Artistic creativity and folklore of Ukrainians. Ukrainian folklore What is folklore in Ukrainian

Cooking in a slow cooker

21.06.2018

Musicality is one of the characteristic features of the Ukrainian people.

Music in Ukraine appeared during the times of Kievan Rus and in its development covers almost all types of musical art - folk and professional, academic and popular music. Today, a variety of Ukrainian music sounds in Ukraine and far beyond its borders, develops in folk and professional traditions, and is the subject of scientific research.

folk music

Initial period of development

Musical traditions on the territory of modern Ukraine have existed since prehistoric times. Musical instruments found by Kyiv archaeologists near Chernigov - rattles made from mammoth tusks - date back to the 18th millennium BC. The flutes found at the Molodovo site in the Chernivtsi region date back to the same time.

The frescoes of Sophia of Kyiv (11th century) depict musicians playing various wind, percussion and string instruments (similar to harps and lutes), as well as dancing buffoons. These frescoes testify to the genre diversity of the musical culture of Kievan Rus. Chronicle mentions of the singers Boyan and Mitus date back to the 12th century.

In general, primitive music was syncretic in nature - song, dance and poetry were fused and most often accompanied rituals, ceremonies, labor processes, etc. In the minds of people, music and musical instruments played an important role as amulets during spells and prayers. People saw music as protection from evil spirits, from bad sleep, from the evil eye. There were also special magical melodies to ensure soil fertility and livestock fertility.

In the primitive game, soloists and other singers began to stand out. The development of primitive music became the source from which folk musical culture arose. This music gave rise to national musical systems and national characteristics of the musical language.

The original national style is most fully represented by the songs of the central Dnieper region. They are characterized by melodic ornamentation and vowel vocalization. Connections with Belarusian and Russian folklore are clearly visible in the folklore of Polesie.

In the Carpathian region and the Carpathians, special song styles developed. They are defined as Hutsul and Lemko dialects.

Ukrainian folk songs are divided into many different genres, which have certain characteristics. In this understanding, the most typical genres of Ukrainian song are:

Calendar-ritual- vesnyanka, shchedrivka, haivka, carols, Kupala, obzhinkovka and others

Family ritual And household- wedding, comic, dance (including kolomiykas), ditties, lullabies, funerals, lamentations, etc.

Serf life- Chumatsky, Naimite, Burlatsky, etc.;
Historical songs And Duma
Soldier's life- recruits, soldiers, streltsy;
Lyrical songs and ballads.

Dumas and historical songs

In the 15th-16th centuries, historical thoughts and songs became one of the most striking phenomena of Ukrainian folk music, a unique symbol of national history and culture.

The creators and performers of historical songs and thoughts, psalms, and cants were called kobzars. They played kobzas or banduras, which became an element of the national heroic-patriotic epic, the freedom-loving character and purity of the moral thoughts of the people.

Great attention was paid to the fight against the Turks and Poles. The “Tatar” cycle includes such well-known thoughts as “About Samoil the Cat”, “About the Three Azov Brothers”, “About the Storm on the Black Sea”, “About Marusya Boguslavka” and others. In the “Polish” cycle, the central place is occupied by the events of the People's Liberation War of 1648-1654, and folk heroes - Nechai, Krivonos, Khmelnytsky - occupy a special place. Later, new cycles of thoughts appeared - about the Swede, about the Sich and its destruction, about work on the canals, about the Haidamatchina, about the gentry and freedom.

Already in the XIV-XVII and XVIII centuries, Ukrainian musicians became famous outside of Ukraine. Their names can be found in the chronicles of those times among court musicians, including at the court of the Polish kings and Russian emperors. The most famous kobzars are Timofey Belogradsky (famous lutenist, 18th century), Andrey Shut (19th century), Ostap Veresai (19th century), etc.

Folk musicians united in brotherhoods: song workshops, which had their own charter and protected their interests. These brotherhoods especially developed in the 17th-18th centuries, and existed until the very beginning of the 20th century, until their destruction by the Soviet regime.

Instrumental folklore and folk instruments

Instrumental folklore occupies an important place in Ukrainian musical culture. The musical instrumentation of Ukraine is very rich and diverse. It includes a wide range of wind, string and percussion instruments. A significant part of Ukrainian folk musical instruments comes from instruments from the times of Rus'; other instruments (for example, the violin) were adopted on Ukrainian soil later, although they then became the basis of new traditions and performance features.

The most ancient layers of Ukrainian instrumental folklore are associated with calendar holidays and rituals, which were accompanied by marching (marches for processions, congratulatory marches) and dance music (gopachki, kozachki, kolomiykas, polkas, waltzes, doves, lassos, etc.) and song music. instrumental music for listening. Traditional ensembles most often consisted of triplets of instruments, such as the violin, sniffle and tambourine. Performing music also involves a certain amount of improvisation.

During prayers in everyday conditions (in the house, on the street, near the church), the lyre, kobza and bandura were often used to accompany cants and psalms.

During the Zaporozhye Sich, the orchestras of the Zaporozhian Army sounded timpani, drums, Cossack antimonies and trumpets, and timpani were among the kleinods of the Zaporozhye Sich, that is, they were among the symbols of Cossack statehood.

Instrumental music also became an integral part of urban culture. In addition to national instruments such as violins and banduras, urban culture is represented by such instruments as the table-like harp, zither, and torban. To their accompaniment they sang songs of praise, city songs and romances, and religious chants.

Ukrainian folklore

Family ritual poetry - songs and ritual play actions - weddings (vesy't), at christenings and funerals (funeral golostnya, plagg) - was very developed in the early periods of the history of Ukraine. Like calendar-ritual poetry, it* pursued the goal of influencing natural phenomena hostile to the human worker and ensuring his well-being in economic and personal life. Ukrainian wedding songs and play performances, just like Russian and Belarusian ones, form a single highly poetic artistic whole; they represent a folk drama, developing according to the main components of the wedding.

Ancient genres of Ukrainian folk poetry are riddles (riddles), proverbs (adv. npunoeidnu) and sayings (orders). The class character of proverbs and sayings, the social ideals and aspirations of the working people were especially clearly reflected in those of them that were directed against the feudal serfs, the church and religion, tsarism and the tsar, landowners, capitalists and kulaks.

The Ukrainian fairy-tale epic is exceptionally rich, including both fairy tales themselves (about animals - animal epics, bikes, fantastic-heroic, novelistic), and various types of legends, traditions, anecdotes and fables. The main characters of fairy tales, their clothes, tools, and way of life provide a lot of educational material about Ukrainian society of the era of feudalism and capitalism. The heroes of fantastic fairy tales - heroes (“1van - muzhik sin”, “Chabanets”, “Kirilo Kozhumyaka”, “Kotigoroshko”, etc.) - successfully fight against terrible monsters that destroy people and the results of their labor, often using the friendship of animals and birds, sympathy and help of nature (“squeezing water”, etc.), as well as wonderful objects (“choboti-quick-walkers”, “flying ship”, etc.). Individual fairy tales (for example, “Kirilo Kozhumyaka”, “Illya Murin” - a development of the plot of the ancient Russian epic about Ilya Muromets), folk legends, stories and legends about the origin of the names of rivers and settlements contain information of historical and educational significance.

Folk heroic epic - thoughts.Development of folklore before the Great October Revolution

In the conditions of the heroic struggle of the broad masses of Ukraine in the XV-XVI centuries. against feudal-serf oppression, against the Turkish, Tatar and Polish-gentry invaders, the genre of large poetic epic and epico-lyrical folk works - dumas (the first recording was made in 1684), telling about the courage, love of freedom and hard work of the Ukrainian people, their unbreakable friendship with the great Russian people.

The Dumas belong to the best examples of Ukrainian folk heroic epic; they are dedicated to the brightest pages of the true historical reality of Ukraine in the 15th-20th centuries. Most of the thoughts have been created on the events of the 16th-17th centuries. The Dumas paint images of courageous peasant warriors and Cossacks guarding the borders of their native land, patriots suffering in captivity or dealing with Ukrainian and foreign lords (“Kozak Golota”, “Otaman Matyash old”, “Ivas Udovichenko-Konovchenko”, “Samshlo Shshka” and etc.). The events of the period of the liberation war of 1648-1654 occupy a special place in thoughts. (“Khmelnytskyi and Barabash”, “Rebellion against the Polish plows”, etc.). Epic and historical heroes of the thoughts of the 15th-17th centuries, as well as Russian heroic epics, are endowed with heroic strength, great intelligence, ingenuity, and resourcefulness. They defeat enemies in duels (“Kozak Golota”), single-handedly confront numerous enemy invaders, defeat them or take them prisoner (“Otaman Matyash the Old”, etc.); the thoughts express the deeply popular idea that neglect of the masses, their experience and advice inevitably leads the “hero” to a shameful death (“Widow S1rchikha - 1vanikha”, etc.). Many thoughts (“Cossack Life”, “Cossack Netyaga Fesko Ganzha Andiber”, “Sister and Brother”, “Common Widow and Three Blues”, etc.) talk about the hard life of the masses, their meager food, bad clothes, poor housing, depict acute social conflicts. The Dumas sharply condemn robbery and oppression, cruelty, money-grubbing, and greed. The beautiful image of the native land - Ukraine, created by the people in their thoughts - is the best proof of the high humanism and deep patriotism characteristic of this type of epic.

Thoughts as epics are characterized by a strong lyrical coloring; the narration is usually carried out in them with passionate emotion. Dumas are performed with a solo song recitative (singing recitation), with the obligatory accompaniment of a folk musical instrument - kobza (bandura) or lyre. The verse and stanza (verse) of doom are distinguished by great freedom of size (verse from 5-6 to 19-20 syllables, stanza from 2-3 to 9-12 verses), which creates opportunities for further improvisation and variation. The composition of thoughts is harmonious (beginning - narration - ending); The narrative is characterized by slowdowns and lyrical digressions. The constant stanza is replaced by a free stanza-tirade (ledge), with free, mainly verbal rhymes; after the end of the stanza-tirade, a musical refrain follows. Dumas are works of an improvisational nature; Not a single folk singer - kobzar or lyre player - repeats or strives to repeat canonically the text and melody of a given work, but treats them creatively, constantly changing, supplementing or shortening them. There are many known kobzars-improvisers of dumas, among whom such virtuosos as Ivan Strichka (first half of the 19th century), Ostap Veresai, Andrey Shut (mid and second half of the 19th century), Ivan Kravchenko (Kryukovsky), Fyodor Gritsenko (Kholodny) stood out. (second half of the 19th century), Mikhailo Kravchenko, Gnat Goncharenko, Tereshko Parkhomenko and others (late 19th - early 20th centuries).

Workers of Ukraine in the XV-XVII centuries. They also created historical songs of an epic-heroic and lyric-epic nature, historical heroic legends, traditions and stories. They were a kind of response to the most important events. These are songs about Turkish-Tatar raids, captivity and captivity, about the courage of people’s fighters against foreign yoke (for example, “To Tsarigrad1 to the little market” - about Baida, etc.), historical stories and legends about the atrocities of Turkish-Tatar and Polish invaders in Ukraine , about the courage and resourcefulness of the Ukrainian population and especially the Zaporizhzhya Cossacks, songs about the reprisal of the Cossack naivety against the rich duks who tried to mock the Cossacks (“Chorna Khmara came, becoming a plank ira”, etc.). Especially many such works were created about the events of the eve and period of the people's liberation war of 1648-1654. (for example, about the national heroes of this time Bogdan Khmelnytsky, Maxim Krivonos, Danil Nechai, Ivan Bohun, etc.)*

Patriotic upsurge of the people in the mid-17th century, reunification

Ukraine and Russia left a big mark on many types of folk poetry. The wide spread of folk theater - puppet theater and theater of live actors, as well as short lyrical, mainly satirical and humorous, ditties and kolomyykas, in which the enslavers of the Ukrainian people were ridiculed and images of the Zaporozhye and Don Cossacks - brave and brave fighters against oppression and violence.

The joint struggle of the Russian and Ukrainian peoples against the autocratic-serfdom system during the popular movements of Stepan Razin, Kondraty Bulavin, and later Emelyan Pugachev, was reflected in extensive anti-feudal, anti-serfdom poetry. Songs and legends about the son of Stepan Razin were also composed in Ukraine (“The child came from behind a big stone,” “Kozak Gerasim”). During the XVII-XVIII centuries. songs and legends were created about the courageous heroes of the joint struggle of Russians and Ukrainians against Turkish-Tatar aggression (about Ivan Sirko, Semyon Palia), about the struggle against the Swedish invasion and about the traitor Mazepa, about the capture of Azov, about victories over Turkish invaders in the first half of the 18th century century, about the great Russian commander A.V. Suvorov, etc. To be strengthened by the Russian autocracy in the 18th century. The Ukrainian people responded to feudal-serf oppression with numerous peasant uprisings, which were accompanied by the rise of anti-feudal folk art - new songs, stories and legends about the heroes of this struggle - the Haidamaks (for example, “About Sava Chaly and Gnat Goly”, etc.), opryshkas (about Oleks Dovbush; related to them are Slovak songs about Janosik, Bulgarian and Moldavian songs about haiduks), about the heroes of Koliyivshchyna - Maxim Zaliznyak, Nikita Shvachka and others, about the uprising in the village. Turbai 1789-1793 (“Bazilevshch conceived”, etc.).

During this period, anti-feudal songs about serf bondage and feudal tyranny, songs of recruits and soldiers, Chumatsky, burlatsky (farm laborers), many of which are lyrical-epic, historical or everyday, became widespread during this period; ballad songs are created on historical subjects (“About Bondar1vnu”), folk satirical poems directed against representatives of the ruling class - lords, judges, priests, etc. In narrative folklore, realistic social and everyday short stories, anecdotes, legends and stories begin to occupy a leading place , brightly illuminating the antagonistic class relations of feudal society (the favorite hero is the serf or “free” poor peasant, the homeless barge hauler, the wise soldier).

