What haplogroup? What is a haplogroup? Anatoly Klyosov

Each person has 23 pairs of chromosomes in which all the genetic information inherited from their parents is recorded. Chromosomes are formed at the moment of conception by crossing, each takes half from the mother's chromosome and half from the father's; what exactly will come from the mother and what from the father is not known, everything is decided by chance.

Only one male chromosome, Y, does not participate in this lottery; it is entirely passed from father to son like a relay baton. It should be noted that women do not have it at all.

With each new generation, mutations occur in some parts of the chromosome - loci, and it is thanks to these mutations that it becomes possible to reconstruct genera. There are several hundred loci on a chromosome.

It is not yet clear why, but for some reason nature repeatedly duplicates the genetic information recorded in loci. There are from 5 to 40 repeats. Once every few generations, a mutation occurs in each locus, the number of repeats suddenly decreases by 1-2 repeats or increases.

What haplogroups are most common among Russians?

Y-DNA of Famous historical and modern personalities. Due to the almost unchanged Y-DNA line, passed from father to son over generations, this article contains analyzes of both the carriers themselves and their ancestors/descendants.

DNA of famous people

Cao Cao and the Japanese Takamuko family

Y-DNA: O2*-M268

Chinese commander, author of works on military affairs and poet, first minister of the Han Dynasty. The actual ruler of the Han Empire at the beginning of the 3rd century AD. e. Haplogroup O2* was determined by analysis of descendants. Analysis of older DNA taken from the tooth of Cao Cao's ancestor, Cao Ding's great-uncle, showed O2*-M268.

The Japanese Takamuko clan originates from the eldest son of Cao Cao named Cao Pi and accordingly belongs to the same haplogroup.

Zia Long

Y-DNA: O2a

Gia Long, aka Nguyen Phuc Anh, aka Nguyen The To, is the last of the Nguyen Princes and the first emperor of Vietnam from the Nguyen dynasty. Haplogroup O2a has been determined from analyzes of some descendants, but additional data is required for a final decision.

Somerled and the Scottish clans MacDougall, MacDonald and MacAlister

Y-DNA: R1a-L448

Somerled (Gaelic: Somhairle) was a Gaelic-Norse commander, founder and first ruler (1156-1164) of the kingdom of the Isles in the Hebrides and the west coast of Scotland. Somerled's son King Dougal is the founder of the MacDougall clan, which dominated the west coast of Scotland until the mid-14th century. Somerled is also the male-line ancestor of the Donald, MacDonald and MacAlister clans. DNA examination of Somerled's documented relatives identified the Norwegian variant R1a-L448 of the L176.1 subclade. In 2005, geneticist Bryan Sykes analyzed the clan leaders (Lord Godfrey Macdonald, Sir Ian Macdonald of Sleat, Ranald MacDonald of Clan Ranald, William McAlester of Loup and Ranald MacDonnell of Glengary) and the results confirmed R1a-L448. At the same time, not all members of the listed clans are descendants of Somerled and according to the overall results, 70% belong to the Celtic R1b.

Ottomans

Y-DNA: R1a-Z93

The dynasty of Turkish sultans and caliphs that reigned from 1299 to 1924. Haplogroup R1a-Z93 has been determined from analyzes of some descendants, but additional data is required for a final decision.

Stuarts

Y-DNA: R1b-L21

The dynasties of the kings of Scotland (1371-1651, 1660-1707), England (1603-1649, 1660-1694, 1702-1707), Ireland (1603-1649, 1660-1694, 1702-1714) ) and Great Britain (in 1707-1714).

Saxe-Coburg-Gotha Dynasty

Y-DNA: R1b-U106

A branch of the Ernestine line of the ancient Saxon Wettin dynasty, which ruled in several European states and is the ruling dynasty in Belgium and Great Britain.

Romanovs from Peter III

Y-DNA: R1b

The line of the Oldenburg dynasty (11th century), separated from its Holstein-Gottorp branch, and thanks to inheritance through the female line, took the name of the Romanovs, and from 1762 the crown of the Russian Empire. Duke Karl Friedrich of Holstein-Gottorp and Anna Petrovna, parents of Peter III, the founder of the Holstein-Gottorp branch of the Romanovs.

Habsburgs

Y-DNA: R1b-U152 (L2+)

One of the most powerful dynasties in Europe. Representatives of the dynasty are known as the rulers of Austria (from 1282), which later transformed into the multinational Austro-Hungarian Empire (until 1918), which was one of the leading European powers, as well as the emperors of the Holy Roman Empire, whose throne the Habsburgs occupied from 1438 to 1806 (with a short break in 1742-1745). According to the Habsburg Family Project, the Habsburgs belong to R1b-U152 (L2+).

George Washington

Y-DNA: R1b-U152 (L2)

George Washington - American statesman, first President of the United States of America, Founding Father of the United States, Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army, participant in the War of Independence, creator of the American institution of the presidency. Haplogroup R1b-U152 (L2) was determined by analyzing data from the Washington DNA Project with the territorial allocation of Oxfordshire and Lancashire, from which George Washington was from.

Y-DNA: R1b

Many US presidents belong to R1b (Zachary Taylor (12th), Franklin Pierce (14th), William McKinley (25th), and Woodrow Wilson (28th)).

Tutankhamun

Y-DNA: R1b1a2

According to the Swiss laboratory iGENEA, based on data from the Discovery Channel film, Tutankhamun belongs to the haplogroup R1b1a2. Since the publication of this result, the data have not been scientifically refuted, which confirms iGENEA's correctness.

Y-DNA: E1b1a

In December 2012, the same group of researchers who worked with Tutankhamun's DNA identified Ramesses III as belonging to haplogroup E1b1a.

Napoleon

Y-DNA: E1b1b1c1* (E-M34*)

Napoleon's haplogroup E1b1b1c1* is most concentrated in Ethiopia. Lucotte (2011) argues that Napoleon knew about his origins. His ancestor Francesco Buonaparte was a mercenary nicknamed “The Maur of Sarzane”.

Y-DNA: G-M201

Richard III

Y-DNA: G2-P287

Richard III and possibly the entire Plantagenet dynasty belonged to haplogroup G2-P287+. Only G-M201, G1-M285, and G2-P287 were tested. There is also the possibility of belonging to G2a2b-L30.

Y-DNA: G2a2b

Ice mummy of a Chalcolithic man, discovered in 1991 in the Tyrolean Alps on the Similaun glacier in the Ötztal valley at an altitude of 3200 meters as a result of strong melting of ice. The age of the mummy, determined by radiocarbon dating, is approximately 5300 years. In Austria, the mummy is called Ötzi after the place where it was discovered.

Y-DNA: J-CTS1460

According to the Georgian DNA Project, this descendant of an Alan noble family is assigned to haplogroup J-CTS1460. The history of the rise of the Bibiluri clan begins with the Sidamont clan, whose members in Transcaucasia became the eristavis of Ksani and Aragvi. They found themselves in the new place of Sidamont after the Tatar-Mongol invasion. The history of their rise is reflected in the chronicle “Monument of the Eristavis,” created between 1405/6-1410. in the Largvis monastery.

Olaf II

Y-DNA: I1

Olaf II (Olaf the Holy, Olaf Haraldsson, Olaf the Fat; other Scand. Olafr Digre, Norse Olav den hellige/Heilag Olav; 995-1030) - king of Norway from 1015 to 1028, representative of the Horfager dynasty, son of Harald the Greenlander . The Saga of Olaf the Saint is dedicated to him. One of the most revered general Christian saints in Scandinavia (also revered in Rus')

Lev Tolstoy

Y-DNA: I1 - M253

The Tolstoys are a Russian noble (count) family. According to family legends, the family descended “from the honest husband Indris”, who left “from the Germans, from the Caesar’s land” and settled in Chernigov in 1353 with two sons and a squad of three thousand people. Indris converted to Orthodoxy and received the name Leonty. His great-grandson Andrei Kharitonovich moved from Chernigov to Moscow and received the nickname Tolstoy from Grand Duke Vasily the Dark. In the count branch of the Tolstoys, the famous writer Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy is separated from Indris by 20 tribes. The first representative of the Tolstoy family to be tested was Peter Tolstoy, a famous Russian TV presenter, great-great-grandson of the writer Leo Tolstoy. The study took place as part of the “My Pedigree” program.

Christian theologian, initiator of the Reformation, leading translator of the Bible into German. One of the directions of Protestantism is named after him. According to the Luther Surname DNA Project and ySearch (ySearch ID: YTE6E), Martin Luther belongs to haplogroup I2a-Din-N (L147.2+).

Rurikovich

Y-DNA: N1c1, R1a1a

According to the Russian Nobility DNA Project, the Rurikovichs from Vladimir II Monomakh, including Alexander Nevsky (1220-1263) and Ivan the Terrible (1530-1584), belonged to haplogroup N1c1. Despite this, the alleged cousin of Vladimir II Monomakh Oleg Svyatoslavich, Prince of Chernigov and his descendants belonged to R1a1a. Studies of the Protorurikovichs also show N1c1 coinciding with Vladimir Monomakh, and the marker DYS390=23 determines their Scandinavian, not Ural origin. Well, this confirms the Varangian origin of Rurik himself (830-879), the founder of Kievan Rus.

Gediminovichi

Y-DNA: N1c1

It is believed that the Lithuanian Gedimin family belongs to the Rurik line. However, despite the fact that both have haplogroup N1c1, they have different subclades with a common ancestor 2500 years ago.

