A politician with mixed views. The petty bourgeois class at the beginning of the 20th century
According to V. I. Dahl’s “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language,” a tradesman is “a city dweller of the lowest rank, paid per capita and subject to soldiering; The burghers also include artisans who are not registered as merchants.” It is believed that this word comes from the Polish and Belarusian name for small towns - “shtetl”. That is, a tradesman is a city dweller.
The philistinism originates from the inhabitants of the cities and towns of the Moscow state, mainly artisans, small homeowners and traders. Under Peter I, all urban inhabitants (“regular citizens”) received the general name philistines. According to the regulations of the Chief Magistrate of 1721, they were divided into two guilds and workshops. The first guild included bankers, noble merchants (“guests”), city doctors, pharmacists, healers, skippers of merchant ships, jewelers, icon painters and painters. The second guild included all those “who trade in small goods and rare food supplies, as well as handicraftsmen: carvers, turners, carpenters, tailors, shoemakers and the like.” In turn, artisans were divided into workshops created according to their professional affiliation.
Officially, the philistinism as a class was formalized under Catherine II. In the Letter of Grant to Cities (“Charter of Rights and Benefits to the Cities of the Russian Empire”), the burghers were defined as “urban inhabitants” and “average people”: “To this class of people should be counted all those who, without being a nobleman or a farmer, practice the arts, sciences, navigation, trade and crafts.” Belonging to the philistinism was formalized by an entry in the city philistine book; each philistine was assigned to a specific city. Any city resident who had real estate in the city, was engaged in trade or craft, paid taxes and performed public services could register as a bourgeois. All the town's burghers united into a philistine society. As a rule, the consent of society was required to enroll in the petty-bourgeois society of a particular city, but a number of categories (legitimate pupils of orphanages, pupils of an orphanage; non-believers who converted to Christianity; children of clergymen; children of clerical workers, etc.) could be assigned to the society and without his consent. Registration for the burghers was carried out by state chambers. The competence of the latter also included recording the surnames elected by persons who were assigned to the city status if they did not have surnames. A tradesman could temporarily leave his place of residence only with a temporary passport, and move to another locality with the permission of the authorities. The title of tradesman was hereditary. Only a court or a petty-bourgeois society could exclude a tradesman from the estate. The bourgeoisie paid a poll tax (from which they were exempted in 1866), internal city taxes; served conscript duty; were subject to corporal punishment (abolished in the mid-19th century); did not have the right to enter the civil service, and when entering military service they did not enjoy the rights of volunteers. Retired military personnel often became petty bourgeois, receiving a number of benefits, including exemption from taxes.
The petty-bourgeois class was lower in status than the merchant class, so impoverished merchants transferred to the petty bourgeoisie, and after 1863, when the third guild of merchants was abolished, all merchants assigned to it were transferred to this class. Registration as a bourgeois was also possible for state peasants, and after the abolition of serfdom - for all peasants, but subject to leaving the rural society (community) and with the consent of the authorities. After 1860, the bourgeois class was significantly replenished with peasants, who often joined it only in order not to pay taxes. Having bought a house in the city, they rented land and continued to live off agricultural labor, without engaging in either craft or trade. In turn, the townspeople who became rich and developed their enterprise moved into the merchant class, and some, having received an education, into the class of commoners.
In the 19th century, the townspeople owned most of the city's real estate. Being the main payers of taxes and taxes, the townspeople, along with merchants, belonged to the category of “proper city inhabitants.” The burghers were characterized by such qualities as personal responsibility, a sense of duty in family life, respect for work, reverence for elders, and religiosity. The adoption of orphans and the distribution of alms were common among the bourgeoisie.
In the second half of the 19th century, townspeople, as a rule, combined different methods of generating income. Various types of otkhodnichestvo, wage work, gardening, trade and intermediary operations, and craft activities predominated. Only a small part of the townspeople were able to become owners of small enterprises. They were mainly associated with three areas - the tavern trade, clothing production and trade in shops (mainly tobacco and haberdashery goods). Many townspeople were hired as servants by private individuals, served as clerks, and worked in the field of education. Bourgeois householders, as a rule, owned a subsidiary farm: a small vegetable garden and orchard, kept livestock and had the right to use the city public pasture. Part of the house was rented out, and food from the garden was sold. Both artisans and merchants (who made up the bulk of the philistinism in the provincial cities of central Russia) were often engaged in usury.