During this period, especially a lot of social and family-related sincere, sad, lyrical songs (choral and solo), as well as songs about family life - rodipt, about love - about kohannya, were created during this period. A large group consists of comic songs (, zhart1vlie(), humorous and satirical. Since the 18th century, Ukrainian lyrical songs have been especially widely distributed among the Russian people, and Russian ones among the Ukrainian people, which contributed to the mutual enrichment of the cultures of the two fraternal peoples and their rapprochement. Later, widespread dissemination in Songs of Russian and Ukrainian poets are receiving folk repertoire; the poetic form of literary song increasingly influences the form of folk lyrical song (romance songs).

In the first half of the 19th century. The Ukrainian people reflected in their folklore the events of the Patriotic War of 1812 (songs about M.I. Kutuzov, M.I. Platov, etc.), the struggle against serfdom and the heroes of this struggle (numerous songs, legends and stories about the leader of the peasants uprisings in Podolia Ustim Karmalyuk and the Western Ukrainian oprichk Myron Shtola, about the outstanding revolutionary figure of Bukovina Lukyan Kobylitsa, etc.). The first samples of workers’ songs become known (“Maidan workers are mongers, yes ripKa your share"); The genre of short songs - ditties and kolomyykas of the most varied content - is flourishing.

The emergence of the working class in the historical arena led to the development of a new type of folk poetry - working-class folklore. Already in the 70-80s of the 19th century*, work songs and kolomyykas were recorded and published, reflecting capitalist exploitation, protest and early forms of struggle of the working class (songs “Oh chi will, chi bondage”, “Yak u Karl1vshch na Zavod>, well-known legends about Shubin - the “owner” of the mines, etc.). Among workers, folk dramatic ideas about the struggle against despotism (Ukrainian versions of folk dramas “The Boat”, “Tsar MaximShan”, etc.) are becoming widespread.

During the proletarian period of the liberation movement, the leading motives of Ukrainian workers' folklore, which spread in the Ukrainian, Russian and partly Polish languages and thereby acquired an international character, became revolutionary calls for the overthrow of the autocracy and the power of capital, the chanting of the socialist ideal, proletarian internationalism (“International”, Russian , Ukrainian and Polish editions of “Varshavyanka”, “Rage, Tyrants” and its Ukrainian original - “Shalshte, shalshte, Kati will say”, Russian, Ukrainian and Polish text of “The Red Banner”).

At the beginning of the 20th century. Ukrainian revolutionary songs are created (“Zberemos mi pol’”, “Well, khmara, get up”, “One hmara i3 village, and the other z m1sta”, etc.), vivid stories and songs about the events of the first people's revolution in Russia 1905-1907, about the faithful sons of the people - the Bolsheviks, about the First World War (“Karpati, Karpati Velikp Gori”), about the overthrow of the autocracy in 1917.

So, folk art, which had a pronounced revolutionary character, was generated by the events of the socio-political life of the country and invariably accompanied class actions of the workers.

Ukrainian Soviet folklore

The victory of the Great October Socialist Revolution brought fundamental changes to the character of Ukrainian folk poetry and caused the rise of the socialist in content of the poetic creativity of the millions of Ukrainian people, which developed on the basis of Soviet ideology. Ukrainian folk poetry of the post-October period reflected the most important events of Soviet reality - from the victory of the Great October Revolution to the events of the Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945. and the period of extensive construction of communism. The people praise the great party of communists, V.I. Lenin, labor heroism, the struggle for world peace, the seven-year plan of 1959-1965, friendship of peoples, proletarian internationalism and socialist patriotism.

Radical changes have occurred in traditional genres and types of Ukrainian folk poetry; The old ritual poetry has almost completely died out. At the same time, new songs, thoughts, fairy tales, tales, stories, as well as folk poems on the themes of the Great October Socialist Revolution, the civil war and the fight against foreign invaders are being widely created (for example, the fairy tale “Lenska Pravda”, songs and legends about Lenin, heroes civil war - Chapaev, Shchors, Kotovsky, about partisans, heroes of the Great Patriotic War, etc., tales - onoeidi, often conducted from one person and having elements of memory). Along with heroic works, anecdotes, satirical and humorous short stories ridiculing various enemies of the Soviet state (White Guard generals, Petliura, interventionists, Pilsudski, Japanese samurai, Hitler, etc.), remnants of capitalism and religious prejudices, carriers of negative everyday phenomena ( truants, quitters, careless people, drunkards).

A special flourishing of Soviet Ukrainian folk poetry is observed in the field of songs, ditties and kolomyykas, proverbs and sayings reflecting the main events and phenomena of everyday life in the country of the Soviets (songs: about the events of October and the Civil War - “Zozulenka has arrived”, "3i6 paB Shchors zagsh inveterate”; about Lenin; about the construction of socialism - “Oh, chervonp kvggki”, “Zakurshi Bci backwater"; about the liberation of Western Ukrainian lands and their reunification with Soviet Ukraine - “The People's Vlada Has Arrived”, “Rozkvggae Bukovina”, etc.; about the Great Patriotic War - “We stood up for the freedom of the land”, “Our Lanka is front-line”, etc.; about the post-war period, the construction of communism, the struggle for peace - “Shd 3 opi Komuni yash”, “Mi wantemo mir”, etc.).

The genre of dumas underwent great changes in Soviet times, which now have a lot of new things in poetic form (dumas of song, epic form and type of poetic tale); the nature of their chants changed (they became more generalizing), slowdowns in the narration almost disappeared, etc. Soviet kobzars (Ivan Zaporozhchenko, Petro Drevchenko, Fyodor Kushnerik, Yegor Movchan, Vladimir Perepelyuk, etc.) created a number of dumas on modern subjects (for example, a thought about V.I. Lenin - “Who is that soksh, comrade?”).

The Ukrainian people have brought forward many talented poets, composers and singers from among themselves (for example, Pavlo Dmitriev-Kabanov from Donetsk, Olga Dobakhova from the Zhytomyr region, Khristina Litvinenko from the Poltava region, Frosina Karpenko from the Dnepropetrovsk region, etc.) demonstrating their art at numerous district, city, regional and republican amateur art shows, which, like song and dance festivals, have become an everyday tradition. Many factory and collective farm choirs, unit choirs, propaganda and cultural brigades, and amateur ensembles created the texts and music of some songs, ditties and kolomykas.

Both Soviet and pre-October folk poetry was and is widely used by Ukrainian and Russian writers, composers, and artists. Many images and motifs of pre-October Ukrainian folklore were used in the works of a number of outstanding writers, especially N.V. Gogol, T.G. Shevchenko, I.Ya. Franko, M.M. Kotsyubinsky, P.A. Grabovsky, Lesya Ukrainka, composers - N. V. Lysenko, N. D. Leontovich, artists - V. A. Tropinin, I. E. Repin,

S. I. Vasilkovsky, N. S. Samokish, A. G. Slastion and many others. The most striking examples today are the works of Soviet Ukrainian writers M. Rylsky, P. Tychyna, A. Malyshko, M. Stelmakh, composers K. Dankevich, A. Shtogarenko, S. Lyudkevich, P. Mayboroda, artists I. Izhakevich, M. Deregus and others.

Ukrainian folk poetry has absorbed a lot from Russian and Belarusian folk poetry, and many of its motifs and works have entered the work of the fraternal - Russian and Belarusian - peoples. It was and is in close relationship both with the creativity of these peoples and with the creativity of the Polish, Slovak, Moldavian and other peoples. All this indicates that Ukrainian folk poetry was and is of great importance in mutual understanding and bringing together the working masses on the basis of socialist patriotism and internationalism.

We find individual mysteries in the literature of the Middle Ages - in Kievan Rus in the works of Daniil Zatochnik; from the philosophers of the Kyiv school of the Renaissance (Ipaty Potiy, Stanislav Orikhovsky, Ivan Kalimon, etc.). They gained particular popularity in the 17th - 18th centuries, when literary riddles were created by Boileau, Rousseau and others. A new wave of interest in riddles was associated, on the one hand, with the development of romanticism in literature, especially in Germany (Brentano, Hauff, etc.), and on the other hand, with an appeal to national roots combined with romanticism, the beginning of collecting, recording and publishing samples of folk art. The collection and publication of Ukrainian folk riddles began in the first half of the 19th century: G. Ilkevich “Galician sayings and riddles” (Vienna, 1841), A. Semenovsky “Little Russian and Galician riddles”; M. Nomis “Ukrainian sayings, proverbs and so on” (1864), P. Chubinsky “Proceedings of the ethnographic-statistical expedition...” (1877), etc. Ivan Franko is the author of the first, unfortunately, unfinished study on Ukrainian mysteries “ Remains of a primitive worldview in Russian and Polish folk mysteries" (Zarya, 1884). In Ukrainian folklore, the riddle remains an insufficiently studied genre. The riddle not only influenced the work of individual Ukrainian poets who wrote the corresponding original works (L. Glebov, Yu. Fedkovich, I. Franko, S. Vasilchenko), it forms the basis of poetic tropes, which is confirmed by the lyrics of P. Tychyna, B.I. Antonich, V. Goloborodko, I. Kalints, Vera Vovk, M. Vorobyov, M. Grigoriev and others.

Proverbs and sayings

Duma

The beginning of the Ukrainian collection of poetic Cossack thoughts is considered to be the 16th century. The first recording of Ukrainian folk song can be dated from the second half of the same century (1571 in the grammar of Jan Blahoslav). Simultaneously with these attempts at folk versification, a new type of folk song emerged: duma. This is a new Cossack epic, which completely replaced the hundred-Ukrainian epic, the remnants of which remained in prose translations or in the form of verse. The thoughts themselves were collected and written down for the first time in the 19th century. The oldest mention of the Duma is in the chronicle (“Annals”, 1587) of the Polish historian S. Sarnicki, the oldest text of the Duma was found in the Krakow archive by M. Wozniak in the 20s in Kondratsky’s collection (1684) “Cossack Golota”. Currently, only references to the thoughts of the 16th century have been preserved in various written sources, but there is not a single complete text today. In the annals of Sarnitsky we can find out that Ukrainians sang dumas already at the beginning of the 16th century, these were thoughts about the heroic death of the Strus brothers, however, unfortunately, this chronicler did not add a single line of this duma to the annals. More successful regarding the data that has been preserved about thoughts is the 17th century.

Historical songs can be defined as a genre of small epic. Forming at first spontaneously in the bosom of other genres of song creativity, historical song (like duma) reaches its culmination in the 17th-18th centuries. - in the era of the Cossacks in Ukraine. She tends to closely observe historical events and the fates of specific heroes. The genre of "historical song" is known to all Slavic peoples. This is a lyric-epic work dedicated to a specific historical event or famous historical figure. It should be noted that this is not a chronicle of events, not a document in which facts play an important role; This is a work of art, so creative speculation is possible in it. The main requirement for a historical song is to correctly reflect the era, the essence of the era, its spirit, and national orientation. Historical songs are smaller in volume than dumas, but larger than lyrical songs. The epic character is manifested in the story of events that are depicted objectively, but without a clear recording of events, the lives of historical characters. The songs contain symbolism, hyperbole, and emotional and evaluative elements. N. Gogol introduced the concept of “historical song” into Ukrainian folklore in his article “On Little Russian Songs” (1833). He points out the defining feature of this genre: “they do not break away from life for a moment and ... always correspond to the present state of feelings.” Among the features of historical songs it is also worth noting: showing important social events and historical figures; a short story about them; the presence of outdated words and expressions; strophic or couplet construction.

Ballad

Fairy tales

Legends

The most widespread genre of European medieval literature (starting from the 6th century), formed in Catholic writing mainly as the life of a saint, written on the day of his memory, or as a collection of instructive stories about the lives of holy martyrs, confessors, saints, saints, hermits, stylites, called “ Patericon." In Western European countries, a collection of Christian legends was especially popular in the 13th and 14th centuries. entitled “Golden Legend” (“Legenda aurea”), translated into many languages.

Proverbs

A parable is an instructive allegorical (allegorical) story. In contrast to the polysemy of interpretation of a fable, a certain didactic idea is concentrated in the parable. The parable is widely used in the Gospel, expressing spiritual instructions in allegorical form, such as the “parables of Solomon,” which, following the psalter, became widespread during the times of Kievan Rus. Particularly popular is “The Tale of Varlaam and Yosaf,” which became the subject of I. Franko’s scientific studio. This genre had a great influence on his work; it is not for nothing that original parables form the compositional basis of his collection “My Izmaragd” (1898). Modern poets also turn to the parable (D. Pavlichko, Lina Kostenko, etc.). The parable genre was also reflected in Ukrainian painting, in particular in a series of drawings by T. Shevchenko. In modern European literature, the parable has become one of the means of expressing the moral and philosophical reflections of the writer, often contrary to generally accepted ideas and prevailing ideas in society. Here the parable does not depict, but communicates a certain idea, based on the principle of a parabola: the narrative, as it were, moves away from a given time space and, moving along a curve, returns back, illuminating the phenomenon of artistic comprehension in the philosophical and aesthetic aspect (B. Brecht, J. P. Sartre, A. Camus, etc.) An example of this is Kafka and his “Works for Readers”. In such a new quality, the parable is also observed in the works of modern Ukrainian writers, in particular V. Shevchuk (“House on the Mountain”, “On the Humble Field” and others).