Aisinghioro Nurhaci

Y-DNA: C3b2b1*-M401(xF5483)

The founder of the Manchu Empire, named after its dynasty Da Jin - “Great Golden” (aka Hou Jin - “Late Golden”; The first, or Early, was considered the Jurchen Jin Empire (1115-1234), in 1636 renamed Da Qing - “ Great Pure" (according to Chinese tradition, the ruling dynasty was always designated with the prefix Da - "great", and previous dynasties were mentioned with the index chao - "dynasty, house". The Qing version of the recording - "Pure" - is commonly used in scientific and popular science literature ).

Xue et al. (2005) determined that Aisinghioro Nurhaci belongs to haplogroup C3c with the age of the subclade being about 500 years. Shin Yan et al. (2014) tested modern descendants and identified C3b2b1*-M401(xF5483).

Thomas Jefferson

Y-DNA: T

President of the United States, a prominent figure in the American War of Independence, one of the authors of the Declaration of Independence (1776), 3rd President of the United States in 1801-1809, one of the founding fathers of this state, an outstanding politician, diplomat and philosopher of the Enlightenment. DNA analysis of Jefferson's descendants from his slave Sally Hemings, as well as data published by Family Tree DNA in 2007, identified haplogroup T (formerly K2).

Feth Ali Shah

Y-DNA: J1

Feth Ali Shah (1772-1834) - the second Shah of Iran of the Qajar dynasty, reigned from 1797 to 1834, nephew and successor of the founder of the Qajar dynasty - eunuch Aga Mohammed. Based on analyzes of several descendants of his sons, haplogroup J1 with DYS388 = 13 was identified.

The number of characters describing the haplogroup of human Y chromosomes (women have XX sets, men have XY chromosomes) is up to 5-10 or more, and in order to draw any conclusions, “haplotypes” are better used. The so-called "haplogroup tree" could more accurately be called a haplotype tree. Haplotypes - I, J, O, C, R1a1, R1b1, D and so on.

DNA genealogy is an important tool for historians and for researchers of the origins of humanity. Humanity is countries, peoples. Nations are made up of tribes, ethnic and cultural groups. The culture of humanity is international, but it always has national and state differences and characteristics.

Information about the origin of tribes and peoples is transmitted not only through sections of the Y chromosomes, identified as marks of the first ancestor, starting from which there have been no mutations until now; - but also through the X chromosomes, which are present in both men and women.

Historically, humanity has always, from time to time, been sick with ideas of superiority, but no people or tribes have any special advantages or disadvantages. There is also no obvious identification of peoples by haplotypes.

Haplotypes could be designated in history as follows - I - Slavs (I1 - northern, I2 - southern), J - Semites, D - Tibetans, O - Chinese, E - Arabs, (O1 - northern, O2 - southern), Q - Mayans, gypsies,
R1a1 - Scythians, R1b1 - Sumerians, C - Mongols. Haplotypes I and J originated from IJKL about 20 thousand years ago. The peoples of Eastern Europe, Russians, Ukrainians, Poles, Belarusians have about 50% of R1a1 statistics. Haplogroup R1b1 originates from the West, Africa. R1b1 - characteristic of the pharaohs, this group is of great importance among the Irish (up to 90%). Among Russians, R1b1 is about 4%; these are ethnic Bashkirs or immigrants from the West. In the West, accordingly, R1a1 are immigrants from the East (Vikings, Swedes). The Scythian haplotypes were combined with the South Siberian N3C. The Sumerian haplotypes are not only R1b1, but also D (D1, D2). Haplogroup D1 is found among both the Ayni and Japanese peoples.

The origin of the Turks comes from the Scythians, like the Eastern European peoples. The Chinese O and Mongolian C lines were of great importance in the creation of the Turkic community. The Turks conquered the Rourans, the Chinese, and in the 7th century the Turks captured Khazaria and created the Turkic Kaganate. Khazaria is a state from Crimea to Muscovy, which was formed in the 3rd century, after the conquest of Scythia by the Huns.

The Kyrgyz are also Turkic, and they have a Turkic language, but the Kyrgyz have R1a1 - up to 70%. Unlike the Kyrgyz, the Kazakhs have large statistics of Chingizids C, Naimans - O, the Kazakhs have up to 4% of statistics - Semites, up to 10% - Argyns. Kazakhs are not only Chingizids, but also Timurids - possible origin of the Timurids - R1a1.

Theories of the “Tatar-Mongol yoke” are fundamentally erroneous because neither the Russians nor the Tatars have Mongol lines - C (tenths of a %).

All attempts to create theories of the “Aryans” or “Slavic-Aryans” were unsuccessful. There are no Aryans, and among the Russians and the peoples of Eastern Europe, only a quarter of statistics - I, having origin - the Mediterranean, the Balkans. Some people believe that Semites are Jews. But Jews have about 40% J statistics, Georgians, Armenians, Azerbaijanis - up to 30% J. Greek Cypriots - up to 40% J. Some peoples of the North Caucasus - up to 90% J. In Qatar, Yemen - up to 90 % (E+J).

For example, Albert Einstein has E2. Haplotypes of Jews - Ashkenazi - R1a1; among Jews, this haplotype, according to A. Klyosov (Harvard), appeared in the 7th century. Haplogroups R1b1 appeared among Jews about 4 thousand years ago, J - about 17,500 years ago. There is no direct identification of nationality and haplotype - but for the history of the origin of the peoples that exist now, not only the statistics of ancestors are important, but also the times when these haplotypes appeared among tribes and peoples.

All models of the development of the haplogroup tree are based on the continuous development of humanity. However, all human activity comes down to the general movement of humanity directed towards the End of the World. The earth was saved from humanity by floods and fires, great glaciations. And therefore, models of the development of humanity, which is more than 4 billion years old on Earth, can also be based on models of restoration of large communities from small ones that remained on Earth after global catastrophes.

For some groups of people, the theories of evolution and eugenics, based on the superiority of the European - the “crown” of these same theories, are considered more convenient, and other peoples are supposedly less distant in their “development” (through labor, etc.) from monkeys.

The origin of Russians and Ukrainians are now very sensitive, even political, topics. But these topics can be studied using DNA genealogy methods. Scientists' research should not be biased, and should not be directed towards some pre-prepared results. And then it turns out that the Russians are part of the new Ukrainian nation, and the Ukrainians are part of the Russian people, the southern Russians.

In the study of the origin of tribes and peoples, toponymy, including geographical names and linguistic similarities, is very important evidence. There are a lot of geographical names - Argyn, Argun, Argyn Gorge, Argun River. The Argyns were part of the Huns - and the striking force of the Huns was the Bashkir army. The Argyns did not submit to the Russian tsarist government and went to the Ottoman Empire.

Bash - pick - this is the main blow. Alty ai - six months, Altai. Baikal is a great lake (Turk). Mas keve - tax to row, keve - oar, row (Hebrew), Moscow, Kyiv - toponymy of Khazaria. Tomen - low (Turkic). Sar sin - marked king (Hebrew), sary sin - yellow island (Turkic), Tsaritsyn. Oryn Bor - place of chalk (Turk), Orenburg.

Scythia, which existed from Crimea to India, including Afghanistan, was conquered by Alexander the Great (3rd century BC). He built cities - Alexandria, in Afghanistan - the city of Kandahar, in Uzbekistan - Khojent. Alexander himself, a young conqueror, married the daughter of an Afghan nobleman. Now Afghans and Iranians have up to 30% R1a1 statistics, and no J at all - so these peoples are on the “axis of evil”. In Afghanistan there were traces of ancient Slavic peoples who mixed with the Scythians and peoples with haplogroup L.

Linguistic similarities alone cannot serve as models of the origin of peoples and tribes. There are more differences between the Turks than similarities, despite the fact that the Turkic languages ​​are similar to each other. The languages ​​of the Turks are closer to the language of the ancestors of the Eastern European peoples - the Scythians. Among the Eastern European peoples, the roots of Slavic (Mediterranean) languages ​​now have greater weight - the origin of the peoples of the IJKL groups - the Mediterranean coast, islands. The cultural development of Eastern Europe occurred in such a way that Polish words were added to the Ukrainian language, and words of Romance origin were added to Polish, despite the fact that Poland had been set against Russia for many centuries.

Modern prospects for the development of Western European states assume their gradual destruction, the resettlement of masses of migrants from Africa and Eastern Europe, and the re-creation of Khazaria.

The modern Internet is a great thing. On the one hand, it contains a lot of interesting and useful information. Information available on the Internet that can be used to develop certain concepts, but if a) the author has some knowledge on the topic b) when comparing it with counterarguments c) when analyzing arguments and counterarguments from the standpoint of logic, context, verifiability, compliance with the general and related bodies of information in terms of consistency.

Unfortunately, this approach - essentially a source study, which requires, in fact, a serious humanitarian (exactly this kind of) education and, at a minimum, a flexible mind and refined logic - is not found among everyone. Unscrupulous journalists, bloggers and various types of online crazy people like to operate on data taken out of context. Sometimes the information of the latter contains references to “seemingly scientific” arguments and seems “evidence-based” to many inexperienced people. Usually their imaginary scientific nature is revealed by smart people quite quickly. As a rule, pseudoscience comes out immediately when the texts talk about “they are hiding the truth from us.” Any conspiracy theory always deals with delusional, unverifiable and unprovable things and outright fakes - such as the “Dulles Plan” invented by the commies (which never existed), the mythical phrase “Stalin took Russia with a plow and left with an atomic bomb” (which he never wrote and Churchill did not say), a classic forgery of a source - “Vlesova’s Book” (written, of course, by a self-taught White emigrant, and not by the ancient Slavs), and numerous exercises by Bushkov about “Russia that did not exist”, based on the nonsense works of Fomenko and Nosovsky - as an example, “The Great Wall of China, built by the ancient Rus, because the battlements are not on the same side” or “The Great Wall was built by Mao Zedong”, all kinds of chudinovism and leftism (everyone can buy the diplomas of these “academicians” for 300 dollars), etc.

