and conclusively confirmed by the presence of their special isolated, but living and active independent language "Hadza", as well as the absence of pronounced family ties with other African peoples.

The Hadza people, through the male line of haplogroup B, are genetically more related to the West African pygmies (Mbuti, Aka), and phenotypically to the Khoisan peoples of East Africa. On the maternal side, the Hadza people belong to haplogroups L2 (Pygmies) and L3 (East African peoples).

Probably, at this time (50,000-49,000 BC), the original Hadza clan (people) was the carrier of the genotypes of male and female haplogroups B2b and L3a1.

The Hadza, like the pygmies, lead an exclusively traditional lifestyle of primitive hunters and gatherers.

Y-chromosomal haplogroup B of the African Pygmies, Hadza and Khoizan has 18 subclades and subgroups.

The author will tell you in more detail about the phenotype, morals, customs and life activities of indigenous African peoples in subsequent chapters of the “Chronology”...