We find individual mysteries in the literature of the Middle Ages - in Kievan Rus in the works of Daniil Zatochnik; from the philosophers of the Kyiv school of the Renaissance (Ipaty Potiy, Stanislav Orikhovsky, Ivan Kalimon, etc.). They gained particular popularity in the 17th - 18th centuries, when literary riddles were created by Boileau, Rousseau and others. A new wave of interest in riddles was associated, on the one hand, with the development of romanticism in literature, especially in Germany (Brentano, Hauff, etc.), and on the other hand, with an appeal to national roots combined with romanticism, the beginning of collecting, recording and publishing samples of folk art. The collection and publication of Ukrainian folk riddles began in the first half of the 19th century: G. Ilkevich “Galician sayings and riddles” (Vienna, 1841), A. Semenovsky “Little Russian and Galician riddles”; M. Nomis “Ukrainian sayings, proverbs and so on” (1864), P. Chubinsky “Proceedings of the ethnographic-statistical expedition ...” (1877), etc. Ivan Franko is the author of the first, unfortunately, unfinished study on Ukrainian mysteries “Remains of the primitive worldviews in Russian and Polish folk mysteries" (Zarya, 1884). In Ukrainian folklore, the riddle remains an insufficiently studied genre. The riddle not only influenced the work of individual Ukrainian poets who wrote the corresponding original works (L. Glebov, Yu. Fedkovich, I. Franko, S. Vasilchenko), it forms the basis of poetic tropes, which is confirmed by the lyrics of P. Tychyna, B.I. Antonich, V. Goloborodko, I. Kalints, Vera Vovk, M. Vorobyov, M. Grigoriev and others.

Examples:

The two brothers marvel at the water, but never get together.

The red yoke hung across the river.

The flow is filled, the flow hangs.

Spring is cheerful, summer is cool, spring is year, winter is warm.

Not a fire, but a blast

There is a club, and on the club there is a hut, and in this hut there are a lot of people.

I don’t eat anything or anything, let me drink some gasoline, I’ll marry all the horses I want.

Without arms, without legs, but he opens the gates.

Proverbs and sayings

The priceless treasures of Ukrainian folklore include proverbs and sayings - short, apt sayings. Proverbs and sayings are the generalized memory of the people, conclusions from life experience, which give the right to formulate views on ethics, morality, history and politics. In general, proverbs and sayings constitute a set of rules that a person should follow in everyday life. They rarely state a certain fact, rather they recommend or warn, approve or condemn, in a word, they teach, because behind them stands the authority of generations of our people, whose inexhaustible talent, high aesthetic sense and sharp mind now continue to multiply and enrich the spiritual heritage that has accumulated over the centuries. A proverb is a small form of folk poetry, which has been transformed into a short, rhythmic statement carrying a generalized opinion, conclusion, allegory with a didactic slant. In folklore, proverbs and sayings are designated by the term paremia. In medieval Europe, collections of proverbs were compiled; About three dozen handwritten collections compiled in the 13th and early 15th centuries have reached us. For example, the collection of so-called “Villani proverbs” includes a number of six-part hexa-verses, each of which is presented as a peasant proverb. The whole thing is distinguished by a rare rhythmic and thematic homogeneity. The compiler of this collection, a certain cleric from the family of Philip of Alsace in the 13th century, more than once became the subject of adaptation or imitation. Texts of this kind are found until the 15th century, sometimes with illustrations: then the proverb serves as a caption to the drawing.

A proverb is a genre of folk prose, a short, stable figurative expression of a stating nature, having a one-member structure, which often forms part of a proverb, but without a conclusion. Used figuratively.

For example: The truth stings the eyes. The berry is not from our field.

The peculiarity of the saying is that it is usually attached to what is said as an aphoristic illustration. Unlike a proverb, it is a kind of generalization. Often a proverb is an abbreviation of a proverb. In the western regions of Ukraine, proverbs and sayings are combined into one concept - “sayings”.

Examples:

Living life is not a field to cross.

Without hedgehogs and oxen you won’t be able to stretch.

The bird is red in its feathers, and the human is red in its knowledge.

A head without reason is like a shed without a candle.

Whoever shames your own language, let him shame himself.

A small price for a great deal of idleness.

Take care and preserve honor in your youth, and health in your old age.

The good and the tavern are not captured, and the evil and the church cannot be directed.

Duma

In particular, Kondratsky’s handwritten collection preserves four examples of Ukrainian duma creativity: “Cossack Netyaga”, “The Death of Koretsky” and two examples of humorous parodies of dumas. The name of the Duma was introduced into scientific terminology by M. Maksimovich, who, like M. Tsertelev, P. Lukashevich, A. Metlinsky, P. Kulish, carried out the first publications of the Dumas. The first scientific collection of thoughts with variants and commentary was published by V. Antonovich and M. Drahomanov (“Historical songs of the Little Russian people”, 1875). Fundamental research into dumas was left by folklorist-musicologist F. Kolessa, who in 1908 led a special expedition to the Poltava region organized by Lesya Ukrainka with a phonograph to record the repertoire of kobzars (“Melodies of Ukrainian Folk Dumas”, “Ukrainian Folk Dumas”). The most thorough scientific publication of thoughts in the 20th century. carried out by Ekaterina Grushevskaya (“Ukrainian People’s Dumas”), but it was removed from libraries, and the researcher was repressed.

Examples:

Duma "Kozak Golota":

Oh, the field of Kiliya,

Then we beat the Gordinsky way,

Oh, the Cossack Golota was walking there,

Do not be afraid of fire, nor sword, nor the third swamp.

True, there are roads on the Cossacks' tents -

Three dashing sevens:

One is unkind, the other is worthless,

And the third is no good for the barn.

And also, however, on Kozakova

Post in Yazovi,

And they are Chinese -

Wide range of women's soldiers;

Seam dies -

Doubles the women's width.

True, the Cossack has a hat-tag -

There's a hole at the top,

sewn with grass,

Blown by the wind,

Where do you go, where do you go,

The young Cossack is cold.

Then the Cossack Golota is walking, walking,

Doesn’t occupy either a city or a village, -

He looks at the city of Kiliya.

Near the city of Kiliya a bearded Tatar sits,

Similar to the upper rooms,

He says to the Tatar in words:

“Tatarko, Tatarko!

Oh, why do you think what I think?

Oh, what are you talking about, what am I talking about?”

They say: “Tatar, oh, gray, bearded!

I’m just wondering how you look like you’re in the upper rooms in front of me,

But I don’t know what you’re thinking and wondering.”

Like: “Tatarko!

I tell you: no eagle flies in an open field, -

The Cossack Golota is walking like a good horse.

I want to take this live bait from my hand

Yes, sell it to the city of Kiliya,

How about praising him before the great lords,

For this many ducats, don’t heal the brothers,

That's what it's promoting,

On the road the payment is on,

Choboti puts on shoes,

She puts a velvet slick on her head,

He sits on a horse,

Golota carelessly follows the Cossack.

Then the Cossack Golota knows the good Cossack name, -

Oh, he looks at the Tatar with a crooked expression,

Like: “Tatar, Tatar!

What do you really care about:

Chee on my clear stare,

Chee on my black horse,

What about me, a young Cossack?

“I seem to care about your clear stare,

And it’s even better for your black horse,

And it’s even better for you, young Cossack.

I want to take you live from your hand,

Sell to the city of Kiliya,

Praise before the great lords

And don’t collect a lot of ducats,

You can’t protect expensive cloth.”

The Cossack Golota knows well that he is called a Cossack.

Oh, he looks at the Tatar with a crooked look.

“Oh,” I think, “Tatar, oh, gray and bearded one.”

Or you are not rich enough in your mind:

Without taking the Cossack's brush from his hand,

And yet I saved my pennies.

And yet you haven’t been among the Cossacks,

Without eating Cossack porridge

I don’t know any Cossack names.”

That’s what I said,

Standing on the squat.

Without peace, it stirs gunpowder,

The Tatar receives a gift from his chest:

Oh, the Cossack hasn’t reconciled yet,

And the Tatar and his dashing mother rocked from their horse!

It doesn't bother me,

Until then it arrives,

She paints a kelep between her shoulders,

If you look around, you'll lose your breath.

In the same way, it’s good to add,

Having tortured the Tatars,

Putting shoes on my Cossack feet;

Having worn out my clothes,

Putting it on your Cossack shoulders;

The velvet slick is released,

He puts it on his Cossack head;

Taking the Tatar horse by the reins,

Having fallen near the city of Sich,

He's walking there,

The field of Kiliya is praised and praised:

“Oh, the field of Kiliysk!

May your summer and winter turn green,

How did you honor me in this unlucky time!

God grant that the Cossacks drank and walked,

Good thoughts are small,

They took more loot from me

And they trampled the enemy under our noses!”

Glory will not die, will not fade away

One day to the next!

Historical songs can be defined as a genre of small epic. Forming at first spontaneously in the bosom of other genres of song creativity, historical song (like duma) reaches its culmination in the 17th-18th centuries. - in the era of the Cossacks in Ukraine. She tends to closely observe historical events and the fates of specific heroes. The genre of “historical song” is known to all Slavic peoples. This is a lyric-epic work dedicated to a specific historical event or famous historical figure. It should be noted that this is not a chronicle of events, not a document in which facts play an important role; This is a work of art, so creative speculation is possible in it. The main requirement for a historical song is to correctly reflect the era, the essence of the era, its spirit, and national orientation. Historical songs are smaller in volume than dumas, but larger than lyrical songs. The epic character is manifested in the story of events that are depicted objectively, but without a clear recording of events, the lives of historical characters. The songs contain symbolism, hyperbole, and emotional and evaluative elements. N. Gogol introduced the concept of “historical song” into Ukrainian folklore in his article “On Little Russian Songs” (1833). He points out the defining feature of this genre: “they do not break away from life for a moment and ... always correspond to the present state of feelings.” Among the features of historical songs it is also worth noting: showing important social events and historical figures; a short story about them; the presence of outdated words and expressions; strophic or couplet construction.

Examples:

“Oh, my nivo, nivo”

“Oh, my nivo, nivo”

Nivo gold

What about you, my nivo,

There was hunger.

More than once for you, my nivo,

The horde trampled

More than once for you, my nivo,

Damn the poverty.

More than once, it happened over you

Crooked crooks

More than once they tore your body

Vovka-hizhaks.

The sun has fallen because of the gloom,

The winds roared,

Kind of master's willfulness

They showed you.

Get out, my nivo,

Into the greenery, blossom,

And under the sleepy processes

Pour the ear!

Ballad

The ballad changed at the very beginning of its existence (12-13 centuries), when it was used as a love song for a dance (first introduced by Pont Chapten), common in Provence. In French poetry of the 14th century, the ballad acquired canonical characteristics, had constant three stanzas, a constant rhyme scheme (ab ab bv bv), an obligatory refrain and addresses to a specific person; flourished in the work of F. Villon (1431-1463). Ballads are:

Social and everyday ballads:

“Oh, someone’s living, someone’s mowing” is a social ballad. It is based on a moral conflict between the mother-in-law and the daughter-in-law, who was so intimidated that she turned into a poplar. The motif of people turning into plants, animals, and birds is very common in ballads. Social ballads depict relationships between parents and children, brothers and sisters, and reveal feelings of love and hatred.

Historical ballads:

Historical ballads are ballads with historical themes. They describe the life of a Cossack, the death of a Cossack on the battlefield (“Let the miracle of Dibrovonka make noise”), and talk about the great grief that war brings to people. “What's in the Field Is Sick” is a ballad that recreates the tragic situation of Ukrainians in Turkish captivity. A mother in Crimea is captured by her daughter, who has already become disturbed by becoming the wife of a Tatar. The daughter invites her mother to “rule” with her, but the mother proudly refuses. The ballad “Oh, the old Cossack was in Sich” condemns the betrayal of Savva Chaly and approves of his fair punishment by the Cossacks.

Ukrainian literary ballads

In Ukrainian poetry, the ballad, showing its genre kinship with duma and romance, spread among the assets of Pyotr Gulak-Artemovsky, L. Borovikovsky, Ivan Vagilevich, early Taras Shevchenko and others, reaching the second half of the 19th century (Yu. Fedkovich, B. Grinchenko and etc.); its tense plot unfolded against a background of fantastic signs.

Ukrainian literary ballads of the 20th century

In this form, it appears in Ukrainian lyrics not so often (“Ballad” by Yu. Lipa: “There is a stitch between the bushes that the char-zillas are overgrown...”) and is replaced by historical and heroic motives associated with the era of the liberation struggle of 1917-1921 city, to which the poets of the “executed revival” and emigration turned, in particular, the “Book of Ballads” by A. Vlyzko (1930) was an event in this genre.

In the second half of the 20th century, the ballad acquired social and everyday significance, but did not lose its dramatic tension, which was reflected in the work of I. Drach, who, not unreasonably, named one of his collections “Ballads of Everyday Life” (1967), constantly emphasizing the conscious grounding of traditional ballad pathos .

Examples:

"Beyond the mountains, behind the forests"

Behind the mountains, behind the forests

Marijana danced with the hussars. (Dvichi)

Father and Mother came together:

Mariyanno, shvarna panel, under the dod spaz! (Dvichi)

I'm not going - go yourself,

Bo I will dance with the hussars. (Dvichi)

And the hussars have black eyes,

I will dance with them until midnight. (Dvichi)

From midnight until early morning

Marianna swore to dance... (Dvichi)

Fairy tales

A fairy tale is a narrative that mentions fictitious events or persons. One of the main genres of folk art, an epic, predominantly prosaic work of a magical, adventurous or everyday nature, of oral origin with a focus on fiction. A fairy tale is based on a fascinating story about fictional events and phenomena that are perceived and experienced as real. Fairy tales have been known since ancient times among all peoples of the world. Related to other folk-epic genres - tales, sagas, legends, tales, epic songs - fairy tales are not directly related to mythological ideas, as well as historical persons and events. They are characterized by a traditional structure and compositional elements (starting, ending, etc.), a contrasting grouping of characters, and the absence of detailed descriptions of nature and everyday life. The plot of the tale is multi-episode, with a dramatic development of events, focusing the action on the hero and a happy ending.

Examples:

The fairy tale “Kirilo Kozhum’yaka”

Whenever there was a prince in Kiev, a prince, and a snake near Kiev, they quickly sent him tribute: they gave either a young boy or a girl.