In various kinds of pseudo-historical discussions concerning the historical origin of Russians and Slavs, it is now fashionable to interweave “haplogroups”. With the light hand of a certain “scientist” (not a biologist at all) Klesov, who lives (like “academician” Levashov) in the USA (hence the ridiculously familiar trick - an appeal to the authority of “Western science” - “American scientists have proven that Russians are 4500 years old!” ) this completely scientific method of determining paternity and dynasticity began to be used for constructions for which it was not at all intended. As a result, many posts contain monstrously distorted results of its use. The purpose of this post was to clarify the obvious points, so that the numerous references to the fact that “haplogroups have been proven”, given by the authors in place and out of place, would not be perceived uncritically when reading some texts.

Let me clarify some commonplaces in the form of popularly given answers to questions.

Question 1 Can a specific haplogroup indicate a specific nationality? In other words, is there a Russian or German (without quotes) haplogroup?

Answer: No. Why? Because any currently existing ethnic group consists of people with at least two or three Y-chromosomal haplogroups. In other words, you can be Russian with haplogroup I1, R1a1, R1b, N3, I2, J2 and even E. The same applies to other peoples. for example, among Ashkenazi Jews - about 12% are carriers of the supposedly "marker" haplogroup R1a1 for Russians - and it is emphasized that not among "half-breeds" and "goyim", but among the most real, typical representatives of their ethnic group. And so on.

Thus, the correlation of a certain haplogroup with modern nationalities and individual representatives of ethnic groups can only be of a statistical, relative nature. “Measuring skulls” by haplogroups won’t work - it’s quite likely that you’ll classify a Jew as a Russian, and a Russian as a Jew. The presence of R1a among Poles - 56.4%, and... Kyrgyz - as much as 63.5% speaks about whether peoples can be defined as “Aryans” by only one criterion - the presence of a statistical marker haplogroup. And the Volga Tatars are no different from the Russians in terms of the set of haplogroups. I hope that conclusions have been drawn? In other words, no ethnic community will emerge that unites people from the conventionally “Aryan” haplogroup R1a1. At the same time, there is no objective difference between the classical Russians living in the same region, but with the conditionally “Finnish” haplogroup N, and the same classical Russians, carriers of the “Aryan” haplogroup R1a. The entire rest of the gene pool (and in many ways more significant than the haplomarker) of the descendants of the “ancestral Finnish men” and the “ancestral Aryan men” was mixed a long time ago.

Question 2. What do haplogroups actually talk about and what can’t they talk about?

Answer: As follows from answer 1 and as correctly noted by the author of another detailed post dedicated to haplogroups: “Those sections of the Y chromosome that serve as markers for identifying haplogroups themselves do not encode anything and have no biological meaning. These are markers in their pure form "They can be compared to the orange and green LEDs in the film "Kin-dza-dza", which were used to identify Chatlans and Patsaks, and there was no other difference between these "races" except the color of the light bulb."

By haplogroup one can judge - statistically(!!! this is important - precisely statistically, i.e. with inevitable errors, but still possible) about the difference, dissimilarity in the origin of certain large ethnolinguistic massifs and the degree of proximity of their contacts (sexual ones). For example, all Turkic peoples are carriers of specific haplogroups. Even if some of the Turks do not have or have very few of their “markers” and C, O and Q, which are absent among the Slavs, then D, R1b1b1 or N1b, which are less common among the Turks, are still statistically absent among Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians. We can conclude, therefore, that contacts with the Turks throughout history among the Eastern Slavs are statistically insignificant, and the statement that “we are Asians” is incorrect. Such conclusions are quite scientific. It can also be argued that the typical “Mongoloid” haplogroups C and Q are not found among Russians at all, and if so, the contacts of the population of Rus' with the Mongols during the period of the yoke were minimal. This, however, is clearly evidenced by all historical sources - 20 years after 1240, all Mongol military formations were withdrawn from the territory of Rus' and the Russian princes carried the tribute collected in Rus' to the Horde themselves. Thus, most likely the average Russian peasant of the late 13th and 14th-15th centuries never saw a single living “Mongol” (Horde) in his life. And this is not a “discovery” at all - haplogroups only confirm what we already know (another thing is that in “popular” ahistorical literature, including in textbooks, the content of which is now practically not controlled by scientists, about little is written about this).

Further, from answer 1 it is clear that if representatives of a certain ethnic group belong to several haplogroups, then this DOES NOT MEAN that this ethnic group is a kind of mechanical combination of populations with different gene pools. The rest of their gene pool, except for the Y chromosomes, will be mixed without any practical possibility of differentiation. 16% of haplogroup N among Russians in the regions north of Moscow does not mean that 16% of them are supposedly “more Finns than Slavs” - both for the reason stated above (mixing the rest of the, much more important, gene pool to the point of unrecognizability) and for reasons statistical - because Among the population of Finland, only 60% of the population have this haplogroup, and among Estonians in general there are 40%.

I will quote again - “The peculiarity of the Y chromosome is that it is passed from father to son almost unchanged and does not experience “mixing” or “dilution” by maternal heredity. This allows it to be used as a mathematically accurate tool for determining paternal origin. If the term "dynasty" has any biological meaning, then it is precisely the inheritance of the Y chromosome. a specific mutation has occurred on the Y chromosome."

Modern science is inclined to believe that these mutations could have occurred between 50 and 10 thousand years ago, and the creationist version, which seems more truthful to me, speaks of the complete uncertainty of the results of using the “biological clock” methods (they give completely different values) and says about the probable practical simultaneity of the appearance of these mutations associated with the legend of the Tower of Babel and the dispersion of peoples. Whether one or the other is right is, in principle, not very important for us living today.

What matters is that Y - chromosome does not determine the gene pool. It is not a carrier of some “ethnically specific” information in the genome. From more than 20,000 genes human genome, the Y chromosome contains only about 100 pieces. They encode mainly the structure and functioning of the male genital organs. There is no other information there. Facial features, skin color, mental and thinking characteristics are spelled out on other chromosomes which, during inheritance, go through recombination (the paternal and maternal sections of the chromosomes are randomly mixed). The carrier of the “Aryan chromosome” after hundreds of generations can be a typical black man (if, say, his black mother got pregnant in the 16th century from a Portuguese father). And vice versa.

Thus. people who talk about “Aryan”, “Semitic”, “Russian”, “Finnish”, “Celtic” haplogroups not in their conventional marker meaning tied to MODERNITY, but in a literally understood one, and even transfer these definitions to the distant past - are mistaken and confuse others. The phrase “4500 years ago in the Voronezh region they found a skeleton identified by haplogroup as Russian, Russians began to exist 4500 years ago” does not make any sense. Russians have several haplogroups, - once. The skeleton does not represent a statistically significant sample - that's two(maybe this is the same Ashkenazi Jew from the 12% of carriers of the “Aryan” haplogroup R1a1? Or Kyrgyz?). Three: Why on earth was it concluded that the mutation arose (and continued) exactly 4500 years ago? Were the skeletons of his father and grandfather, as well as the skeletons of his offspring, examined? Why didn't it arise 10 thousand years ago? And so on.

Question 3: is R1a1, a Russian haplogroup, an “unconditional enic marker”? Is it true that Russians, in terms of their purity (i.e., the frequency of occurrence of this haplogroup), are the most stable and pure among Europeans?

Answer: No. And it's not true. The stability of Russians as a people, their ethnic uniqueness is not determined by haplogroups, and neither is haplogroup R1a1. Let's look at the data: if we take an average sample from several different studies with a 100% fit. then (remember that haplogroups are named according to MODERN distribution among peoples):

47% of Russians have the “Aryan” haplogroup R1a1, which they inherited from the Proto-Slavs and other autochthons of Eastern Europe.

16% of Russians- conditionally “Finnish” haplogroup N3.

7% of Russians- conditionally “Celtic” haplogroup R1b, which dominates among many peoples of Western Europe. This is a legacy of the presence of the Proto-Slavs in Central Europe.

5% of Russians- “Northern European” haplogroup I1 (I1a according to the old classification), common in Scandinavia and Northern Europe. Apparently, these are the descendants of the notorious “Varangians”.

15% of Russians- “Balkan” haplogroup I2 (formerly I1b), characteristic of the peoples of the Balkan Peninsula. This is an indirect consequence of Slavic expansion in the Balkans in the 6th-9th centuries, when Slavic newcomers actively mixed with the local autochthonous population. Some of the Slavs subsequently left the Balkans to the north and northeast (see “The Tale of Bygone Years”).

4%- “Eastern Mediterranean” haplogroup J2, typical of the ancient Greeks and even more ancient representatives of the Minoan civilization. For the Russians, this is most likely an integral part of the “Balkan heritage”, and perhaps of the earlier Hellenic colonization of the Northern Black Sea region.

6% Russians are represented by the “Afrasian” haplogroup E, the frequency of which among Jews, Greeks, Balkan Slavs and southern Italians reaches 20% or more. This is the “Balkan trace” again. In total, the descendants of “Byzantine refugees” (settlers from the Balkans and the Black Sea region) make up more than 25% of Russians.