In 1811, there were 949.9 thousand petty bourgeois in Russia, which accounted for 35% of the urban population. Most of them lived in the European part of Russia, especially in the western provinces, where the number of burghers reached 60-90% of the population. According to the 1897 census, the number of burghers already numbered 13,386.4 thousand people - 10% of the total population of the Russian Empire and 40% of the urban population. Half of them lived in cities, and the other part in rural areas.
The October Revolution of 1917 abolished the class division. During the years of Soviet power, the word bourgeois acquired a persistent negative meaning and became a household word.
MESHCHANSTVO - urban-dat-noe community in the Russian Empire, in the 19th century, second in number after the Christian-st. va.
At different times, philistinism contributed different contents to the understanding. First of all, there were residents of the cities of Southern and Western Russia who lived in territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and subsequently - Re-chi Po-spo-li-toy (mainly re-mes-len-ni-ki, chalk -mo-owners and merchants). In the 17th century, the place-not - in the village of the Me-shchan-skaya settlement (kva-li-fi-tsi-rov. mas-te-ra, merchants and “ tse-lo-val-ni-ki" at the Sol-sky Court), built in 1671-1672 near Moscow exit from Re -chi Po-spo-li-that. In the 18th century, the name-of-the-country of all Russian cities was named after the Sad. In this meaning, the word “me-scha-not” is used in “Pro-ek-te-za-ko-nov about the rights of the middle-class” city residents", co-founded in the course of the work of the Ulozhen-noy commission of 1767-1768/69. In Ma-ni-fe-ste, Empress Eka-te-ri-ny II dated 17 (28). yam mi-lo-tyah on the occasion of the conclusion of the world with Port-to-Ot-to-mana” where-you-are-not-as-dat -naya ka-te-go-ria of city residents with a ka-pi-ta-lom of less than 500 rubles, obligated to pay a per capita tax, from- to give river-ruth and other na-tu-ral and de-gentle wines. Place-not with a ka-pi-ta-lom over 500 rubles could be transferred to a ku-pe-che-st-vo with a pack of gil-day collection . In the Zha-lo-van-noy gra-mo-te city of 1785, all city customs are named (“me -not in general"), which were divided into 6 rows, of which 4 rows ("real cities -new customs", that is, persons who had immobility in the city; "tse-ho-vye cities"; " foreign-city and foreign-country states"; "in-sad-skie") fact-ti-che-ski so-sta-vi-soc-word of the philistinism in a narrow-com the meaning of the word. The law secured the rights of the locals to the devil-pre-pyat-st-ven-but for the mother-of-the-small trade in the cities and once-a-ro-da about-mys-la-mi (keep-mass-ter-skie, truck-ti-ry, etc.), us-ta-but-vill the jurisdiction of the philistinism me -shan-sko-mu su-du, ga-ran-ti-ro-val op-re-de-len-nye rights. At the same time, there are no restrictions on the employment of government officials (until the end of the 1850s years), me-scha-not under-le-zha-those-forests on-ka-za-ni-yam (until 1904). The co-verbal status of the bourgeois was announced next.
In subsequent legislative acts, the circle of persons who had the right or were obliged to enter into so-word of the locals. It includes vo-pi-tan-ni-ki for-ve-de-niy, under-ve-dom-st-ve-nyh at-ka-za-public view , as well as educational houses; foreign countries have accepted Russian citizenship; Baptized Jews excluded from their former societies; brilliant merchants. The main source of the population of the word (648 thousand people of both sexes in 1789, 950 thousand people in 1811) was whether you came from cr-st-yan. At the same time, the former lords of the land were not dismissed from their estates, the appanage lords I-not - from the specific ve-dom-st-va, palace-crown-st-I-not - from the palace-tso-vo-go, state-owned crosses-I-not - from ka-zen-no-go. Attachment to the philistinism pro-iz-vo-di-los ka-zen-ny-mi pa-la-ta-mi according to the acceptance of the do-go-vo-ru and with the right -re-re-tion of 6 “blessed” members of the small-town society, to some extent- v-la-la p-pi-pi-ka. Living locally in the city, to a small-town society to which he was assigned , was not considered obligatory; having received a pass-port, he could live at the location of his trade-industrial enterprise. In 1906, the obligatory registration of the townspeople to the op-re-de-la-no-city was removed.