From here the daughter came to the daughter of the prince himself. There is nothing to be shy about, if the townspeople gave, you need to give it to you. The prince sent his daughter as tribute to the snake. And my daughter was so good that it’s impossible to say. Then the snake fell in love. From here to here she flocked to eat from him:

What kind of person, it seems, is there such a person in the world that you need a squeeze?

- It seems like this - near Kiev above the Dnieper... As soon as I go out on the Dnieper to wet my skins (for example, I’m skinny), then not just one, but twelve at once, and as soon as I get the stink of water from the Dnieper, then I’ll take that I will learn for them, why is it so difficult to blame them? And I’ll tell you: if you buy something, then I won’t take the little bits to the shore with them. That man is the only thing that scares me.

The princess took it into her head and wondered how the news would reach her father and bring her home and freedom? And there was not a soul with her, only one dove. Vaughn wished him a happy birthday, just like in Kiev. I thought and thought, and then I wrote to my father.

That’s why, it seems, you have a tattoo in Kiev, named Kirilo, nicknamed Kozhum’yak. Bless you through old people, who do not want to be beaten by snakes, and who do not want to free me, poor thing, from captivity! Bless him, my dear, with words and gifts, so that you don’t end up guilty of saying something uncalled for! I will pray to God for you and for you.

She wrote it like this, tied the blue one under the porch and let it out at the window. The little dove flew under the sky and flew home, on the way to the prince. And the children themselves ran along the rope and cheered for the dove.

Tattoo, tattoo! - it seems. - Chi bachish - dove before the sisters arrive!

The prince was first in good health, and then, after thinking and thinking, he began to ponder:

Herod has already ruined my child with curses, apparently!

And then, having lured the dove to him, lo and behold, there was a card right under the porch. VIN per card. She reads, and as soon as her daughter writes: so and so. He immediately called out to the entire foreman.

Who is this person who goes by the nickname Kiril Kozhumyako?

- Yes, to the prince. I live above the Dnieper.

How could they begin before, without having listened and formed?

So they were so glad and they sent the old people themselves. When the stink came to his house, they opened the doors little by little out of fear and started screaming. It’s amazing that Kozhumyak himself sits so long, with his back to them, and my hands are twelve skins, you can only see how he’s pricking with such a white beard! From one of these messengers: “Kakhi!”

Kozhumya gasped, and twelve skins were just three! Turning around to them, and stinking you in the waist:

So and so: the prince sent you with a request...

And you shouldn’t be surprised: he was angry that through them they tore twelve skins.

Come on, let's ask him, let's give him blessings. They have become too heavy... Skoda! They asked and asked, and then they went, with their heads bowed.

What's going on here? The prince knows how, and so do all the elders.

Why don't you send us more young people?

They sent the young ones - not to inject anything. Move ta sope, otherwise I won’t think so. That's how it was for those skins.

Then the prince became embarrassed and sent his little children. As they came, as they began to beg, as they became hectic and began to cry, then Kozhumyaka himself could not stand it, crying as if:

Well, I’ll save it for you now. Pishov to the prince.

Come on, say, I have twelve barrels of resin and twelve loads of hemp!

Wrapping himself in hemp, praying with goodness resin, taking a mace so large that there might be ten pounds in it, it’s as big as a snake.

And the snake says:

What about Kirilo? Priyshov fight or make peace?

Why put up? Let us fight with you, with the cursed people!

From here the stench began to rise - the earth was already reeking. As soon as the snake scatters and sinks with Kiril’s teeth, then a piece of resin and the virus, then a piece of hemp and the virus. And if you beat him with a huge mace, then you’ll throw him into the ground. And the snake, like fire, burns, it’s so hot, and while it runs to the Dnieper to drink, then jumps up at the water to cool off a little, then Kozhumyak is already wrapped in hemp and tarred. From here Herod leaps from the waters of curses, and when he gets married against Kozhumyaki, then he will only beat you with his mace! As soon as you get married, you know, with your mace, you only beat and beat until the moon is gone. They fought and fought - as much as smoking, as much as sparkling jumping. Rozigrіv Kirilo the snake is even better, like a blacksmith's blade at the forge: it's already fluttering, it's already choking, curses, and under it the earth is just stacked.

And here at the bell they ring, prayers are held, and in the mountains people stand like lifeless people, clasping their hands, waiting for what will happen! If it’s a snake, boom! The ground began to shake. The people, standing on the mountains, clasped their hands: “Glory to you, Lord!”

From Kirilo, who killed the snake, freed the princess and delivered the princes. The prince no longer knew how to yoma and dyakuvati. And from that very hour those tracts in Kiev, still alive, began to be called Kozhum’yaki.

Legends

Legend in folklore

Examples:

"The Legend of Vogon and Water"

Legends

The most widespread genre of European medieval literature (starting from the 6th century), formed in Catholic writing mainly as the life of a saint, written on the day of his memory, or as a collection of instructive stories about the lives of holy martyrs, confessors, saints, saints, hermits, stylites, called “ Patericon." In Western European countries, a collection of Christian legends was especially popular in the 13th and 14th centuries. entitled “The Golden Legend” (“Legenda aurea”), translated into many languages.

Legend in Ukrainian literature

In Ukrainian writing of princely days, one of the translations of such collections of legends is “Prologue”. At the same time, a collection of original legends arose - “Kievo-Pechersk Patericon”. Later, legends began to be called various tales of religious content with pious and instructive instructions about holy places, parables about the origin of animals and plants. From such works, numerous collections were organized, which were translated into different languages, their plots were conveyed in poetry, and used in school religious performances (mysteries, Miracles, morality plays). In Ukraine, the famous Patericon are Sinai, Skit, Mount Athos, Jerusalem, etc. The plots of legends were numerously reflected in icon painting, knightly novels and stories. They produced such a pearl of European classics as “The Divine Comedy” by Dante Alighieri

Legend in folklore

Oral folk stories about a miraculous event that are perceived as reliable. The legends are very close to the translations; they differ from them most of all in that they are based on biblical stories. Unlike fairy tales, legends do not have traditional initial and final formulas or a well-established sequence of events. Only sometimes do they have something in common with fairy tales: the initial formulas are “it was a long time ago”, “once upon a time”; fantastic content, but one that is interpreted as a miracle created by unusual people.

Examples:

“The Legend of the Creation of the World”

Old people say that when the wind swayed like a ball-ball. Even though I was shattered and torn apart; pieces of the ball flew in all directions and the earth, the sun, the month, and the dawns disappeared. In one piece the earth was destroyed, and we live on it. The great whales, like the scaffolding of their tail, would cover our land, otherwise it would have flown into the abyss. When the whale lies down for a long time, its tail begins to wag, and the earth begins to crumble.

"The Legend of Vogon and Water"

If you argue between water and water, who is stronger? That which raises the flames of the floor, then the water fills the floor; Where fire appears, then water and linen appear. If you can't pump out the fire, you'll throw it into the stone - there's nothing left for you to get any water from. There is nothing wise and cunning in the world, like fire: it is necessary to remake everything cleanly. If you drown the man, then at least you will stretch your body; and even if you burn, you’ll scoop up some of the pellets into the cup, and then the wind will blow, and then fly away.

“The legend about the creation of mountains and stones on the earth”

As if the evil one had argued with God, who would drink all the water and eat all the sand on the earth. From there I started drinking water and drinking sand. When he got drunk on water and got drunk on sand, he became terribly bloated and started vomiting: flying and vomiting, flying and vomiting. Having observed the high mountains and swamps. And if he was pinned under his chest, then he fell to the ground, swaying on the ground with his head, beating with his arms and legs, and from there he destroyed entire valleys and deep holes. So the crafty one saved the miracle God’s earth with mountains and valleys. And from the rocks and mountains, as if Satan had observed, the god-signs would grow, and Saints Peter and Paul, as the stench walked across the earth, cursed them. From then on the stench stopped growing. Therefore, after that, the Lord dedicated the land and began to rest after his labors.

Throughout the history of Ukraine, the masses have created many deeply ideological and highly artistic songs, fairy tales, thoughts, ditties and kolomyykas, proverbs and sayings, riddles, legends and traditions, anecdotes and stories. Ukrainian folklore is rightly considered an outstanding phenomenon not only of Slavic, but also of world culture.

“Folk poetry of Ukraine is the apotheosis of beauty.” "I can't tear myself away from games kobzars, bandura players, lyre players - this pearl of folk art” 1, said A. M. Gorky. At a meeting with Ukrainian Soviet writers, he said: “Your folk songs and thoughts, your fairy tales and proverbs are real pearls, how much soul, wisdom, and beauty they contain. The people are great artists, very great” 2.

The most ancient types of Ukrainian folk poetry

Ukrainian folk poetry used and developed the folklore heritage of the ancient Russian people. The emergence and development of Ukrainian folklore is associated with the formation of the Ukrainian nationality, which took place under the conditions of developed feudalism. This explains the class content of Ukrainian folklore, its anti-feudal, anti-serfdom motives.

In Ukrainian folk poetry of the 15th-16th centuries and subsequent centuries, as well as in Russian and Belarusian, there are many early types of folk poetic creativity - work songs, ancient calendar, funeral and wedding ritual poetry, spells, tales about animals and heroic-fantastic (in the latter images of epic heroes of the era of Kievan Rus are also reflected). Ukrainian folklore is associated with the labor activity of the people; it contains elements of the spontaneous materialistic thinking of the people.

The Ukrainian labor folk song “Zaloga” (a song for driving piles, recorded at the end of the 19th century) is related to the Russian “Dubinushka”; original work songs were the songs of mowers (kosarst), reapers (zhnivt), rowers (grebovetst), weeders (polynitst), performed both during work and during rest. Echoes of labor processes are found in all types of Ukrainian calendar-ritual poetry, in which the richest and most colorful songs and play actions of the spring-summer group are vesnyanka (on the Right Bank) and gavka (gai - grove, a small forest in the western regions of Ukraine), mermaids and tsarina (tsarina is a place on the outskirts of the village), Kupala, Petrovsky (petr'vchans't), zazhnivnye, stubble and dozhinochnye (zazhinkov', zhnivt, obzhinkov').

The winter group of folk calendar-ritual poetry was represented by New Year's carols and generous songs, poshannya (zashannya), and mummers' games (“Goat”, “Melanka”).

The main motives of all these songs of the spring and winter group and game entertainment (for example, “A mi millet”, “Mak”), in addition to love and humorous ones, are associated with the call of spring, meeting and seeing it off, with wishes for a happy life, a good summer and bountiful harvest, depicting hard work.

Ancient in their origin, conspiracies (spells, spells, spells) were also partly related to calendar-ritual poetry (spells “for the harvest”, “for cattle”, “for the beast”, etc.), and partly for ritual-family ( conspiracies “all eyes” - from the evil eye, “on the devil”, love spells, etc.). Later, especially in the 19th-20th centuries, conspiracies and beliefs and signs associated with them began to die out and almost completely disappeared during Soviet times.

Folk heroic epic - thoughts.Development of folklore before the Great October Revolution

Patriotic upsurge of the people in the mid-17th century, reunification

So, folk art, which had a pronounced revolutionary character, was generated by the events of the socio-political life of the country and invariably accompanied class actions of the workers.

Ukrainian Soviet folklore

Radical changes have occurred in traditional genres and types of Ukrainian folk poetry; The old ritual poetry has almost completely died out. At the same time, new songs, thoughts, fairy tales, tales, stories, as well as folk poems on the themes of the Great October Socialist Revolution, the civil war and the fight against foreign invaders are being widely created (for example, the fairy tale “Lenska Pravda”, songs and legends about Lenin, heroes civil war - Chapaev, Shchors, Kotovsky, about partisans, heroes of the Great Patriotic War, etc., tales - onoeidi, often conducted from one person and having elements of memory). Along with heroic works, anecdotes, satirical and humorous short stories ridiculing various enemies of the Soviet state (White Guard generals, Petlyura, interventionists, Pilsudski, Japanese samurai, Hitler, etc.), remnants of capitalism and religious prejudices, carriers of negative everyday phenomena ( truants, quitters, careless people, drunkards).

We find individual mysteries in the literature of the Middle Ages - in Kievan Rus in the works of Daniil Zatochnik; from the philosophers of the Kyiv school of the Renaissance (Ipaty Potiy, Stanislav Orikhovsky, Ivan Kalimon, etc.). They gained particular popularity in the 17th - 18th centuries, when literary riddles were created by Boileau, Rousseau and others. A new wave of interest in riddles was associated, on the one hand, with the development of romanticism in literature, especially in Germany (Brentano, Hauff, etc.), and on the other hand, with an appeal to national roots combined with romanticism, the beginning of collecting, recording and publishing samples of folk art. The collection and publication of Ukrainian folk riddles began in the first half of the 19th century: G. Ilkevich “Galician sayings and riddles” (Vienna, 1841), A. Semenovsky “Little Russian and Galician riddles”; M. Nomis “Ukrainian sayings, proverbs and so on” (1864), P. Chubinsky “Proceedings of the ethnographic-statistical expedition ...” (1877), etc. Ivan Franko is the author of the first, unfortunately, unfinished study on Ukrainian mysteries “Remains of the primitive worldviews in Russian and Polish folk mysteries" (Zarya, 1884). In Ukrainian folklore, the riddle remains an insufficiently studied genre. The riddle not only influenced the work of individual Ukrainian poets who wrote the corresponding original works (L. Glebov, Yu. Fedkovich, I. Franko, S. Vasilchenko), it forms the basis of poetic tropes, which is confirmed by the lyrics of P. Tychyna, B.I. Antonich, V. Goloborodko, I. Kalints, Vera Vovk, M. Vorobyov, M. Grigoriev and others.

Examples:

The two brothers marvel at the water, but never get together.

The red yoke hung across the river.

The flow is filled, the flow hangs.

Spring is cheerful, summer is cool, spring is year, winter is warm.

Not a fire, but a blast

There is a club, and on the club there is a hut, and in this hut there are a lot of people.

I don’t eat anything or anything, let me drink some gasoline, I’ll marry all the horses I want.