We see, therefore (as expected from the answer to the second question) that haplogroups DO NOT determine “Russianness”. The purely statistical “predominance” of R1a1 is 47 percent. 53 percent of Russians DO NOT HAVE this haplogroup and are still Russian. Consequently, if we do not fall into Russophobia and do not say that 53 percent of modern Russians are “unclean” (which we will not do), we will inevitably be forced to once again draw the same conclusion that was made above - the haplogroup does not have any specific characteristics ethnically defining features, and ethnicity is indefinable through haplogroups.

Question 4: is the reconstruction of ethnic migrations and processes based on the analysis of modern haplogroups justified?

Answer: No. There are several problems here.

One can perceive with great skepticism and rather negatively the reports about the “correspondence of the distribution of haplogroups to historical migrations,” and all “haplogroup” conclusions about the time of the emergence of a particular people are likely to be considered at least unverifiable and strained. Why? Because you need to not uncritically quote the “Klesovs” (“a scientist wrote!”) but THINK. First of all, with your own head, using logic and the education you have received.

Firstly, the historical migrations of certain peoples in preliterate times are not an axiom. but the subject of scientific debate and discussion - both in terms of whether the bearers of a particular archaeological culture were representatives of a certain ethno-linguistic unity (we will never be able to say this with accuracy - pots and axes do not speak), and in terms of accuracy of correspondence of archaeological culture to a specific ethnic group or ethnocultural unity. Archaeological cultures are a complex of objects of material culture, things, their remains, or rather. From the point of view of an archaeologist of the 30th century, throughout Russia and Europe. In the United States in the 21st century, there will be a single, with local variations, archaeological culture of “tires, plastic bags, bottles, cans and computers”, in which the differences between nations in their material culture will not be visible. Although there is little reason to imply such globalization in antiquity, it is worth remembering. that the older the archaeological culture, the more blurred its ethnicity. Thus, the thesis “such and such a skeleton is undoubtedly Indo-European... has such and such a haplogroup” is immediately called into question. The fact that he is “undoubtedly” Indo-European, and not a foreigner who slipped in here and adopted the way of life of this tribe, still needs to be proven. And with an extremely unrepresentative sample(agree, a dozen or a hundred burials over a huge area is not a sample, or at least a sample incomparable in terms of representativeness with a modern sample among living people) this is made almost equally probable, that is, uncertain.

Secondly, tracing such migrations by haplogroups is extremely problematic due to the fact that (in the case of the Indo-Europeans, for example) among the many archaeological cultures of the Bronze Age - “cuisines of ancestral ethnic groups”, the funeral rite of cremation of corpses in its various variations is common, the same in some territories and in the Iron Age. The DNA material of the carriers of these cultures is irretrievably lost and we can say absolutely nothing about their haplogroups. Thus, the “haplogroup” approach does not work here - vast territories and entire millennia fall out of its scope completely, depriving us of the opportunity to build any kind of succession chain of already extremely scarce and essentially unrepresentative material.

Third, mutations occur on the Y chromosome randomly and can both increase and “decrease” (or return to the original, source code). This indicates that you cannot determine the time and place of the emergence of this or that “group” due to constant migrations, which could be by land or sea, and mutations that occur throughout the life of a particular historical human community.

Fourthly, theoretically, the very accuracy of the study of the modern distribution of haplogroups can be questioned - i.e. that initial material extrapolated to the past (difficulty in determining the ethnicity of persons taking the test - who is stopping you from calling yourself Russian or Belarusian?). With relatively small samples and controversial issues like “Russian-Ukrainian” (in fact, a free question of self-designation), this is extremely important and can decide everything.

In other words, transferring the modern distribution of sets of haplogroups into the past is unjustified, and if so, then it is impossible to draw conclusions about the ethnicity of certain human remains, passing them off as someone’s ancestors only on this basis. It's forced and superficial.

To summarize everything described.

References to haplogroups as an “unconditional indicator of ethnicity” are untenable.
- Haplogroups are research tools, statistically significant markers. Real, objectively observed Y chromosomes do not carry significant ethnic information in the gene code.
- Russians (like Germans, Finns and Turks, etc.) exist and are unique not due to haplogroups.
- Any nation has not one, but two, three or more haplogroups in its set, and there is no reason to make some “less pure” and others “more pure”, for the reason described in the thesis above.
- We a priori cannot reconstruct reliable migrations based on haplogroups. and even more so - the date of origin (emergence) of this or that modern ethnic group.

Thus, you can safely throw Klesov’s works and fairy tales into the same trash bin where we have Fomenko, Levashov and Chudinov.

One of the most frequently asked questions is why not check for the Y-chromosomal haplogroup-haplotype a mummy in a tomb, or the ancient bones of the Scythian-Sarmatians, or the ancient Slavs, whose bones are kept in abundance in museum storerooms, and many mysteries of history would be solved simply in one touch. But it was not there. It remains to remember the now famous line from an early poem by L.N. Tolstoy - “It’s written purely on paper, but they forgot about the ravines and how to walk along them.”

Analyzing ancient DNA is a colossal task, accessible to only a few laboratories in the world. The fact is that DNA is an organic molecule, and like any organic matter, it is susceptible to microbial infection and subsequent decomposition. It helps that bone DNA is protected like armor by the surrounding bone, but there is a limit to everything, and after hundreds of years, and even more so millennia, the DNA is almost hopelessly turned to mush by microbes. In rare cases, the situation can be saved if the soil was relatively dry, the bones were accidentally "sealed" in a cave, in an oxygen-free environment (although this is not a problem for anaerobic microbes), or for some similar reason the DNA was at least partially preserved after hundreds and thousands of years, or even after tens of thousands of years.

A favorite object of paleogeneticists is fossil teeth, in which a microcore is made with a microdrill, DNA is extracted from it and analyzed. But this is easy to say - it is subject to analysis. There are two very difficult tasks there. One is to separate human DNA from DNA microorganisms in that same mess, the second is to be able to analyze largely decomposed DNA, which has turned from a huge molecule into short fragments. It’s like restoring the entire book, or at least individual chapters, from individual half-burnt pages of a book after a fire in the library.

Anyone who remembers the difficulties with which DNA analysis of the royal family was carried out will receive an additional idea of ​​the complexity of the task. But not even a hundred years have passed since the burial there. But the soil, humidity and other circumstances of the burial left almost no chance for successful DNA analysis. So we fumbled around with this analysis - we took samples to England, then to the USA, because such work is not done in Russia. And then questions remain, but that’s a different conversation.

Now, I think it is clear that “one touch will not work,” to put it mildly. Almost every such work becomes a sensation, each significantly advances science. Mitochondrial DNA analysis is much easier, although it has the same problems. And it’s easier because the size of the original mtDNA is thousands of times smaller than the Y chromosome. The size of the latter is 58 million nucleotide pairs, mtDNA is 16600, that is, more than three thousand times less. But the haplogroups-haplotypes of the Y chromosome provide much more information. This is what I will try to talk about, using the example of just a dozen transcripts of fossil DNA, that is, all that have been done in the world, and which led to the determination of haplogroups and (not for all) haplotypes of the human Y chromosome. And also a brief description of what this gave for a better understanding of our ancient history.

Here we also need to understand what exactly determined the choice of this dozen (more precisely, a dozen) fossil objects. All of these works have advanced science, so this factor is clear. But it's not just him. Modern science is often a show. And there is nothing bad in this word. If only because such research requires a lot of money, many millions of dollars, and this money must be obtained. To do this, it is necessary to interest investors, no matter who acts as an investor, including the state, and especially the state. The state never has enough money for research, so it is necessary to attract the attention of those on whom the receipt of money depends. That's why the show. There are always someone’s interests behind the choice of a research object - either it is the interest of the public and science in solving certain historical mysteries, or the ambitions of research leaders, or political interests, as in the analysis of the haplogroup-haplotype of the Egyptian pharaoh Tutankhamun, or personal connections with those who they know how to do research... Get to the point.

We will show places according to the distribution map of haplogroups in order, so to speak, to visualize the picture geographically. We will show the bad map (above) only because there are no better ones. They're all bad. This map is new, 2012-2013, but that doesn't make it good. Firstly, all such maps are a tribute to clarity at the expense of truth. They are sweeping, rude, and often simply untrue. They give a picture not even in the first, but in the zeroth approximation. Yes, in general, the authors of these cards are not particularly worth criticizing - the pianist plays as best he can, although his ears are withering. Let's do this - I will roughly explain what is missing in this map and what is especially incorrect, and along the way I will introduce explanations as necessary.

To begin with, haplogroup R1a is not at all confined to that large red area. This area should extend south to the bottom edge of the map and even lower. It is not clear why Volgograd, Rostov-on-Don, Krasnodar, Ciscaucasia, Caucasus, Turkey, and down to Baghdad were deprived of this haplogroup, since in Iraq R1a is an average of 9%. Likewise, the entire Balkans were deprived of R1a, which is simply amazing. As well as the territories of Russia to the east of the red area. They offended the Bashkirs, Kyrgyz, Tajiks, Iranians, Indians, and so on. The Swedes and Norwegians were also offended. They offended the Shetland Islands in the west, where R1a averages at least 20%.

As for haplogroup R1b in Russia, it was given only to the Bashkirs, although the content of this haplogroup in Russia is on average no less than 5%. Haplogroup I1 was not shown at all in Russia and the southern Baltic states. Haplogroup I2a was placed only in Croatia, although it is up to 30-40% in Slovenia, Serbia, and generally throughout the former Yugoslavia. Moreover, there is a lot of it throughout Eastern Europe, this is the Eastern European haplogroup, and not just the Croatian one. Haplogroup J2 is a complete disgrace; it should cover territories from the Eastern Caucasus down throughout Turkey, Iran, and the Middle East.