In every city, a small-town society has been created. It is from-bi-ra-lo for the 3rd year of the town council from the old-growth, its power and several “dozens” ", which the governors-were-waiting for. The old man kept a list of persons who were present in a given local society, you gave a pass on the ku, ve-gave the layout and collection according to-da-tey. A philistine who moved from one philistine society to another, and also to another community -vie, he had to get consent from his society for this - a dismissal sentence, in which indicated that he does not have any undue, frequent debts, is not under investigation and does not leave in the same place the residents of the clans, who are not able to feed themselves. In order to be accepted into another bourgeois society, his preliminary agreement was required; ho-di-we are re-co-men-da-tions with-se-dey at the old place of the resident-st-va. Su-sche-st-vo-va-la and an insignificant layer of persons (retired soldiers, si-ro-you and others), who -pi-sy-va-li to the small-town society without consent after-not. These persons in those 5 years from the time of writing were obligated to use this word -shan-sko-go-soc-st-va for the final and permanent number of them. By decree of Emperor Alek-san-dr. I dated December 12 (24), 1801, along with state baptisms and merchants, do you have the right to buy non-village lands (in the 2nd half of the 19th century, the size of the local land -de-niya su-s-st-ven-but grew). The Gildean reform of 1824 introduced a pro-thought about the townspeople, for the lack of trade, di- dividing them into “trading townspeople” and “garden townspeople.” The establishment of this re-form of this reform turned out to be too much for the townspeople, in 1826-1827 it's from-me-not-but.
The number of philistines increased especially in the 2nd half of the 19th century: about 4.6 million people (1858), over 9.9 million people (1897; 44.3% of of the entire urban village, in some cities - up to 90%). The increase in pro-is-ho-di-lo is mainly due to the arrival from other communities, still predominantly from the Christians. st-va, especially after the Christian reform of 1861. Locally, as usual, there were small-scale trades, handicrafts, and services for the Ka-za-chi, to step into the system. By the time of op-re-de-la-nyh ranks in the state and military service, there could have been nobility for us -st-vo, after graduating from higher educational institutions, they could be counted among honorary citizens (since 1832). In the 2nd half of the 19th century, philistinism became one of the sources of the formations of the bourgeoisie. In 1863, from-me-not-at-heart-to-give from the middle-class people, replaced-by-moderate trade-in-we-word- lo-same-no-eat. With iz-da-no-em for-co-on about the pro-we-word on-log (1898), which spread among the locals as well , their economic activity is window-like-tel-but-re-sta-la behind-the-network from co-word-ownership. The philistinism was up-divided after the October Revolution of 1917.
Since the 1840s, the word “me-scha-not” has become used in the translation sense - people with small-ki-mi in- te-re-sa-mi, og-ra-ni-chen-round-zo-rum, “cohesive-middle-ven-ness” (A.I. Ger-tsen) , “life without culture” (A.S. Ma-ka-ren-ko). The theme of philistinism as a social and ethical phenomenon was embodied in Russian literature and publications of the 19th-20th centuries: ro -ma-ne A.F. Pi-se-sko-go “Me-scha-ne”, play-se M. Gor-ko-go “Me-scha-ne”, ro-ma-ne E.I. For-my-ti-on “We” and others.
Additional literature:
Friend N.P. Local and land question. M., 1906; aka. Me-scha-no, their po-lo-same and well. 2nd ed. M., 1917;
Rynd-zyunsky P.G. City town of pre-reformed Russia. M., 1958; aka. City village // Essays on the economic history of Russia in the first half of the 19th century. M., 1959;
Klok-man Yu.R. So-ci-al-no-eco-no-mi-che-skaya is-to-ria of the Russian city: the second half of the 18th century. M., 1967;
No-vi-kov A.I. Me-shchan-st-vo and me-shcha-not. L., 1983;
Merkovsky V.G. Ro-to-word pe-re-kre-st-ki: kre-st-ya-not, me-scha-not, merchants, ka-za-ki and nobility. St. Petersburg, 2001;
Mi-ro-nov Yu.V. Re-vo-lu-tion and place-not. M., 2003;
An-ku-she-va K.A. Local town of pro-vin-tsi-al-no-go city // Siberian is-to-ri-che-zhur-nal. 2004. No. 1.