Without arms, without legs, but he opens the gates.

Proverbs and sayings

For example: The truth stings the eyes. The berry is not from our field.

Examples:

Living life is not a field to cross.

Without hedgehogs and oxen you won’t be able to stretch.

The bird is red in its feathers, and the human is red in its knowledge.

A head without reason is like a shed without a candle.

Whoever shames your own language, let him shame himself.

A small price for a great deal of idleness.

Take care and preserve honor in your youth, and health in your old age.

The good and the tavern are not captured, and the evil and the church cannot be directed.

Duma

Examples:

Duma "Kozak Golota":

Oh, the field of Kiliya,

Then we beat the Gordinsky way,

Oh, the Cossack Golota was walking there,

Do not be afraid of fire, nor sword, nor the third swamp.

True, there are roads on the Cossacks' tents -

Three dashing sevens:

One is unkind, the other is worthless,

And the third is no good for the barn.

And also, however, on Kozakova

Post in Yazovi,

And they are Chinese -

Wide range of women's soldiers;

Seam dies -

Doubles the women's width.

True, the Cossack has a hat-tag -

There's a hole at the top,

sewn with grass,

Blown by the wind,

Where do you go, where do you go,

The young Cossack is cold.

Then the Cossack Golota is walking, walking,

Doesn’t occupy either a city or a village, -

He looks at the city of Kiliya.

Near the city of Kiliya a bearded Tatar sits,

Similar to the upper rooms,

He says to the Tatar in words:

“Tatarko, Tatarko!

Oh, why do you think what I think?

Oh, what are you talking about, what am I talking about?”

They say: “Tatar, oh, gray, bearded!

I’m just wondering how you look like you’re in the upper rooms in front of me,

But I don’t know what you’re thinking and wondering.”

Like: “Tatarko!

I tell you: no eagle flies in an open field, -

The Cossack Golota is walking like a good horse.

I want to take this live bait from my hand

Yes, sell it to the city of Kiliya,

How about praising him before the great lords,

For this many ducats, don’t heal the brothers,

That's what it's promoting,

On the road the payment is on,

Choboti puts on shoes,

She puts a velvet slick on her head,

He sits on a horse,

Golota carelessly follows the Cossack.

Then the Cossack Golota knows the good Cossack name, -

Oh, he looks at the Tatar with a crooked expression,

Like: “Tatar, Tatar!

What do you really care about:

Chee on my clear stare,

Chee on my black horse,

What about me, a young Cossack?

“I seem to care about your clear stare,

And it’s even better for your black horse,

And it’s even better for you, young Cossack.

I want to take you live from your hand,

Sell to the city of Kiliya,

Praise before the great lords

And don’t collect a lot of ducats,

You can’t protect expensive cloth.”

The Cossack Golota knows well that he is called a Cossack.

Oh, he looks at the Tatar with a crooked look.

“Oh,” I think, “Tatar, oh, gray and bearded one.”

Or you are not rich enough in your mind:

Without taking the Cossack's brush from his hand,

And yet I saved my pennies.

And yet you haven’t been among the Cossacks,

Without eating Cossack porridge

I don’t know any Cossack names.”

That’s what I said,

Standing on the squat.

Without peace, it stirs gunpowder,

The Tatar receives a gift from his chest:

Oh, the Cossack hasn’t reconciled yet,

And the Tatar and his dashing mother rocked from their horse!

It doesn't bother me,

Until then it arrives,

She paints a kelep between her shoulders,

If you look around, you'll lose your breath.

In the same way, it’s good to add,

Having tortured the Tatars,

Putting shoes on my Cossack feet;

Having worn out my clothes,

Putting it on your Cossack shoulders;

The velvet slick is released,

He puts it on his Cossack head;

Taking the Tatar horse by the reins,

Having fallen near the city of Sich,

He's walking there,

The field of Kiliya is praised and praised:

“Oh, the field of Kiliysk!

May your summer and winter turn green,

How did you honor me in this unlucky time!

God grant that the Cossacks drank and walked,

Good thoughts are small,

They took more loot from me

And they trampled the enemy under our noses!”

Glory will not die, will not fade away

One day to the next!

Historical songs can be defined as a genre of small epic. Forming at first spontaneously in the bosom of other genres of song creativity, historical song (like duma) reaches its culmination in the 17th-18th centuries. - during the era of the Cossacks in Ukraine. She tends to closely observe historical events and the fates of specific heroes. The genre of “historical song” is known to all Slavic peoples. This is a lyric-epic work dedicated to a specific historical event or famous historical figure. It should be noted that this is not a chronicle of events, not a document in which facts play an important role; This is a work of art, so creative speculation is possible in it. The main requirement for a historical song is to correctly reflect the era, the essence of the era, its spirit, and national orientation. Historical songs are smaller in volume than dumas, but larger than lyrical songs. The epic character is manifested in the story of events that are depicted objectively, but without a clear recording of events, the lives of historical characters. The songs contain symbolism, hyperbole, and emotional and evaluative elements. N. Gogol introduced the concept of “historical song” into Ukrainian folklore in his article “On Little Russian Songs” (1833). He points out the defining feature of this genre: “they do not break away from life for a moment and ... always correspond to the present state of feelings.” Among the features of historical songs it is also worth noting: showing important social events and historical figures; a short story about them; the presence of outdated words and expressions; strophic or couplet construction.

Examples:

“Oh, my nivo, nivo”

“Oh, my nivo, nivo”

Nivo gold

What about you, my nivo,

There was hunger.

More than once for you, my nivo,

The horde trampled

More than once for you, my nivo,

Damn the poverty.

More than once, it happened over you

Crooked crooks

More than once they tore your body

Vovka-hizhaks.

The sun has fallen because of the gloom,

The winds roared,

Kind of master's willfulness

They showed you.

Get out, my nivo,

Into the greenery, blossom,

And under the sleepy processes

Pour the ear!

Ballad

Social and everyday ballads:

“Oh, someone else’s life, someone else’s mowing” is a social ballad. It is based on a moral conflict between the mother-in-law and the daughter-in-law, who was so intimidated that she turned into a poplar. The motif of people turning into plants, animals, and birds is very common in ballads. Social ballads depict relationships between parents and children, brothers and sisters, and reveal feelings of love and hatred.

Historical ballads:

Ukrainian literary ballads

Ukrainian literary ballads of the 20th century

Examples:

"Beyond the mountains, behind the forests"

Behind the mountains, behind the forests

Marijana danced with the hussars. (Dvichi)

Father and Mother came together:

Mariyanno, shvarna panel, under the dod spaz! (Dvichi)

I'm not going - go yourself

Bo I will dance with the hussars. (Dvichi)

And the hussars have black eyes,

I will dance with them until midnight. (Dvichi)

From midnight until early morning

Marianna swore to dance... (Dvichi)

Fairy tales

Examples:

The fairy tale “Kirilo Kozhum’yaka”

Whenever there was a prince in Kiev, a prince, and a snake near Kiev, they quickly sent him tribute: they gave either a young boy or a girl.

What kind of person, it seems, is there such a person in the world that you need a squeeze?

Tattoo, tattoo! - it seems. - Chi bachish - dove before the sisters arrive!

The prince was first in good health, and then, after thinking and thinking, he began to ponder:

Herod has already ruined my child with curses, apparently!

Who is this person who goes by the nickname Kiril Kozhumyako?

- Yes, to the prince. I live above the Dnieper.

How could they begin before, without having listened and formed?

Kozhumya gasped, and twelve skins were just three! Turning around to them, and stinking you in the waist:

So and so: the prince sent you with a request...

And you shouldn’t be surprised: he was angry that through them they tore twelve skins.

Come on, let's ask him, let's give him blessings. They have become too heavy... Skoda! They asked and asked, and then they went, with their heads bowed.

What's going on here? The prince knows how, and so do all the elders.

Why don't you send us more young people?

They sent the young ones - not to inject anything. Move ta sope, otherwise I won’t think so. That's how it was for those skins.

Then the prince became embarrassed and sent his little children. As they came, as they began to beg, as they became hectic and began to cry, then Kozhumyaka himself could not stand it, crying as if:

Well, I’ll save it for you now. Pishov to the prince.

Come on, say, I have twelve barrels of resin and twelve loads of hemp!

Wrapping himself in hemp, praying with goodness resin, taking a mace so large that there might be ten pounds in it, it’s as big as a snake.

And the snake says:

What about Kirilo? Priyshov fight or make peace?

Why put up? Let us fight with you, with the cursed people!

Legends

Legend in folklore

Examples:

"The Legend of Vogon and Water"

Legends

The most widespread genre of European medieval literature (starting from the 6th century), formed in Catholic writing mainly as the life of a saint, written on the day of his memory, or as a collection of instructive stories about the lives of holy martyrs, confessors, saints, saints, hermits, stylites, called “ Patericon." In Western European countries, a collection of Christian legends was especially popular in the 13th and 14th centuries. entitled “The Golden Legend” (“Legenda aurea”), translated into many languages.

Legend in Ukrainian literature

Legend in folklore

Examples:

“The Legend of the Creation of the World”

"The Legend of Vogon and Water"

“The legend about the creation of mountains and stones on the earth”

Ukrainian folklore

Ukrainian folklore

Oral folk poetry

Folk literature in Ukraine has long prevailed over writing, book literature and in the field of artistic expression “national pride” of the Ukrainian intelligentsia of the 19th-20th centuries. was based precisely on folklore, with the richness, diversity, and artistic value of which it would be difficult to compare the work of Ukrainian poets of modern times. Ukrainian songs were especially famous outside of Ukraine. A number of enthusiastic reviews about them have been going on since the beginning of the 19th century. from representatives of different nationalities and different social groups. In Russian literature of the 19th century. Pushkin, by his own admission, experienced the artistic influence of Ukrainian songs and widely used them in his work. Gogol pathetically wrote that “songs for Little Russia are everything - poetry, history, and the father’s grave.” The same universal significance of the song for the Ukrainian people was later emphasized in his article about “Kobzar” by Shevchenko Dobrolyubov: “It is known that the whole past fate, the whole real character of Ukraine was poured out in the song; song and thought constitute a national shrine there, the best asset of Ukrainian life. The whole range of vital interests of life is covered in the song, merges with it, and without it life itself becomes impossible.”

The passion for Ukrainian song and its influence definitely affected Polish literature of the 19th century, especially in the era of romanticism (Malczewski, Goszczynski, Bohdan Zaleski) and “cossackism”. Ukrainian song has acquired a high reputation among Western European poets and scientific researchers. Back in 1845, the translator of Russian poets and Ukrainian folk songs, Bodenstedt, found that “in no other country has the tree of folk song given such wonderful fruits, nowhere has the spirit of the people been expressed so vividly and brightly in songs as among the Ukrainians.” The new Ukrainian literature begins with the collection and study of songs: “ethnography,” turning to folklore material and its use remained its characteristic feature for a long time.

First period (approximately until the 40-50s of the 19th century)

It takes place under the sign of noble romance, distinguished by the same features of the approach to collecting and studying folklore as in other countries. At this time, the main attention is paid to the song. The song creativity of romantically minded noble collectors was interpreted as “old times” - “a dying echo of harmony, once heard on the banks of the Dnieper,” according to the preface to “The Experience of a Collection of Ancient Little Russian Songs” - their first collector, Prince. N. A. Tserteleva. Dreams of discovering a new “Iliad” or a new Ossian are unrealistic: only “ruins” have survived from the beautiful past, but they can satisfy, on the one hand, “curiosity about the past”, and on the other, a romantic craving for “artless poetry” . Tsertelev's collection is a product of amateurism; the collections of his immediate successor, M. Maksimovich, whose friendly ties with representatives of the Russian “official people” were combined with local Ukrainian patriotism, open the history of Ukrainian folkloristics as a science - of course, with the reservations necessary in view of that time. In terms of diversity of content and commitment to accuracy of texts, Maksimovich’s collections rank first among similar publications of the first half of the 19th century. (I. "Sreznevsky", Zaporozhye antiquity, parts I-III, 1833-1838; P. "Lukashevich", Little Russian and Chervono-Russian folk thoughts and songs, St. Petersburg, 1836; A. "Metlinsky", South Russian folk songs, 1854).

Ideas about the nature of folklore and its history did not go beyond the typical romantic fantasies about impersonal “folk art.” Only Maksimovich had the beginnings of the future “historical” method of studying folklore. In general, folklore remained for the time being a subject of aesthetic admiration, antiquarian collecting, and romantic sighs about the passing “old times” - about the decaying patriarchal way of life. In Russian literature of the 20-30s. a strong fashion was established for Ukrainian folklore, as the exoticism necessary for romanticism (“here... everyone is interested in everything Little Russian,” Gogol wrote in 1829 from St. Petersburg); this fashion was satisfied, among other things, with fantastic stories based on Ukrainian folklore, Or. Somov, Ukrainian ballads by N. Markevich (“Ukrainian Melodies”, 1831) and especially “Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka” by Gogol. Along with this, Ukrainian song folklore was also used by Russian writers who developed historical Ukrainian stories (Ryleev, Narezhny, A.S. Pushkin, N.V. Gogol, E.V. Aladin, etc.). It is clear that in all this literature it is sometimes very difficult to separate the genuine from the free fabrications of the authors.

Second period

The “second” period of Ukrainian folklore was distinguished by other features, in which bourgeois tendencies were already felt. It starts in the 40s. XIX century and is represented by the activities of Panteleimon Kulish (“Notes on Southern Russia”, vols. I-II, 1856-1857), O. Bodyansky, N. Kostomarov (dissertation “On the historical significance of Russian folk poetry”, 1843), Y. Golovatsky (“ Folk songs of Galician and Ugric Russia”, 1863-1865), I. Rudchenko (“Folk South Russian Tales”, 1869), etc. The romantic touch remained on the folkloristics of this time, but a more careful study began, a more thorough collection and publication of texts. In “Notes on Southern Rus',” Kulish was no longer limited to just collecting, he tried to introduce the reader to the very environment in which monuments of folk poetry exist and are distributed, to collect and report information about its bearers, about the environment that is its main consumer. For Kulish, folklore is also a passing “antiquity,” but its passing, from his point of view, is a legitimate phenomenon; its reason is the spread of “civilization”, the transition of the “people” into the ranks of the intelligentsia. “We and the people,” wrote Kulish, “are one and the same, but only he, with his oral poetry, represents the first period of education in spiritual life, and we represent the beginning of a new higher period.”