In general, the map is unimportant. Again, population geneticists show a lack of qualifications, but I have already waved my hand as much as possible. The author of this map is population geneticist O. Balanovsky. The one who gave the foundation of Rus' to the Swedes, and so on. I've already discussed this.

R1a, Germany, 4600 years ago

The first significant discovery of fossil haplotypes was made in Germany, during excavations at Eulau (Haak et al., 2008). The burial was dated back to 4,600 years ago and contained the bones of a group of adults and children, a large family, killed with stone axes in a surprise attack. The haplogroup for all men and boys is R1a. I must make a small digression - in the same 2008, based on mutations in modern haplotypes in Germany, I calculated that their common ancestor lived between 4825 and 4500 years ago, and published these data in August 2008. In November, Haack's paper was published dating fossil haplotypes R1a to 4,600 years ago. Actually, the countdown of the new science of DNA genealogy began in the summer of 2008.

Haak and his colleagues identified not only the haplogroup, but also about a dozen haplotypes. “About” - because not everything was completely defined, some with gaps. Since it turned out to be a family, everyone’s haplogroups turned out to be similar to each other. Like these ones:

13/14 25 16 11 11 14 10 12/13 30 14/15 14 19 13 15/16 11 23 (ancient R1a)

They turned out to be very similar to the calculated haplotype of the common ancestor of haplogroup R1a among ethnic Russians:

13 25 16 11 11 14 10 13 30 15 14 20 12 16 11 23 (ethnic Russians R1a)

Double numbers in fossil haplotypes are those where they could not be accurately determined; variations are possible. Only two alleles (as these numbers are called) in fossil haplotypes clearly differ from the calculated ones, and they are highlighted in color. In other words, these proto-German haplotypes are slightly different from the proto-Russian ones, which, in general, is not surprising. Moreover, this fossil haplotype belonged to one specific family, in which mutations are always possible. But it is clear that these haplotypes belong to close relatives. Two mutations between the haplotypes mean that the common ancestor of the “proto-Russian” and “proto-German” haplotypes lived about 575 years before them, that is, about 5200 years ago. This is determined quite simply - the mutation rate constant for the given haplotypes is equal to 0.044 mutations per haplotype per conditional generation of 25 years. Therefore, we find that their common ancestor lived 2/2/0.044 = 23 generations, that is, 23x25 = 575 years before them. This places their common ancestor at 5175 years ago, which is consistent with the "age" of the common ancestor of the R1a genus on the Russian Plain determined independently.

This is how fossil haplotypes confirm the calculations and conclusions of DNA genealogy, but provide the basis for archeology.

R1a, Abakan-Minusinsk, Southern Siberia, 3800-3400 and 2800-1900 years ago

Another significant discovery is the identification of R1a in the Khakass-Minusinsk basin, many thousands of kilometers from Germany and generally from the Russian Plain, with a burial dating to 3800-3400 years ago (Keyser et al., 2009), that is, only a thousand years later from R1a in Germany. During this time, the Aryans crossed this entire distance, about 3600 years ago they went to India and Iran, more precisely, to Hindustan and the Iranian plateau, and, as we see, they were already not far from Altai and the northern border of Mongolia, in today's terms. This -
Andronovo archaeological culture. Yes, why do we think that they were Aryans in Khakassia? The same ones, or brothers of those who, as Aryans, moved to India? Let's figure it out.

The inset shows (numbered) the locations of archaeological sites from which bone materials were taken for DNA determination. It can be seen that this is the distant Trans-Urals - several thousand kilometers east of the Urals, north of the Mongolian border, in the Altai region. From Keyser et al. (2009).

Here are the fossil haplotypes of haplogroup R1a (3800-3400 years ago):
13 25 16 11 11 14 10 14 11 32 15 14 20 12 16 11 23 (ancient R1a)

In the same work, excavations were carried out dating back to 2800-1900 years ago, in the burials of the Tagar culture, in the same territory, and again only haplotypes of the R1a group were discovered. Although a thousand to two thousand years have passed, the haplotypes have remained almost the same:

13 24/25 16 11 11 14 10 13/14 11 31 15 14 20 12/13 16 11 23 (ancient R1a)

There are a couple of options, the alleles have begun to diverge slightly, but even then not for everyone. And this despite a rather large time distance. This is the reliability of haplotypes - they change slightly over time. If they have changed in several markers, then millennia have passed. And since there is not much difference, we will continue to consider the most ancient haplotypes, they are more interesting in the context of our story. By the way, it should also be noted that one haplotype out of ten identified turned out to be from haplogroup C(xC3), which means haplogroup C, but not subclade C3. This is not very interesting - the assignment is unclear, and the haplotype is clearly local and does not reflect any migrations. We'll come back to it later. Its haplotype, of course, is completely different compared to those given above; almost all alleles are different:

14 22 15 9 12 13 11 14 12 30 16 14 19 11 15 10 22
So let's not consider it for now.

We look above at the haplotype from Germany and at the haplotypes of ethnic Russians, for comparison with the Andronovo haplotypes from the Minusinsk Basin. Blue indicates a marker that was not determined in ancient haplotypes in Germany, but in Russians it is the same - 11. The difference with the haplotype of the common ancestor of ethnic Russians is only in the pair 14-32 in fossil haplotypes, and 13-30 in the ancestors of ethnic Russians. In fact, there are two mutations between them, since according to the rules, the detailed reasons for which I will not explain here, these are pairs 14-18 and 13-17. The numbers 32 and 30 are the sums of the first two, this is how data is usually represented. Well, why are they Aryans, where does this come from? After all, the authors of the article did not say a word about this. And here's where it comes from. The pair 14-32 is typical for the Aryans of India, Iran, the Middle East (UAE, Bahrain, Saudi Arabia), that is, where the Aryans reached, the estimated dating of common ancestors is the same 3500-4000 years. Here are examples of modern haplotypes of their direct descendants:

13 25 16 11 11 14 12 12 10 14 11 32 - India (Brahmin)
13 25 15 11 11 14 12 12 10 14 11 32 — India
13 25 15 10 11 14 12 13 10 14 11 32 — Iran
13 25 16 11 11 13 12 12 11 14 11 32 — UAE

13 25 15 10 11 14 12 12 10 14 11 32 — Arab (country not specified)
13 25 15 11 11 14 12 12 10 14 11 32 — Bahrain
13 24 15 10 11 14 12 12 10 14 11 32 — Saudi Arabia

13 25 16 11 11 14 Х Х 10 14 11 32 - fossil haplotype

So, all the above haplotypes of India, Iran, and the Middle East were analyzed very deeply; these people, the owners of the haplotypes, did not spare money. All of them have a chain of characteristic mutations, SNPs (from the abbreviation SNP), which is built like this: R1a-Z94-L657. Here - not only the general genus R1a, but also more specific tribes. Z94 (old name L342.2) are steppe tribes of haplogroup R1a, which are traditionally, but definitely narrowly, called Aryans in archeology. Again, their language is traditionally considered Aryan in linguistics. Although linguists and archaeologists do not explain how their Aryan language, reflected in the form of toponyms and hydronyms (which, however, are part of toponyms), ended up throughout the Russian Plain, including the Russian North, if the Aryans were only in the southern steppes. They also do not explain how the traditional Aryan sign - the swastika - ended up again throughout the Russian Plain, and how it turned out that Vologda lacemakers have been weaving it into their products for centuries, if not millennia.

They also do not explain how the “steppe” Aryan sign ended up in the Balkans, in the ancient Adriatic (in the picture). Or are the Balkans the southern Russian and Ukrainian steppes? In short, linguists and archaeologists really narrow down the Aryan area, the times of their origin and migrations. For linguists, these are only “Iranians” and “Indo-Aryans,” and DNA genealogy expands these concepts.

The entire R1a haplogroup is an Aryan haplogroup; in Europe, the “steppe Aryans” are only a fragment of the life and migrations of an ancient people who arrived in Europe, the Balkans at least 8 thousand years ago, but rather 9-10 thousand years ago, and from there, after spreading throughout Europe, he moved to the Russian Plain, about which the Aryans had wonderful memories as “Ariana Vaeja”, “Aryan space”.

It seems that the Z94 tribe first arrived from the Balkans to the Dniester-Don region, and then moved further east along the southern, steppe and forest-steppe route - it was not convenient for them to move in chariots through the forests. Then, very soon, one of the Aryans got the L657 snip mutation, the descendants survived and multiplied, and now we see the same snip, the mark of the steppe Aryans, in the Middle East, and in India, and in the Minusinsk Basin in Southern Siberia .

This is how fossil haplotypes advance our knowledge. But not on their own, but certainly in conjunction with extensive data from DNA genealogy and other disciplines.

R1a, Tarim Basin, northwestern China, 4000-3800 years ago

The map below shows a general view of the Tarim Basin and the Taklamakan Desert, where the “Tarim Mummies” were found. All 7 people tested showed haplogroup R1a, haplotypes were not determined (or not reported).

The article (Li, Mair, etc.) argues mainly “in terms of concepts,” as is customary in population genetics. For example, since they are Caucasians, they must certainly be migrants from Europe. If they are dressed in fabrics similar to Scottish plaid, they are certainly from Scotland. The authors, apparently, did not suspect that Southern Siberia was the main region for the appearance of “Caucasian” (according to anthropological characteristics) people and the birthplace of haplogroup R1a approximately 20 thousand years ago. The fact that the type of ancient fabrics could have been brought, on the contrary, by ancient migrants to Europe, also does not occur to them, the authors. Popgeneticists do not like alternative hypotheses under uncertain conditions; they snatch one, and it becomes the only one. Nothing could be further from science.