Initially, the concept of “philistinism” had a purely socio-economic meaning. In pre-revolutionary Russia, this was the name given to the urban petty bourgeoisie. From the middle of the 19th century, after the release of the comedy by J.B. Moliere’s “The Bourgeois in the Nobility”, this term began to be given a moral, aesthetic and political-ideological meaning.
In a broad sense, philistinism is a moral quality that characterizes not only but also a person’s thinking. Such individuals are characterized by limited views on life, narrow personal interests, cowardice and vulgarity in tastes.
Philistinism is the middle
The worldview and behavior of the tradesman is that he looks at the lowest strata with contempt, and at the highest society with blessing. He tries his best to get closer to the elite caste, but, unfortunately, he succeeds poorly. As a result, he remains an averagely proportioned member of society who will never jump “over his head.”
The tradesman always strives to arrange his life, adapting to circumstances. Often such a person, not having his own personal opinion, tries to blindly imitate everything that is considered prestigious and fashionable.
History of the emergence of philistinism
Philistinism is a class with very vague boundaries that arose in the process of urbanization. In cultural terms, this social mass stratum embodies the stages of adaptation of traditionalism to urban culture. This class, as a rule, included small urban artisans, merchants, homeowners and clerks. This social stratum did not show any political activity in the life of the country and was not at all interested in culture.
In essence, philistinism is a lack of spirituality, the desire to live in comfort only by obtaining material benefits. In Russian literature, the attitude towards philistinism is mainly negative. However, there is an opinion that philistinism is not the worst option for social development, because this large caste supports conservative views and highly values the material benefits of society.
Philistinism: personality characteristics
In modern conditions, philistines are not uncommon. These include people who are limited by stereotypical judgments, live according to a scenario imposed by society, afraid to deviate even a centimeter from this course. In other words, philistinism is narrow-mindedness, lack of breadth and flexibility of thinking. This is life without any priorities or beliefs. Such a person thinks only about material things, as a result of which such a person usually becomes very petty and stingy. In addition, in our time, not only a poor person can be a tradesman, he can also be a millionaire. The worldview of such a person is quite rarely amenable to change, even if he has become rich.
Philistines are gossips who, when they meet, the first thing they will do is find out from a person about his personal life (whether he (she) is married, when the wedding will be, children, etc.). Limited views and lack of goals are the main criteria of a tradesman.
Unfortunately, philistinism is a quality that most of the inhabitants of our planet have. If you notice that you also have this property, you must definitely fight and suppress it.
Bourgeois this name is already called in Moscow Rus'. sometimes “black city people”, i.e. townspeople who occupied the lowest place among city residents (petty traders, artisans, day laborers) and better known as townspeople(cm.). The manifesto of March 17, 1775 named M. all urban inhabitants who, without owning a capital of 500 rubles, could not be enrolled as merchants. The city regulations of 1785 call M. generally all representatives of the third estate ("of the middle class of people, or M., the name is a consequence of hard work or good morals, which is how they acquired an excellent condition"), calling townspeople those urban inhabitants who do not belong to any eminent citizenship, neither to the merchants, nor to the guilds, but feed in the city by fishing, handicrafts or work. Later legislation assigned the name M. exclusively to this last, “lower category of urban inhabitants,” almost completely abandoning the term: townspeople. Unlike merchants and guild workers, M. represent an estate in the strict sense, since belonging to the philistinism is hereditary and is not conditioned by the observance of any rules. By the rights of their state, M. belong to the former tax states; were not exempted from corporal punishment by court. In areas where the provision on zemstvo district chiefs has been introduced, M., “who have permanent residence in villages until they leave them,” are subordinate to peasant public administration and subordinate to the administrative and punitive power of zemstvo chiefs (see the corresponding article), but not are subject to corporal punishment according to the verdicts of the volost courts. The burghers are subject to the disciplinary power of their philistine societies, which have the right to forcibly evict their vicious members to Siberia, for which see Link. Before the verdict on the eviction of vicious and depraved M. to Siberia, bourgeois societies applied to them up to three times, according to secular sentences, corrective measures, namely: assignment to various works, government, city and private, for the first time for a period of one to two months, in the second - from 2 to 4 months and in the third - from 4 to six months. In 