Third period

The characteristic features of the third period of folklore study are, firstly, the transition to collectively organized work in the field of collecting folklore; secondly, the use of Western European methods. (and Russian) science to the study of its monuments - “comparative-historical” and “historical”; thirdly, the deepening and development of nationalist tendencies that appeared already in the second period. The most significant fact of the third period was the publication of a collection of ethnographic materials: “Proceedings of the ethnographic-statistical expedition to the Western Russian region, equipped by the Russian Geographical Society (southwestern department); materials and research collected by Dr. P. P. Chubinsky" (1872-1878, 7 volumes, a total of about 300 printed sheets). The publication, carried out mainly by the exceptional energy of Chubinsky himself, revealed enormous folklore riches (see review by Al-Dr Veselovsky in the Report on the award of the Uvarov Prizes, 1880), ranging from superstitions, signs, riddles, proverbs, etc. (vol. I ), continuing with fairy tales (vol. II - 296 titles), the folk calendar and ritual poetry associated with it (vol. III), non-calendar rituals, weddings, funerals, etc. and corresponding songs (vol. IV), family songs and love (vol. V - 1209 pp.), folk legal customs (vol. VI) and ethnographic information about national minorities of the “southwestern region” (chief region of Kiev, Volyn and Podolsk provinces).

Before this mass of material, previous reports, such as “The Life of the Russian People” by A.V., completely paled. Tereshchenko, where Ukrainian material was included only incidentally. “Proceedings” was, among other things, work related to the activities of the Kiev branch - the “southwestern department” of the Geographical Society, which since 1873 united the most prominent Ukrainian scientists of that time: its members were V. Antonovich and M. Drahomanov, who in 1874-1875 published the first scientific edition of Ukrainian epic songs, dumas (“Historical songs of the Little Russian people”, 2 volumes - unfinished edition), P. Zhitetsky, F. Volkov (Khvedir Vovk), P. Chubinsky, M. Lisenko and others. In a short time, the branch's correspondents collected a huge amount of material, from which the branch managed to publish only the collection “Little Russian Folk Legends and Stories,” edited by the same M. Drahomanov. Some of the rest was published in foreign publications by M. Drahomanov; some of it was later used by B. Grinchenko (“Ethnographic materials”, 3 vols., 1895-1899, “From the Oral Family”, 1900), but most of it disappeared into obscurity after the closure of the Kiev branch in 1876. Government bans on the publication of books in the “Little Russian language” transferred Ukrainian folklore to the limits of the former. The Russian Empire to a semi-legal position. Its leaders in the 80-90s. XIX century It was mainly representatives of petty-bourgeois democracy who became here - petty zemstvo employees, statisticians, people's teachers - epigones of populism, who carried out the theory of “small deeds”, careful enlightenment, “kagantsyvannya in the countryside”. Ukrainian folklore, along with political self-education, has become an inevitable subject of study for illegal Ukrainian student circles - “gromads”. Since the 80s The only printed organs where materials and research about them were published were in Ukraine the magazine “Kiev Antiquity”, founded by F. Lebedintsev (from 1882 to 1906), published in Russian, and the works of “archival commissions”, “statistical committees” under zemstvos, learned societies at universities [eg. Kharkov collection of the historical and philological society, in the 2nd volume of which a collection of fairy tales and other materials recorded in the Kharkov and Ekaterinoslav provinces is published. I. Manzhuroy (1890), in the 10th - a collection of songs by V. Miloradovich Lubenshchina (1897), in the 17th - the work of P. Ivanov “The Life and Beliefs of the Peasants of the Kupyansky District, Kharkov Province.” (1907) and a number of other valuable materials]. In similar publications and, moreover, in the “Ethnographic Review”, “Russian Philological Bulletin”, comparatively few studies of folklore found a place - A. A. Potebnya, N.F. Sumtsova, A.V. Vetukhov, P. Ivanov, Kh. Yaschurzhinsky and others. Nevertheless, interest in folklore studies captured ever wider circles; these studies developed outside of tsarist Russia until 1906. Having become a political emigrant in 1876, first in Switzerland, then in Bulgaria, M. Drahomanov, next to his journalistic activities and in close connection with it, continued the publication and study of folklore: in 1881 he published “ New Ukrainian songs about civil affairs 1764-1830”, and then in the same place “Political (or historical) songs of the Ukrainian people of the 18th-19th centuries.” (1883-1885, 2 vols.). As a researcher, Drahomanov stood on the point of view of the “theory of migrations” (borrowing), rejecting the idea of the complete originality of Ukrainian folk art, especially in the field of narrative folklore; this did not bother him, for example. on the basis of song material, make subjective conclusions about the “state ideals” of the Ukrainian masses (a collection of his research on folklore was published in 4 volumes in Lvov, 1899-1907). The main focus of Ukrainian folklore since the 90s. became the Lviv “Science Partnership named after Shevchenko”, where in 1898 a special ethnographic commission was founded, which took over the publication of the “Ethnographic Collection” (40 volumes), and in 1899 supported it with a separate publication “Materials of Ukrainian Ethnology” (22 volumes). The famous writer and scientist Ivan Franko (he published the largest collection of proverbs and published a number of valuable works on the study of songs), Volodymyr Gnatyuk, Z. Kuzelya, I. Sventsitsky, F. Kolessa, etc. took close part in the publications of the Partnership. A major contribution to the collection of materials was also made by Polish ethnographers from the 70s. In Poland, interest in Ukrainian folklore, as mentioned above, dates back to the 20-30s of the 19th century; this interest gave rise to the emergence of a number of collections of the main types of song material (Waclaw Zaleski, Żegota Pauli, K. Wojcicki, later, in 1857, A. Nowoselsky-Marcinkovsky, etc.) In 1842, the fruitful activity of the largest of the Polish-Ukrainian ethnographers, Oskar Kohlberg (1814- 1890), of which the most famous work is “Pokuttya” (“Pokuttya” is the common name for the area between the Carpathians and the Dniester in Galicia) - the experience of a comprehensive and detailed ethnographic survey of one specific area, with rich folklore materials. Based on the type of this work by Kohlberg, the Ukrainian ethnographer V. Shukhevych later presented the same description of the life and creativity of the Hutsuls (“Hutsulshchina” in “Materials before Ukrainian-Russian ethnology”, 5 vols. , 1899, 1901, 1902, 1904 and 1908). On the other hand, Kohlberg’s works (preceding “Pokutya”) were taken as a model by the employees of a large initiative undertaken back in 1877 by the Krakow Academy of Sciences, ed. “Collection of information on regional anthropology” (Zbiór wiadomości do anthropologii krajowej wydawany staraniem komisyi antropologicznej Akademii umiejetności w Krakowie, 1877-1894) - Y. Moshinskaya, Z. Rokossovskaya, E. Rulikovsky, A. Podberezsky, C. Neumann and many others . others, who published large folklore material from different areas of Galicia and Russian Dnieper Ukraine. “Proceedings” of Chubinsky, “Ethnographic Collection” of the Lviv “Tovaristvo” and this publication of the Krakow Academy still remain the most important part of the legacy left to us by the bourgeois period of Ukrainian folklore studies.

There is no need to count the names of all its individual representatives both abroad and within the borders. tsarist Russia, where from 1906 the opportunity for a relatively legal collection and study of Ukrainian folklore reappeared for a short time, which completely ceased during the years of the imperialist war, which had the most detrimental effect on the ethnographic materials collected by the Lvov Scientific Society, but not yet published. The index of printed materials on Ukrainian folklore up to 1917 (by Oleksandr Andrievsky), published in 1930, represents a huge volume of more than eight hundred pages of one list of books and articles (about 1800). It seems that the words of one of the prominent bourgeois folklorists, Vol. Gnatyuk, that Ukrainian ethnography, in comparison with others, “not only did not remain behind, but in many directions moved forward and got ahead of other peoples,” as if this is not an exaggeration and boasting...

Bibliography

"Pypin" A. N., History of Russian ethnography, vol. III - Little Russian Ethnography, St. Petersburg, 1891; "Sumtsov" N. F., Modern Little Russian ethnography (in the magazine "Kiev Antiquity", 1892-1893, 1895-1896 and separately - 2 issues, Kyiv, 1893-1897); “His”, Malyunki from the life of the Ukrainian folk word, Kharkiv, 1910; "Grinchenko" B., Literature of Ukrainian folklore (1777-1900), Chernigov, 1901; "Andrievsky" O., Bibliography of literature from Ukrainian folklore, vol. I, Kiev (1930), ed. All-Ukrainian Ak. Scientific periodical publication of the Institute of Folklore Studies of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR “Ukrainian Folklore”, etc.

Types and genres of Ukrainian oral folk poetry in its historical development

At the current stage of study, the history of Ukrainian folklore can only be built hypothetically. Undoubtedly, we must include various works of a magical nature, including spells and “ritual poetry,” to its “most ancient period.” At the end of the 16th century. Ukrainian ritual poetry has already stopped in its development, having developed into the forms in which the collectors of the 19th century found it. A well-known church publicist of that time, Ivan Vishensky, in one of his messages, recommending the fight against the remnants of paganism, advises expelling from cities and villages “into the swamp” - “Carols, a generous evening”, “Caroling on the Resurrection”, “on the feast of St. George the Martyr” diabolical”, “Baptized on the Baptist”, etc., listing it like this. arr. almost all the main holidays of the ancient agrarian calendar, however, already amalgamated with the church calendar as a result of compromises between the new Christian cult and the beliefs of the pagan era. “Kolyada” is a holiday of the winter solstice, timed to coincide with the Christian “Christmas time”; “volochelnye” (volochelnye - majestic songs and rituals) - a spring holiday, a spell for the future harvest, which became a continuation of the church “Easter”; holiday "on St. George" - April, spring events on St. George - Yuri, patron god of herds, chief of spring; “Kupalo” is a holiday of the summer “solstice”, timed to coincide with June 24th Art. Art. (“The Nativity of John the Baptist” - Ivan, Kupala) and the subsequent celebration of seeing off the sun, the funeral of the solar god, attached to the first Sunday after “Petrivka” (June 29, Art. Art.) - these are the most important agrarian festivals, of which he speaks Vishensky and which existed in Ukraine almost until the imperialist war and revolution. The agricultural calendar is similar among all peoples of the northern hemisphere; in Russian folklore we will find almost the same names of holidays, and here it is enough just to list the genres of Ukrainian ritual poetry with their sometimes peculiar terminology. The concept of Ukrainian ritual poetry includes:
* "carols" and "shchedrivki" - majestic songs on Christmas and New Year's Eve (a new collection of them was given by V. Gnatyuk in the "Ethnographic Collection", vols. 35-36, 1914) - sometimes accompanied by special actions of the mummers (walking with " Goat");
* "spring" songs, in turn, divided into:
**gaivki (“gai” - forest) - round dance songs at the edge of the forest, with games (“Millet”, “Vorotar”, “Poppy”, etc.; collection of gaivoki, V. Gnatyuk, “Materials before Ukrainian- Russian ethnology", vol. 12, 1909);
**tsarina songs (“tsarina” is the outskirts of the village, behind which there is a plowed field);
** mermaid songs and “troetski” (Russian “semik” - Ukrainian “mermaid” or “Mavsky great day”; Mavka is the same as mermaid, from the old “nav” - dead man; mermaids - from the Greco-Roman rosary - rites dedicated initially to honor deceased ancestors and then dedicated to the “green saints” - Trinity Day);
** “Kupala songs” (the most complete collection of them was given by Yu. Moshinska, Zbiór wiadom, vol. 5, 1881) - songs associated with festivities in honor of Kupala and combining the motives of elegiac lament for the dead and drowned “Madder” with mocking satirical squabbles between girls and boys. This cycle is also associated with the so-called. “harvest” or “zhnivni” songs (songs accompanying the harvest), least colored with cult motifs and most clearly revealing the basis of “ritual” poetry - labor, “work song”. There are special collections of work songs: "Miloradovich" V. Work songs of Lubensky u., Poltavsk. gub., “Kiev Antiquity”, 1895, book 10. The rhythmic side of them has not yet been studied enough, but in the content traces of a later era are obvious - work in the panshchina or for a rich master-kulak. The category of “ritual poetry” also includes non-calendar songs associated with the customs of “khrestin”, “vesilya” (wedding) and “funeral” (the richest material on all this ritual is provided by the 4th volume of Chubinsky’s “Works”). “Wedding rituals” (“vesilya”) received special development in Ukraine, which has long attracted the attention of ethnographers (already in 1777, the book of Gr. Kalinovsky “Description of wedding Ukrainian common folk rituals” was published in St. Petersburg) and has been studied more than others ("Sumtsov" N., O wedding ceremonies, mainly Russian, Kharkov, 1881; “Volkov” F.K., Rites et usages nuptiaux en Ukraïne, in the magazine “L'anthropologie” 1891-1892, parts II-III, and his “Ethnographic features of the Ukrainian people" in the collective work "The Ukrainian people in their past and present", 1916, vol. II, 621-639; also Yashchurzhinsky H., "Lyrical Little Russian songs, mainly wedding ones", Warsaw, 1880, and his, "Little Russian wedding , as a religious and everyday drama", "Kiev Antiquity", 1896, II, etc.). The Ukrainian wedding ceremony is significant both for its lyrical parts and for its dramatic and theatrical side. From the latter point of view it can be divided into three acts:
#matchmaking
#zaruchini (engagement)
#fun (the wedding itself) of which each in turn breaks up into a number of scenes, repeated three times from action to action, increasingly with greater development and complexity; scenes of the abduction of the bride, resistance from her relatives, reconciliation of the warring parties, ransoming the bride from her relatives, symbolic rituals. The verbal part of the drama consists of prose dialogue, which varies around once and for all given themes, lyrical monologues of the bride, joyful and sad (but not usually turning into crying and lamentations of a Great Russian wedding) and parts of the choir, commenting on the actions, sometimes solemnly majestic, sometimes riotously. songs. Both the content of the songs and the nature of the actions are highly conventional: this is a representation, the essence of which lies in the fact that a marriage concluded between fellow villagers or good acquaintances, with mutual consent, is depicted as a violent abduction: an “endogamous” (intratribal) marriage is presented as “ exogamic" (non-tribal) and only under the condition of this staging is it considered “correct” and lasting. Wedding drama is like that. arr. dramatizes a picture of a marriage from a prehistoric, tribal time, and at the same time, by the names of the characters, by the props, not so much real as suggested by the songs of the choir, by the actions themselves - it also reflected the features of a princely wedding of the era of early feudalism. The feudal flavor is obviously secondary; The wedding ceremony that developed among the masses in the prehistoric era was adopted by the ruling class, acquired features characteristic of the princely-retinue life, and was never freed from these features. With these features, which acquired symbolic and magical significance, the “merry” ritual was preserved in Ukraine almost until the present day. The “funeral ritual” turned out to be less durable; information about the pattern has been going on since ancient times (Ukrainian funeral laments are cited by Polish writers Jan Menecki, 1551, poet Sevastian Klenovich, 1602); Russian “lamentations” correspond to Ukrainian “golosinnya” (texts and comments to them in “Ethnograph. Zb.”, vols. 31-32, I. Sventsitsky and V. Gnatyuk; in addition, studies by V. Danilov in “Kiev Antiquity”, 1905, and “Ukraine”, 1907), accompanied in Podolia and in some places in the Carpathian region by special “funeral games”, “grashki pri mertsi” (games with a dead man) - peculiar religious memes dramatizing the debate between God and the devil (“pulling of God”) , and sometimes turning into comedy and everyday scenes.