Of course, the Tarim R1a could have arrived from Europe 4000 years ago or earlier, but this must be shown, and not discussed “in terms of concepts”. In the absence of haplotypes, this is almost hopeless. Why the authors did not show or identify the haplotypes remains a mystery. It would immediately become clear whether they were Europeans or not. The authors suggest that the discovered people are anthropologically similar to the inhabitants of the Afanasyevskaya archaeological culture (5500-4500 years ago), which then further shifts the discovered R1a carriers into antiquity. Therefore, the alternative remains unresolved - either these are ancient, autochthonous R1a, whose ancestors were never in Europe, or these are the descendants of migrants who, it turns out, left Europe no later than 6 thousand years ago and crossed Eurasia much earlier than the “classical” Aryan haplogroup R1a-Z94.

In principle, this is not excluded, moreover, there are some considerations for this, but science is not yet ready to accept the idea of ​​​​two different, separate migrations of the Aryans across all of Eurasia with a difference of one and a half to two thousand years, that is, with the arrival in Altai 5500 and 3500 years ago. Although this may change the idea of ​​who the creators of the civilization of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro were five thousand years ago, and how the Aryan swastika ended up there in those days. Let’s stop here, because traditionalist historians are probably going crazy and climbing the wall, although they themselves cannot explain who the creators of this ancient Indian civilization were. Unfortunately, in modern historical and linguistic sciences, too often it is more important not to get an answer to a question, but to brand those who receive the answer as “a step away from the general line.” From the “mainstream”, so to speak.

R1a, northern and northeastern Mongolia

The fossil haplotypes discovered there are not very ancient, 2300-2000 years ago, the border of our era. A paper ten years ago, one of the first in this direction, determined haplotypes for 27 fossil skeletal remains (Keyser et al., 2003). However, haplogroups were not determined for them, and the haplotypes themselves had many gaps, and this work remained generally unclaimed. The authors were more interested in who is buried in which grave, who is the father and who are the brothers, and for this you do not need to know the haplogroup.

Although, if you look closely at this pile of numbers, you can see a series of six identical haplotypes, clearly of haplogroup R1a:

13 24 15 10 12 15 Х Х Х Х 11 29 – 22 23 (ancient R1a, 2300 years ago)

If these same markers (and the markers are indicated in the article) are compared with the corresponding markers of the ancestral haplotype of the Russian Plain (aka the ancestral haplotype of ethnic Russians), we get the following:

13 25 16 11 11 14 Х Х Х Х 11 30 – 19 23 (ethnic Russians R1a)

This is a completely distant haplotype; it is shared with the Mongolian by 9 mutations on 10 markers, which corresponds (mutation rate constant of 0.018 per haplotype per conventional generation of 25 years) to a time distance between them of approximately 23 thousand years, and places their common ancestor at 15 thousand years back. This is an autochthonous carrier of haplogroup R1a; he and his ancestors have never been to Europe. This again confirms that the homeland of haplogroup R1a is Central Asia, which includes Altai and northern Mongolia. But if they determined that this was R1a, they would certainly conclude, “based on concepts,” that this is a European haplotype that came from Europe. Population genetics.

The next paper on ancient Mongolian haplotypes was published seven years later (Kim et al., 2010). The authors analyzed three fossil skeletal remains dating back 2000 years ago, one turned out to be female, the other two had male Y-chromosomal haplogroups C3 and R1a. Interestingly, the latter had the maternal haplogroup (mtDNA) U2e1, that is, most likely, he actually arrived from the Russian Plain, where mtDNA haplogroup U is the oldest. Although it could well be that the mother is a descendant of a woman from the Russian Ranina, and the carrier of haplogroup R1a himself is an autochthon. Although the authors, naturally, announced that since R1a, it came from Europe. These population geneticists are so predictable it's sad.

The craniology of the R1a carrier is typical of the ancient “Aryans”. This is what his skull looks like:

This is a typical mesocephalic, cranial index 0.77. The cranial index is the ratio of the width of the skull to its length, from the bridge of the nose to the crown, according to the article - 142 and 185 mm, respectively. According to anthropology, it is a typical “Russian” and “Slavic” variant, although there are variations in the fossil skulls of the ancient Slavs, because the origin is different. Slavs of haplogroup R1a are usually mesocephalic (0.75-0.80) and brachycephalic (0.80 and above), typical “round-headed Russian boys.”

And don’t be scared, don’t remember the Nazis, craniometry is a standard anthropometric procedure. But putting someone in a camp for the shape of a skull is a different matter. Unfortunately, illiterate but suspicious people often confuse one with the other. For them, the word Aryan means fascists. He measured the skull - again a fascist. All that remains is to remember about the brain without convolutions. This is, of course, a progressive, a man of the future. Bitter joke... We've sorted out the fossil haplogroups R1a. Let's move on to fossil haplogroups G.

Haplogroup G2a, archaeological culture of Linear Band Ware, 6015-6260 years ago

Excavations took place in Derenburg, Germany. The resulting article is lengthy (Haak et al., 2010), 16 pages, plus appendices, 17 authors, but behind the abundance of talk the essence of what was actually found is lost. And this is what was found: during excavations of the burial of a culture of linear-ribbon ceramics with dates of 6015-6257 years ago, with an error of plus or minus 30-40 years, 26 remains were recovered, mitochondrial DNA was determined for 22, and Y-chromosomal haplogroups were determined for three , and only for one the definition was specific - haplogroup G2a3 (mtDNA haplogroup W). For the other two, the definition of the Y-DNA haplogroup was more evasive - F*(xG,H,I,J,K).

13 mtDNA turned out to belong to the currently relatively common haplogroups H, HV, V, K, T, J; the haplogroups of another five mtDNAs (W, N1a) are relatively rare, and four mtDNAs belong to currently unknown haplogroups (T2, U5a1a). Everything else is conversations with assumptions, stretches and thereby drawing lines through two points, or even through one, in any direction.

But the authors didn’t write the most important thing; apparently, they simply didn’t know. The fact is that if you collect carriers of haplogroup G2a in Europe, with tested haplotypes, and there are many of them, many hundreds, then the common ancestor of them all lived only 4000 years ago, and not in Europe, but in the Caucasus, Iran, and the Middle East. In Europe, dating a common ancestor of 5000-6000 years ago is observed only for a small number of haplotypes, in the Pyrenees. There are none in Central Europe. In the Caucasus there is an abundance of haplotypes of haplogroup G2a, especially in the western Caucasus, among the Abkhazians, Circassians, Shapsugs, Ossetians, but the time of the common ancestor is no deeper than 4500-4750 years ago. These are fugitives from Europe in those days.

Why at those times? But because 4800-4500 years ago, Erbins, carriers of haplogroup R1b, arrived in Europe. They took Europe literally in pincers, entering there from the Pyrenees (Bell-Beaker culture, 4800 years ago), also from the Apennines and the islands of the Mediterranean Sea (4500 years ago), and from the Black Sea, Pontic steppes (4500 years ago). They treated the local residents, to put it mildly, unfriendly. As a result, almost all haplogroups of Old Europe disappeared, some were able to escape - haplogroup R1a to the Russian Plain, G2a - through Asia Minor to Mesopotamia and further to the Caucasus, E1b - to the Balkans and North Africa, I1 - to Scandinavia and the British Isles, I2a1b – to Eastern Europe and the British Isles.

All of them went through the “population bottleneck” and were reborn again, from miraculously surviving fugitives, at different times, from 4000 to 2300 years ago, that is, the latter took at least two thousand years to come to its senses. This is the “Dinaric subclade” of haplogroup I2a1b in Eastern Europe, which apparently hid in the mountains of the Eastern Carpathians, and from there spread to the north, to the Baltic, and to all countries of Eastern Europe, from Poland to Greece, Ukraine, Belarus, Russia. The largest number of them settled in the Balkans, and knowing that blessed land, you can understand them. As a result, in the countries of the former Yugoslavia their share in the total male population reaches 40%. That’s why they called that subclade of haplogroup I2 Dinaric, after the Dinaric Alps in the Adriatic.

This is the story with the fossil haplotypes of haplogroup G2a3, whose carriers lived in Europe six thousand years ago or more, but about 4500 years ago they suffered a tragedy. So far only DNA genealogy has been able to reveal it. This is, of course, not in the cited article.

Haplogroups G2a and I2a in southern France, 5000 years ago

22 male haplotypes from an ancient local necropolis were analyzed, three complete and the remaining incomplete haplotypes were identified. Of these, two haplotypes belonged to haplogroup I2a1, and twenty to haplogroup G2a (Lacan et al., 2011).