1866, the cities of European Russia were exempted from the poll tax, in exchange for which a tax was introduced on real estate in cities, towns and towns; Now this tax has been extended to Siberia and does not have the character of a specifically petty-bourgeois tax. The cities of each city, town or town form a special bourgeois society. As a general rule, the management of bourgeois society belongs to to the bourgeois elder and his assistants, called foremen; they are all elected for a three-year term and approved by the governor. With the permission of the governor, petty-bourgeois societies of cities where city regulations have been introduced may establish to manage the affairs of the society bourgeois councils; the composition of the latter is not determined by law. Responsibilities of the bourgeois elders or councils are responsible for taking care of all estate affairs, maintaining a list of M., issuing residence permits, distribution, with public consent, and collecting all payments due to the estate. Public fees to satisfy the private needs of bourgeois society can be introduced only on the basis of public verdicts. In the cities of Vilna, Grodno, Kovno and Minsk provinces. elected to draw up public sentences for three years bourgeois deputies, one from every five petty-bourgeois households, and in the cities of Nizhny Novgorod and Penza - one from 5 - 10 households. All positions in petty-bourgeois self-government are free of charge. In both capitals and Odessa, M. have the same social organization as the merchants (see the corresponding article), namely meetings of elected, class elders and class councils. The petty-bourgeois state is imparted by birth, marriage (if the wife does not have the rights of a higher state), and adoption; it is acquired by joining some petty-bourgeois society. As a general rule, registration is made no other way than by the acceptance verdict of petty-bourgeois society; at the same time, persons who already belong to some peasant or bourgeois society must also present a dismissal sentence from their previous society. Without the consent of petty-bourgeois societies, persons who do not belong to any state and are therefore obliged to choose a type of life (for example, illegitimate, pets orphanages, children of clerical workers). To assign these persons to the bourgeois society, only the approval of six trustworthy citizen-householders and the consent of the bourgeois council is required. The latter, however, can refuse its consent only to those of the above-mentioned persons who have been defamed by the court or have “an obvious and trust-violating vice, known to everyone, although they have not been tried, until they are acquitted.” There are cities in whose bourgeois societies all persons can be assigned without receiving sentences; these are Vladikavkaz, Kokbekty, Kopal, Petrovsk, Sergiopol, Sukhum, Chita.
Encyclopedic Dictionary F.A. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron. - S.-Pb.: Brockhaus-Efron. 1890-1907 .
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The philistinism originates from the posads (residents of cities and towns) of Moscow Rus', mainly artisans, small homeowners and traders. It is believed that the name comes from the Polish and Belarusian name for small towns - “shtetl”. Officially, the class of burghers was formalized in the Charter of the Cities of Catherine II in 1785. The name “philistines” was defined in it as: “urban inhabitants”, “middle class people”, small traders and artisans. The petty bourgeois class was lower in status than the merchant class. It was the townspeople who owned most of the city's real estate. Being the main payers of taxes and taxes, the townspeople, along with merchants, belonged to the category of “proper city inhabitants.”
The town's bourgeoisie united into a "bourgeois society." Belonging to the philistinism was formalized by an entry in the city philistine book, that is, every philistine was assigned to a specific city. A tradesman could temporarily leave his locality of residence only with a temporary passport, and move to another with the permission of the authorities (which, however, was usually given). The title of tradesman was hereditary. Any city resident who owned real estate in the city, was engaged in trade or craft, paid taxes and performed public services could register as a bourgeois. Only a court or a petty-bourgeois society could exclude a tradesman from the estate. The tradesman paid the poll tax, internal city taxes, and served conscription duty. The bourgeoisie had the right of corporate association and class self-government (which was exercised through the bourgeois councils). For them there was a separate, petty-bourgeois court. In the middle of the 19th century, the townspeople were freed from corporal punishment, and from 1866 - from the poll tax.
Bourgeois craftsmen moved into the category of guild workers: anyone who was constantly engaged in any craft was obliged to enroll in the guild. Craftsmen were divided by rank into masters and apprentices. Only an apprentice who had held this rank for at least three years could become a master.
Literature
- Yu. Stepanov. Philistinism // Stepanov Yu. S. Constants: Dictionary of Russian culture: 3rd ed. - M.: Academic project, 2004, p. 679-683
- M. Gorky Notes on philistinism
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