To the same ancient era of Ukrainian folklore, as mentioned above, we must attribute the genesis of conspiracies (zamovlyuvannya, spells: the best collection of P. Efimenko, “Collection of Little Russian spells” in “Readings of General History and Russian Antiquities”, Moscow, 1874, book 88; research by A. Vetukhov, 1907, and V. Mansikka, Ueber russische Zauferformeln, 1909), “proverbs” (collections of M. Nomis, Ukr. Prikazka, Prisliv'ya, St. Petersburg, 1864, and especially the collection of I. Franko , Galician-Russian folk tales, 6 vols., “Ethnogr. zb.”, vols. 10, 16, 23-24, 27-28) and “riddles” (department of the collection of A. Sementovsky, Little Russian riddles, 1872) . It goes without saying that all these genres developed, differentiated themselves by class and, like others, served as weapons of class struggle. Between eg. proverbs such as “he who gets up early, God bless him” or “there is no translation for the Cossack family,” on the one hand, and such as “God has a lot of everything, but in the poor it is difficult for a penny” (a penny), or “sho panska If you are ill, then our health is ours,” or: “Be friends with the lords, and keep a stone in your bosom” - the difference in classes and the difference in eras is obvious.

Narrative folklore also dates back to ancient times - the “fairy tale” in all its varieties [Ukr. bourgeois folkloristics distinguished between “kazki” - fantastic stories where the miraculous is mixed with the real and possible; "tales" - tales about animals; "retelling" - sagas, stories about historical persons, places and events; "miti" (myths) - superstitious legends; "short stories" - fairy tales without a miraculous element, everyday ones; jokes or "orders"; finally, “legends” - fairy tales based on Christian beliefs]. Periodization of extensive fairy-tale material is a task for the future. The total number of Ukrainian fairy tales in 1914 was estimated at more than 2 thousand (S.V. "Savchenko", Russian folk tale, chapter IV); since that time this number has increased further, not to mention the mass of still unpublished material. In the Ukrainian fairy tale we will find the same plots and themes as in the fairy-tale folklore of other European peoples; The formal features are also similar, with the only difference that the recordings of Ukrainian fairy tales provide fewer examples of elaborate, rhythmic, rich in stereotypical formulas of fairy tale speech than, for example. Russian fairy tales; on the other hand, Ukrainian fairy-tale folklore has a fantasy that is exceptionally rich in demonological ideas (especially in fairy tales recorded in Galicia, see collection of V. Gnatyuk, Knowledge of Ukrainian demonology, vols. 1-2, Ethnographic collections, vol. 15, vol. 34-35 - 1,575 stories). Also noteworthy is the comparative wealth of comic motifs with different shades of comedy from caustic satire to gentle humor - especially in short stories (see the above collections of Chubinsky and Drahomanov and in addition to them “Cossacks and Povidannya from Podillya”, in the records of 1850-1860 pp. ., arranged by M. Levchenko, 1928) and anecdotes (Gnatyuk V., Galician-Russian anecdotes, Ethnogr. zbіrn., vol. VI), which so often fed the themes of new Ukrainian literature and contributed to the spread of the current idea of “Ukrainian folk humor.” This continuity will be discussed further.

So. arr. The main genres of the most ancient era of Ukrainian folklore can be considered ritual poetry, spells, mythological and animal tales, remembering, however, that the primary forms of all these genres are unknown to us. We have only very vague indications of folklore in written monuments of the early feudal era (before the 16th century). There is no doubt, however, that already at this time folklore was differentiated by class with sufficient clarity. The genres created by the working masses were partially adopted by the ruling class, which in turn exerted pressure and influence on folk art. This pressure and influence, however, rarely led to passive absorption. Thus, probably, from very early times, the penetration of motifs of church origin into the narrative folklore of the working village began. But only those legends gained popularity that in one way or another met the needs of the masses. The characters of Christian Olympus were adapted to help and serve the grain grower: “Saint Peter to follow the plow, Saint Paul to drive the will, the Blessed Virgin to bear,” says one of the generosities, as if hinting at the motives of the apocryphal apostolic “walks.” The literature of the ruling class was not attracted to such topics. On the other hand, monuments that did not lend themselves to this kind of processing remained beyond the assimilation of the masses.

“During the period of the dominance of serfdom in Ukraine,” when the lands of the Kyiv and Galician-Volyn principalities were part of the Polish-Lithuanian state, the history of folklore emerges for us in clearer terms. The 16th century was the century when the struggle for liberation from the Polish yoke began. In this century, the Ukrainian nationality was formed, and a stubborn struggle for the political establishment of the Ukrainian nation began. From the 16th century there are a number of news and records of folklore: in the Czech grammar of Jan Blagoslav [d. 1571] a recording of the song “About Stefan the Voivode” was found (A. Potebnya, Little Russian folk song according to the list of the 16th century, 1877); in one Polish brochure of 1625, Franko found a song-dialogue “About a Cossack and Kulina” - on the topic of a girl who left home with a Cossack and then abandoned by him (see Notes of the Scientific Company named after Shevchenko, 1902, III); in various other collections, either completely or in fragments, the texts of songs responding to the historical events of the turbulent era of the second half of the 16th-17th centuries are given. This time, marked by the heroic struggle of the Ukrainian people against the Polish lordship and Sultan Turkey, caused a great upsurge of epic creativity, which was cast in Ukraine in the peculiar form of “doom.” In its form, a duma is an epic song, not divided into stanzas, consisting of unequally complex, syllabic type verses, with rhymes - most often verbal and with characteristic parallelism that determines the entire composition of the work. The idea is based on folk art, although it bears a specifically Cossack coloring, since the Cossacks in the first half of the 17th century were a single, more or less organized force that led the movement - in particular during the liberation war of the Ukrainian people with the pan-gentry Poland 1648-1654 , when the very existence of the Ukrainian people was jeopardized. With the deepening of class differentiation, the creativity of thoughts begins to fade, leaving the memory of this later period in such works as the thoughts about the Cossack Golota, about Hanzha Andiber and about the “Cossack life.” They are followed (already in the 18th century) by parodies (“the thought” about Mikhia). The best works of this poetry are preserved in the memory of the people, performed by kobzars, in subsequent centuries; new historical events are not displayed, however, in the form of thoughts (except for the collection of “Antonovich” and “Dragomanov”, named above, see the later edition: Ukrainian National Dumas, vol. I. Texts and introduction by K. Grushevska, ed. Ukr. Academician of Sciences, 1927; vol. II, 1931). The place of thoughts is occupied by a “historical” song, which, presumably, arose simultaneously with thoughts, and perhaps even earlier than them. The form of historical song is characterized by strophic division, less closedness and completeness of the plot, compared to the duma, and a greater variety of tone - in dumas it is always solemn and serious. A historical song is sung, the thought is expressed in a melodic and recitative tale, only in places turning into singing. The historical song is composed immediately after the event; the idea could have taken shape later. The Duma is more closely connected with the Cossack, military environment than the historical song. Being in some cases a reworking of artificial historical verses, the historical song in the process of its development became a popular response to events and the actions of individuals. Next to the historical songs that came out of circles close to the Cossack elders, a large number of songs interpret history from the point of view of the interests of the working people. These songs have their own heroes: bypassing the hetmans in silence, the songs preserve the names of the peasant leaders who carried out reprisals against the lords, who did not join the Zboriv agreement and stubbornly continued the struggle. I am surrounded with special sympathy, for example. the image of Nechai, about whose death a song with a large number of variants has been preserved, and the image of Perebiinos (Krivonos). At a later time, in the 18th century, when the “thoughts” had already completed the cycle of their development, the folk historical song did not respond, for example. to such events as Mazepa’s betrayal, but it flared up with a bright flame in the era of the so-called. “Koliyivshchyna”, creating images of the struggle and tragic death of Maxim Zaliznyak, Shvachka, Levchenko. It is known that in the “Kodna book” (the list of Haidamaks convicted in Kodna) there are several death sentences for bandura players only for the fact that they sang to the accompaniment of a bandura in rebel detachments. From this it is clear what propaganda significance, terrible for the Polish gentry, epic and lyric-epic songs could acquire.

The end of the 17th and 18th centuries. - a time when the very fiction of a unified Ukrainian “folk poetry” disappeared. According to many sources, it can be argued that from that time on, rural creativity in the field of folklore also intensified; creativity was also not homogeneous, since the village became more and more an arena of class struggle. While one - the “patriarchal” - part of the village continued to assimilate religious legends introduced from outside, “devout” (devout) songs performed by professional singers (kobzars, lyre players, bandura players), and alongside this supported folklore antiquity (ritual poetry ), the other - advanced - part created new forms both in the field of epic and in the field of lyricism. This creativity took place in particularly unfavorable conditions, characterized not only by the absence of a “peaceful” situation, but also by the difficulties of resisting the ideological onslaught of the elite, the power of the “tradition of dead generations.” So-called "everyday songs" clearly show this power, and at the same time the struggle against it. Everyday songs in the vast majority of collected recordings, one might think, took shape precisely in this era. Family life and the social status of the peasant are the two main themes of this cycle. The subsections in it will be songs “lullabies” (koliskovi), “children’s”, “love” (love between a boy and a girl, etc.), “family” (a concordant or unhappy life of spouses). A special group consists of “orphan”, naymite and barge hauler (barge hauler-farm) songs, Chumatsky, recruit and “soldier” songs. Finally, the third group, especially interesting for us, but unfortunately not recorded in a timely manner in its entirety or poorly recorded, is represented by songs about “gentry” and “serf bondage”. Everyday songs quantitatively predominated in song folklore, however, in comparison with ritual poetry, they have not yet been studied enough (for example, about family songs there is still only one general work by Kostomarov: “Family life in the works of southern Russian song creativity”). Meanwhile, in addition to their content, they are extremely interesting in form. In the latter we find all the typical features of song stylistics: constant epithets, repetitions, positive and negative parallelisms, symbolic images from the world of inorganic nature, from the world of animals and plants (the image of a viburnum is a woman, the image of a sycamore is a symbol of sadness, etc.). All this gives the style a greater conventionality; and yet this outwardly conventional style is fundamentally a realistic style, and typicality, for example. the song's picture of family life and relationships is beyond doubt. This should be said even more about songs dedicated to the panshchina, or songs depicting the class struggle in the countryside (see M. Drahomanov, New Ukrainian songs about public affairs, new edition 1918, or the popular brochure by S. Rklitsky, Songs our people about the lord's will, Kreminchuk, 1917). While the noble literature in the comic opera of the 18th century, in the sentimental story of the early 19th century. brought out a “singing and dancing tribe of villagers” living carelessly either under the protection of the landowner-father, or in fantastic isolation from serfdom - the peasant song stage by stage revealed the horrors of the “enemy lordship”, the national affiliation of which was not of decisive importance. There was “Chorna Khmara” - Poland, Polish gentlemen; behind her came “Siva Khmara” - Russian landowners; the endless mockery of the lords and their henchmen - clerks, housekeepers, "osauls" - "lookouts", "lanovs". The only way out for passive protest is to flee to the Danube or impotent curses. The protest, however, was not always passive: sometimes a real threat was heard in the curses. Bourgeois folklorists, ready to “sympathize” with this peasant grief, at the same time often hushed up the fact of song responses to anti-pan uprisings of the 18th-19th centuries, such as the famous uprising in the village of Turbay in the Poltava region, 1788, which ended in the murder of landowners, brutal reprisals by the government against the perpetrators and innocent and the destruction of the village of Turbai. Opryshki, a kind of partisans of the class struggle between the villagers and the landowners, operated in the Carpathian region, and some of them - Dovbush - became heroes of song cycles that outlived their era. Already by the 19th century. include songs and legends about Karmelyuk, another folk hero, who became a symbol of the struggling peasantry, exiled to Siberia, languishing in the panshchina and looking for a way out in an unorganized rebellion. Song of the 18th-19th centuries. in general, it gives a broad and versatile description of the rural “dashing”. She also states the fact of class stratification among the villagers themselves and calls for a fight against the rich kulaks or mocks these “duks”. The parallel growth of everyday satirical tales, jokes, anti-pop and anti-priest proverbs, etc. indicates that the rural poor saw their enemies quite clearly. In the Chumakov songs that also developed from the 18th century, we will also find a clearly expressed contrast between the moods of Chumakov farm laborers and Chumakov entrepreneurs. This contrast completely destroys, by the way, the bourgeois idyll of “free plagues”, which is often found in Ukrainian fiction of the 19th century.