The first two are as follows (one haplotype is complete, the second coincided with it based on rare identified fragments):

13 23 16 10 12 X X X 12 13 11 28 16 15 22 12 14 10 22 (fossils I2a1, France)

And here is the ancestral haplotype for several modern branches that passed the bottleneck of the European haplogroup I2a1 population, with an age of 2000-3000 years (for different branches), and with a reconstructed ancestral haplotype 5600 years ago (this is no longer in the cited article):

13 23 16 10 12 12 11 13 11 13 11 28 17 15 21 11 14 10 22 (ancestral I2a1, Europe)

Differences in alleles are noted. Four mutations of difference (with a mutation rate constant of 0.042 mutations per haplotype per generation) between these two haplotypes separates them by 2625 years, and places their common ancestor 6600 years ago, which is generally somewhat older than the date that was reconstructed, but it is tolerable , considering that it was a reconstruction. We see again that carriers of haplogroup I2a lived in Old Europe 5-7 thousand years ago, but their descendants survived and began to multiply only 2000-3000 years ago. The same story repeated itself with the daughter subclade I2a1b (Dinaric subclade) mentioned in the previous section. Its “updated” age is 2300 years. So the carriers of haplotypes I2a in the south of France had only a few centuries left to live a quiet life. Annushka has already spilled the oil. The carriers of haplogroup R1b will land in the Pyrenees 200 years later after a long campaign from Central Asia, and move north into continental Europe, like the Bell Beaker culture, and within a thousand years will spread throughout Europe. In addition, as described above, Atlantic warming and associated droughts will soon occur.

The same tragic note can be applied to the carriers of haplogroup G2a, whose remains were found by archaeologists in the same necropolis, in ten times larger quantities. Their most common haplotypes

14 23 15 10 13 15 X X 11 12 11 30 18 16 20 11 14 10 21 (fossils G2a-P15, France)

They, too, almost disappeared from Europe in the next few centuries (this is not in the cited article, like what follows, either). Those that reached the Caucasus moved on to the next subclade. In the south of France there were G2a-P15, their daughter branches, mainly G2a1c2a-P303, reached the Caucasus, and now up to two-thirds and three-quarters live there among the Abkhazians, Circassians, Shapsugs, Ossetians - both Digorians and Ironians. Their updated ancestral haplotype is, respectively:

14 23 15 10 13 14 X X 11 12 11 30 17 16 20 12 16 10 21 (ancestral G2a-P303, Caucasus)

Its estimated age is 3100 years. A difference of five mutations (corresponding to 3350 years between them) places the common ancestor of the ancient "French" and Caucasian haplotypes at (3100+5000+3350)/2 = 5725 years ago. Also quite an acceptable value.

Interestingly, none of the ancient DNA samples examined in the south of France contained a mutation responsible for the digestibility of lactose in milk. In other words, none of them could drink fresh milk without severe discomfort. It seems that this gene (more precisely, a mutation in the gene leading to lactose tolerance) was brought to Europe by Erbins, carriers of the R1b haplogroup, several centuries later.

Haplogroups G2a and E1b in northeastern Spain, 7000 years ago

Of the six people in the burial, five turned out to be G2a, one - E1b-V13. It is interesting to compare the haplotypes of the “Spanish” G2a with the “French” ones, after two thousand years, which are given in the previous section.

13 23 15 10 14 14 X X 11 12 11 29 18 16 22 12 15 10 21 (fossils G2a-P15, Spain)

They differ by seven mutations, which places their common ancestor in Europe about 8,500 years ago. The main point of the calculations is that the seven mutations between the two fossil haplotypes shown occur on average over two thousand years, so it is unlikely that the French haplotypes are direct descendants of the Spanish ones. It is more likely that both of them are descendants of a more ancient ancestor who lived one and a half thousand years before the Spanish burial. But in any case, carriers of haplogroup G2a are ancient inhabitants of Europe. Again we have to repeat that now there are relatively few of them there, mostly those who returned to Europe recently, already in our era, mainly from Turkey, Iran, and the Caucasus. There is also a fairly large population of Ashkenazi Jews, but this haplogroup came to them only 650 years ago.

A single haplotype of haplogroup E1b, subgroup V-13, again shows that the fate of its descendants in Europe after 2-3 thousand years was unenviable; almost all of them died. Let me remind you that between 4800 and 4500 years ago the Erbins, carriers of haplogroup R1b, entered Europe and completely changed Old Europe. It is possible that their invasion was accompanied by sudden climate changes and droughts. True, it is somewhat strange that everyone died, but the Erbins survived. There is some kind of mystery here. Maybe because only the Erbins in that ancient Europe could drink fresh milk, which gave them a powerful incentive to survive in difficult conditions? More on this below.

Currently, approximately 60% of the total population are carriers of haplogroup R1b in Europe. 5000 years ago there was none, figuratively speaking. Figuratively - because maybe someone wandered in by accident, or was captured and brought, but I’m talking about more general patterns. If we now collect all the available haplotypes of the E1b-V13 group throughout Europe and around, they form a symmetrical DNA family tree, which indicates that they all descended from one common ancestor (there are other criteria for verifying this, I will not give them now) . Let me give you an example of their haplotype tree to make it clear what DNA genealogy works with.

All 193 67-marker haplotypes contain 2857 mutations, which shows that the common ancestor of all lived 3525 ± 360 years ago. I dwell on this in such detail to show the gap in time between the dating of the fossil haplotype of group V-13, and the dating of the common ancestor of modern carriers of the same group. The gap is almost four thousand years. In fact, the rupture most likely began approximately 4,500 years ago and continued for a thousand years. This was the time of survival of the DNA genealogical line E1b-V13 until survival finally took place.

Now let's check how the fossil haplotype compares with modern V-13s. The fossil has the form
13 24 13 10 16 19 11 13 11 31 16 14 20 10 22 (fossil E1b-V13, Spain)

The ancestral haplotype to which the tree shown below converges, in 67-marker format, looks like
13 24 13 10 16 18 11 12 12 13 11 30 — 15 9 9 11 11 26 14 20 32 14 16 17 17 — 9 11 19 21 17 12 17 20 31 34 11 10 — 10 8 15 15 8 11 10 8 12 10 0 23 24 18 11 12 12 17 7 12 22 18 12 13 12 14 11 11 11 11 (ancestral haplotype E1b-V13, 3525 years ago)

Tree of 67-marker haplotypes of haplogroup E1b-V13.
Constructed from 193 haplotypes collected throughout Europe.
In the markers shown for the fossil haplotype, it is reduced to this:

13 24 13 10 16 18 12 13 11 30 15 14 20 10 22 (ancestral haplotype E1b-V13, 3525 years ago)

Four mutations between the haplotypes (marked) separate them by 2625 years, and place their common ancestor at (2625+3525+7000)/2 = 6575±700 years ago, which corresponds to the dating of the fossil haplotype within the error of calculations. Thus, a direct descendant of the “Spanish” haplotype survived through the population bottleneck, and he took the baton of the genus, which has now formed the haplotype tree shown above.

Again, none of the six fossil DNA samples from a Spanish funeral cave from 7,000 years ago contained the mutation responsible for the digestibility of lactose in milk. This, in general, is no longer surprising, since even after two thousand years in the south of France this mutation was not discovered either. It apparently did appear with the Erbins about 5,000 years ago, and may have given them certain advantages in nutrition and, therefore, survival.

“Ice Man”, Ötzi the Iceman, haplogroup G2a, Alpine mountains on the border of Austria and Italy, 4550 years ago

The story of the mummy of the “ice man,” named Otzi (after the mountain range where he was found), and discovered in 1991 in a mountain glacier, is known to most people who follow events in the world. This is the oldest mummified person in the natural conditions of Europe. Its haplogroup is G2a2b, that is, the same haplogroup G2a, which just at that time began to disappear from Old Europe. One can, of course, fantasize that the G2a genocide began with him, but one cannot generalize an isolated case so much. In those days, he was not the first, and he was not the last, who fell victim at the hands of murderers, for various reasons.

Pharaoh Tutankhamun (3333-3323 years ago), haplogroup R1b

On February 17, 2010, Egyptian Minister of Culture Farouk Hosny and Secretary General of Egypt's Supreme Council of Antiquities Zahi Hawass announced the results of research from 2007-2009, according to which the genetic characteristics of Tutankhamun were determined (to some extent) and his haplogroup was determined. The haplogroup was not announced, and, judging by various signs, the leaders of Egypt did not want to announce it. It was clear that the haplogroup was somehow not the one that the leaders of Egypt would like to see. That is, it was clear that this was not a typical Egyptian haplogroup, but some kind of foreign one, and therefore the pharaohs were also foreign. This apparently injured the patriotic feelings of the Egyptian leadership.

But there was a leak of information. At first there were persistent rumors that Tutankhamun had haplogroup R1b, that is, “European,” which means, in the minds of ordinary people, Tutankhamun’s ancestors came from Europe. It is possible that they were the British or the French, hated even from the memories of the 1956 war. Therefore, the haplogroup was classified. Based on this, it was haplogroup R1b that was most likely for the pharaoh. Then there was a leak of information about the haplotype itself, which, in fact, belonged to the R1b1a2 haplogroup.

Finally, the 16-marker haplotype itself was made public on the website of iGENEA, a Swiss company (Zurich)

13 24 14 11 11 14 Х Х 10 13 13 30 16 14 19 10 15 12 (Tutankhamun haplotype)

It is already clear to an understanding person that this is not the usual “European” haplotype R1b1a2, which the Swiss company could slip in, allegedly passing off as the pharaoh haplotype. The fact is that almost all European haplotypes of the R1b1a2 group have allele 12 (immediately after X), but here it is 10. This is rare, such are only about 0.5% of European R1b1a2 haplotypes.

IGENEA, as a commercial company, naturally immediately launched a commercial campaign, a version of the Cinderella fairy tale. Namely, it announced a competition to try on this glass slipper for $179 or $399, which is the price for determining the haplotype for everyone, in the usual or improved version of testing. It was announced that the search for European relatives of the pharaoh was beginning.