So, the leading role in folklore of the 18th-19th centuries. obviously belonged to the peasantry. This did not exclude the creative activity of other groups; It was precisely in the Ukrainian conditions of this time that this activity inevitably had to intensify: book literature, constrained in its development, was forced to resort to oral transmission, and folklore began to overflow with materials of book origin. These are, firstly, all the “devout” songs, psalms and cants, performed by traveling students, distributed by printed publications like “Bogoglasnik”, and included in the repertoire of kobzars and lyre players. These are further songs-elegies, songs-romances with a love theme, sometimes attributed to certain semi-legendary authors, such as the “Cossack poet” Klimovsky (“Have a Cossack for the Danube”) or Marusya Churaevna (“Oh, don’t go, Gritsyu”, “The Wind Blows”) ", "The Cossacks fell asleep"). The authors of such songs are different in their social affiliation: among them are Bursat bohemians, clerical workers, and people from the Cossack environment; There is also undoubtedly the participation of the petty gentry - the nobility who cultivated the song-romance of a sensitive style. All this creativity penetrated the masses both directly and through handwritten and printed collections - “songbooks”. The abundance of sentimental and love lyrics in them is clear evidence of the withdrawal of a certain part of the philistinism and petty gentry from the social struggle. However, among the songs of the urban philistinism, we are in the 18th century. We find such strong things as the ballad about Bondarivna and Pan Kanevsky, the drama of which later fascinated playwrights of the 19th century more than once.

The brilliant poet of revolutionary democracy, Shevchenko, was the first to concentrate in his work the angry protest and vague impulses for freedom of the peasant masses of the 18th-19th centuries. and found a complete poetic form for this. It is not for nothing that many of his poems became favorite folk songs that live among the masses to this day. Other writers from the ranks of radical and revolutionary democracy, from I. Franko to M. Kotsyubinsky and others, followed Shevchenko’s path.

The era of the feudal crisis is characterized by the development of a genre of small songs, partly corresponding to Russian ditties: these are “Kolomyykas”, “Kozachki”, “Sabadashki”, “Chabarashki” - differing from each other in rhythm (kolomyykas are collected from them: " Gnatyuk "V., Ethnographic collection, volumes 17-19, ed. not finished). They responded to Ch. arr. the peasantry of Galicia to their “troubles of the day”; Small song forms similar to them, closer to the type of ditties, began to emerge in the 20th century. and among the workers and peasants within Tsarist Russia. But next to the small ones, large forms also lived, changing. The Russo-Japanese War, the events of 1905, the imperialist war - all this found expression in the creativity of the masses, although most of these responses became known only in Soviet times.

Short description

The most ancient types of verbal art arose in the process of the formation of human speech in the Upper Paleolithic era. Verbal creativity in ancient times was closely connected with human labor activity and reflected religious, mythical, historical ideas, as well as the beginnings of scientific knowledge. Ritual actions, through which primitive man sought to influence the forces of nature, fate, were accompanied by words: spells and conspiracies were pronounced, and various requests or threats were addressed to the forces of nature.

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Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Kazakhstan

Kazakh National Conservatory named after Kurmangazy

On the topic: “Ukrainian folklore”

Completed by: Filyuk V.

Head: senior lecturer

Berdibay A.R.

Almaty, 2013

Folklore (eng. folklore) - folk art, most often oral; artistic collective creative activity of the people, reflecting their life, views, ideals; poetry created by the people and existing among the masses (legends, songs, ditties, anecdotes, fairy tales, epics), folk music (songs, instrumental tunes and plays), theater (dramas, satirical plays, puppet theater), dance, architecture, fine and arts and crafts. The term “folklore” was first introduced into scientific use in 1846 by the English scientist William Toms, as a set of structures integrated by word and speech, regardless of what non-verbal elements they are associated with. It would probably be more accurate and definite to use the old one from the 20-30s. the out-of-use terminological phrase “oral literature” or the not very defined sociological limitation “oral folk literature”.

This use of the term is determined by different concepts and interpretations of the connections between the subject of folkloristics and other forms and layers of culture, the unequal structure of culture in different countries of Europe and America in those decades of the last century when ethnography and folkloristics arose, different rates of subsequent development, different composition of the main fund of texts, which science used in each country.

Works of folklore (fairy tales, legends, epics) help to recreate the characteristic features of folk speech, melodious and melodic. And proverbs and sayings, for example, demonstrate its conciseness and wisdom.

As humanity accumulated more and more significant life experience that needed to be passed on to subsequent generations, the role of verbal information increased. The separation of verbal creativity into an independent art form is the most important step in the prehistory of folklore.

Folklore was a verbal art organically inherent in folk life. The different purposes of the works gave rise to genres, with their various themes, images, and styles. In the ancient period, most peoples had tribal traditions, work and ritual songs, mythological stories, and conspiracies. The decisive event that paved the line between mythology and folklore itself was the appearance of fairy tales, the plots of which were perceived as fiction.

In ancient and medieval society, a heroic epic took shape (Irish sagas, Kyrgyz Manas, Russian epics and others). Legends and songs reflecting religious beliefs also arose (for example, Russian spiritual poems). Later, historical songs appeared, depicting real historical events and heroes, as they remained in people's memory. If ritual lyrics (rites accompanying the calendar and agricultural cycles, family rituals associated with birth, wedding, death) originated in ancient times, then non-ritual lyrics, with its interest in the ordinary person, appeared much later. However, over time, the boundary between ritual and non-ritual poetry is erased. Thus, ditties are sung at a wedding, while at the same time some of the wedding songs become part of the non-ritual repertoire.

Genres in folklore also differ in the method of performance (solo, choir, choir and soloist) and different combinations of text with melody, intonation, movements (singing, singing and dancing, storytelling, acting).

With changes in the social life of society, new genres arose in Russian folklore: soldiers', coachmen's, barge haulers' songs. The growth of industry and cities gave rise to romances, jokes, worker, school and student folklore.

In folklore there are productive genres, in the depths of which new works can appear. Now these are ditties, sayings, city songs, jokes, and many types of children's folklore. There are genres that are unproductive, but continue to exist. Thus, no new folk tales appear, but old ones are still told. Many old songs are also sung. But epics and historical songs are practically no longer heard live.

For thousands of years, folklore was the only form of poetic creativity among all peoples. The folklore of every nation is unique, just like its history, customs, and culture. Thus, epics and ditties are inherent only in Russian folklore, dumas - in Ukrainian, etc. Some genres (not just historical songs) reflect the history of a given people. The composition and form of ritual songs are different, which can be timed to coincide with periods of the agricultural, pastoral, hunting or fishing calendar; can enter into various relationships with the rituals of Christian, Muslim, Buddhist or other religions.

Folklore of late times is the most important source for studying the psychology, worldview, and aesthetics of a particular people.

For the first time people became interested in folklore as a phenomenon of historical memory in the 19th century. The first collectors of folk songs and legends of deep antiquity have not yet tried to determine what is hidden behind the mysterious and poetic images, what their hidden meaning is, what they can tell about the past. Experiences in analyzing folklore materials will come much later; in the 20th century, a special “mythological school” will appear. The 21st century will be marked by the emergence of the “fantasy” genre, in which traditionally folk heroes will mix with our contemporaries, becoming idols of youth. One way or another, folklore has always attracted the reader, listener, and heir. There is an entertaining, often chilling plot, and a special sense of “belonging” (after all, this is the heritage of our ancestors!), and an attempt to unravel the mystery, and the eternal desire to pass on the experience to the next generation.

Ukrainian musical culture originates from the ancient Eastern Slavs. It has been formed over the centuries since the 14th century. Its basis was the original song folklore of the Ukrainian people, which reflected their history and national liberation struggle. Folk music developed as an art of single-voice, as well as polyphonic-subvocal and harmonic composition in vocal, vocal-instrumental and instrumental forms. The melody and rhythm of Ukrainian songs are rich. In the central and south-eastern regions, polyphonic singing, close to Russian and Belarusian, is developed. In Western Podolia and the Carpathians, songs are usually monophonic, contain many archaic features, traces of connections with Polish, Slovak, Czech, as well as Romanian and Hungarian art. The intonation and modal structure of Ukrainian music is diverse - from the half-tone scale to major and minor. Among the folk instruments are the violin, basolya (stringed-bowed), kobza, bandura, torban (stringed-plucked), dulcimer (stringed-percussive), lyre (stringed-keyboard), sopilka, trembita (wind instruments), Jew's harp (drymba, reed -plucked), drum, tambourine, tulumbas (percussion). The genre composition of Ukrainian songs is rich.

Musicality is one of the characteristic features of the Ukrainian people; musical traditions on the territory of modern Ukraine have existed since prehistoric times. Musical instruments found by Kyiv archaeologists near Chernigov - rattles made from mammoth tusks - date back to the 18th millennium BC. The flutes found at the Molodovo site in the Chernivtsi region date back to the same time).

In the primitive game, soloists and other singers began to stand out; As they develop, the elements of musically expressive language are differentiated. Reciting on one tone even without the exact dimension of intervallic moves (the downward glissanding movement of the primitive melody in close, most often neighboring, sounds) led to a gradual expansion of the sound range: the fourth and fifth are fixed as natural boundaries for raising and lowering the voice and as reference intervals for the melody and their filling with intermediate (narrow) passages. This process, which took place in ancient times, was the source from which folk musical culture arose. It gave rise to national musical systems and national characteristics of the musical language.

Folk song creativity

The practice of folk song that existed in ancient times on the territory of Ukraine can be judged from ancient ritual songs. Many of them reflect the integral worldview of primitive man and reveal his attitude to nature and natural phenomena. The original national style is most fully represented by the songs of the central Dnieper region. They are characterized by melodic ornamentation, vocalization of vowels, and modes - Aeolian, Ionian, Dorian (often chromatized), Mixolydian. Connections with Belarusian and Russian folklore are clearly visible in the folklore of Polesie.

In the Carpathian region and the Carpathians, special song styles developed. They are defined as Hutsul and Lemko dialects. Hutsul folklore is distinguished by arachaic features of melodies and manner of performance (intonations close to the natural mode, descending glissandos at the end of phrases, singing with exclamations, improvisational melismatics, silabic recitative). Hutsul songs are characterized by a special Hutsul mode, as well as Aeolian, Ionian and Dorian modes. The Lemko dialect is characterized by connections with Polish, Hungarian, and Slovak song traditions, which are manifested in a sharply pulsating syncopated rhythm, the predominance of major over minor, and the dominance of silabic recitative.

Genre diversity of Ukrainian songs.

According to its significance in the life of the people, according to its theme, plot and musical characteristics, Ukrainian folk song is divided into many different genres, which have certain characteristics. In this understanding, the most typical genres of Ukrainian song are:

Calendar and ritual - vesnyanka, shchedrivka, haivka, carols, Kupala, obzhinkovi, etc.

Family ritual and everyday - wedding, comic, dance (including kolomiykas), ditties, lullabies, funerals, lamentations, etc.

Serf life - Chumatsky, Naimite, Burlatsky, etc.;

Historical songs and thoughts

Soldier's life - recruits, soldiers, streltsy;

Lyrical songs and ballads.

In the 15th-16th centuries, historical thoughts and songs became one of the most striking phenomena of Ukrainian folk music, a unique symbol of national history and culture. As the Arab traveler Pavel Aleppo (memoirist, son of the Patriarch of Antioch, who visited Ukraine in 1654 and 1656) noted: “The singing of the Cossacks pleases the soul and heals melancholy, because their melody is pleasant, comes from the heart and is performed as if from the lips alone; they passionately love musical notes, gentle and sweet melodies.”

The immediate source from which the thoughts developed was the tradition of historical and majestic songs, which were very widespread back in princely Rus'. They usually glorified princes, campaigns, and other historical events. So, back in the 11th century they sang praises to Mstislav, Yaroslav and others. In the chronicles there are many indications of the musical performance of various historical narratives about campaigns “against the Greeks and Khazars”, about “quarrels and fights of princes”, etc.

Already in the XIV-XVII and XVIII centuries, Ukrainian musicians became famous outside of Ukraine; their names can be found in the chronicles of those times among court musicians, including at the court of Polish kings and Russian emperors. The most famous kobzars are Timofey Belogradsky (famous lutenist, 18th century), Andrey Shut (19th century), Ostap Veresai (19th century), etc.

Duma is a lyrical-epic work of Ukrainian oral literature about the life of the Cossacks of the 16th-17th centuries, which was performed by wandering music singers: kobzars, bandura players, lyre players in Central and Left Bank Ukraine.

Characteristic signs of doom

In terms of volume, doom has more historical ballad songs, which, as with the old druzhina epic (“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” ancient carols, epics), have a genetic connection. One of the particular issues of the problem of the genre “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” in the literature about it was the question of its relationship with the Ukrainian Duma. For the first time, the closeness of the rhythmic structure of S. to the meter of the “Little Russian Duma” was noted by M. A. Maksimovich, who assumed that S. contains the beginnings of the well-known modern meters of Ukrainian and Great Russian poetry (Song of Igor’s Campaign). The researcher found in S. 10 verses containing rhyme and corresponding to the size of the verse in the Duma, which is characterized by the presence of verses of varying complexity and various sizes.