At the same time, attractive “information” appeared on the company’s website, which makes your ears wither. For example, that haplogroup R1b1a2 appeared 9500 years ago in the Black Sea region, and along with the advancement of agriculture, starting from 7000 years ago, the carriers of this haplogroup moved to Europe. They were supposedly Indo-Europeans who spread across Europe in several waves shortly after 7,000 years ago.

True, it is not clear where this haplogroup came from in the Black Sea region, although one can guess that the legs there are growing from the works of Maria Gimbutas about the invasion of Indo-Europeans into Europe at about the same time. True, R1a1 carriers must be Indo-Europeans, and then it is not clear what R1b1a2 has to do with it, but that does not happen. Moreover, iGENEA reports that the “Indo-European mound culture” spread across Europe starting 6,400 years ago - and these were R1b1a2. Where iGENEA got this from, based on what data about R1b1a2 in Europe in such early times, remains unknown. In fact, before 4500 years ago, that is, two thousand years later, R1b1a2 were not recorded in Europe, and only the reconstruction of their basic haplotypes gives a dating of 4800 years ago for their arrival in Europe and the beginning of the Bell Beaker culture.

So where did the R1b1a2 haplogroup come from among the Egyptian pharaohs? Without dating, pointless fortune-telling will only continue, since this is done by population geneticists who chronically do not take into account the haplotypes themselves, their alleles and mutations, and therefore dating. They don’t accept them because they don’t know how to date them.

Let's see what can be done in this regard. Let's take another look at Tutankhamun's haplotype:

13 24 14 11 11 14 Х Х 10 13 13 30 16 14 19 10 15 12

It differs by 6 mutations from the ancestral haplotype of haplogroup R-M269* (with an age of approximately 7000 years ago)

12 24 14 11 11 14 X X 12 13 13 29 16 15 19 11 15 12

And 6-8 mutations from other ancestral European haplotypes descending from M269.

In other words, the pharaoh’s haplotype is not European at all; it is too far from all European ones. Based on all these mutational differences, it turns out that the common ancestor of the pharaoh and the European (and Asian) haplotypes lived at least 6000-8000 years ago. This is, naturally, not a European haplotype, where the common ancestors overwhelmingly have an “age” of 4200-4500 years ago for the most ancient European R1b1a2 subclades.

So, the R1b1a2 haplotype of Pharaoh Tutankhamun is not European. We continue the question - where did it come from in Egypt 3330 years ago, if not from Europe?

I answered this question several years ago in a series of publications. After arriving in the Middle East along the migration route from the Russian Plain (7000-6500 years ago) [and before that from Central Asia 16 thousand years ago] through the Caucasus (6000 years ago) and Anatolia (6000 years ago), founding Sumer (5500 years ago ago and later), with dates in Lebanon (5200±670 years ago), carriers of haplogroup R1b1a2 headed west, along the North African coast, passed through Egypt approximately 5500-5200 years ago, and eventually reached the Atlantic, crossed Gibraltar and landed in the Pyrenees about 5,000 years ago. This was the beginning of the Bell Beaker culture, which moved north from the Pyrenees about 4,800 years ago and settled Europe between 4,500 and 3,000 years ago.

Data on Tutankhamun's haplotype show that during this route, R1b1a2 carriers established a ruling elite in Egypt, which marked the beginning of the pharaonic dynasties. When it was? According to the dating of the migration route, it is between 5500 and 5200 years ago. Indeed, 6000 years ago they were still in the Caucasus and Anatolia, 5500-5200 years ago - in the Middle East, and 4800 years ago - already in the Pyrenees.

Now some background information. Tutankhamun, pharaoh of the 18th dynasty of Ancient Egypt, reigned 1333-1323. BC, that is, approximately 3330 years ago, if the date is converted into a form suitable for calculations within the framework of DNA genealogy. Before him in the XVIII dynasty, the pharaohs Ahmose I → Thutmose I → Thutmose III → Amenhotep II → Amenhotep III → Akhenaten → Horemheb → Tutankhamun ruled. Tutankhamun was the son of Akhenaten, and the dynasty traces its ancestry to Thutmose I (1504-1492 BC), and possibly from Ahmose I.

Ahmose I, founder of the XVIII dynasty, also known as Ahmes, Ahmose or Amasis I, son of Sekenen-Ra II, reigned 1550-1525 BC, and lived 3560 years ago. This was the time of the war with the Hyksos, in which his father died. Before Ahmose I, 18 pharaohs ruled, but according to a special principle of counting, Ahmose begins the 18th dynasty, in which Tutankhamun was the last, the eighth in a row. Before this dynasty there were five Middle Kingdom pharaohs (Mentuhotep II → Amenemhet I → Senusret I → Senusret III → Amenemhet III), before them seven Old Kingdom pharaohs (Djoser → Sneferu → Khufu → Khafre → Menkaura → Sahura → Peopi II), and before These are the six pharaohs of the early kingdom (Narmer → Menes → Khor Akha → Jer → Den → Khasekhemui).

The ancestor of the entire line of pharaohs, Narmer, pharaoh of the Early Kingdom, Dynasty Zero, lived in the 32nd century BC, that is, 5200 years ago. It is noteworthy that his name is not in the royal lists, that is, he came from nowhere, but he was the conqueror of Lower Egypt and united it with Upper Egypt. Since Narmer himself was not a documented king, historical sources consider his son Menes, who already had an official royal title, to be the founder of Ancient Egypt. A new era began in the history of Egypt and a new royal line, the line of the pharaohs. As follows from the above, the line of haplogroup R1b1a2. It is quite possible that this line was stopped and appeared again, not necessarily as a continuation of the previous one.

Sources list five main theories about Narmer's origins. However, in fact, none of them indicate anything definite. These “theories” do not say whether Menes was Narmer’s heir, or Menes and Narmer are the same person, how long the unification of Egypt took, when it was completed, whether the winner of the uprising in Lower Egypt was the true unifier of Egypt, and so on. . As we see, there is absolutely nothing there about the origin of Narmer. But I don’t mind, let my theory be the sixth. It means that Narmer or his direct ancestors, carriers of haplogroup R1b1a2, arrived from the Middle East, and before that from the Caucasus and the Russian Plain, and before that from the Urals and Central Asia. In turn, the descendants of these people now make up up to 60% of the population of Western and Central Europe. They are, naturally, not the descendants of the Egyptian pharaohs, they are the descendants of their ancestors.

R1b, Germany, 4700-4500 years ago

DNA samples were successfully studied in two skeletal remains from a Bell Beaker culture burial in Kromsdorf, Germany, southwest of Berlin. Both turned out to be haplogroup R1b. Haplotypes are not described in the article (Lee et al., 2012). Radiocarbon dating of the burials showed 4690-4560 years ago.

Perhaps characteristic is the difference in the position of the corpse between carriers of haplogroups R1a and R1b. In both cases the position was crouched on the side, but for R1a and their women it was facing south, the men on the right side, the women on the left; for R1b - facing east, men on the left side, women on the right. Considering that burial rituals are among the most stable in ancient societies, perhaps, with the receipt of new data and their verification and double-checking, this may become an indication that the remains belong to certain haplogroups-cultures-tribes.

For example, on the Russian Plain, this is all mixed up, since no one made assignments to haplogroups for burials and skeletal remains, but there were clearly carriers of both R1a and R1b, and geographically in different cultures and at different times. Archaeologists view this as a “choke”, which is why there is confusion about where the roots of these cultures are and why they diverge in different directions. But they diverge because the families are different, each has a separate history, they came from different sides and different countries of the world. Again, DNA genealogy will help put things in order here. True, this is a very distant prospect, at least in Russia, where such research has not yet begun.

I2a, R1a, R1b, Germany, 3000-2700 years ago

A group burial was discovered in the Liechtenstein Cave in Lower Saxony, Germany. The cave, which extended to a depth of 115 meters, was discovered in 1972. In 2006, a dissertation published in German reported the results of DNA testing of 16 men from the burial, twelve of whom had haplogroup I2a2b-L38, two had haplogroup R1a, and one had R1b-U106. Since the source of the publication turned out to be inaccessible, there was no strict dating, and the estimated time of burial - between 3000 and 2700 years ago - was not something sensational, the work was noticed, but nothing more. She did not take her rightful place in literature.

Judging by the determined haplotypes, the carriers of the tested haplogroup I2a in the burial belonged to four hereditary lines, haplogroup R1a - to one (both haplotypes were the same). The largest group of I2a carriers had the following haplotype:

13 25 16 11 13 17 Х Х 11 12 11 28 15 10 (ancient I2a2b)

Others had variations in markers second, third, and third from end. The R1a haplotype was:
13 25 15 11 11 13 Х Х 11 13 11 30 14 11 (ancient R1a)

Single haplotype R1b:
13 23 14 11 11 14 X X 12 13 13 29 15 12 (ancient R1b-U106)

They are all similar to the ancestral haplotypes to which the haplotypes of modern European carriers of the indicated haplogroups converge, and which are correspondingly equal:

13 25 16 11 13 16 11 13 11 12 11 28 15 10 (ancestral I2a2b, 5000 years ago)
13 25 16 11 11 14 12 12 10 13 11 30 14 11 (ancestral R1a, 4600 years ago)
13 23 14 11 11 14 12 12 12 13 13 29 15 12 (ancestral R1b-U106, 4200 years ago)

The last haplotype, by pure chance, is generally identical to the fossil.

One way or another, all these data show that fossil and modern haplotypes are very similar, since modern haplotypes cluster around the ancestral haplotypes, diverging from them symmetrically along the alleles. The degree of divergence is determined by the time that has passed since the era when the common ancestors lived.

Anatoly A. Klyosov,
Doctor of Chemical Sciences, Professor