Finno-Ugric peoples Khanty and Mansi. Finno-Ugric peoples: religion

The Finno-Ugric ethno-linguistic community of peoples includes over 20 million people. Their ancestors lived in the territories of the Urals and Eastern Europe in ancient times, starting from the Neolithic era. The Finno-Ugrians are the indigenous peoples of their territories. The vast spaces that belonged to the Finno-Ugric and Samoyed (close to them) tribes originate from the Baltic Sea, the forest-steppe of the Russian Plain, and end at Western Siberia and the Arctic Ocean, respectively. The modern European part of Russia was occupied by the Finno-Ugrians, who could not help but contribute to the genetic and cultural heritage of these lands.

Finno-Ugric division by language

There are several subgroups of Finno-Ugric peoples, divided by language. There is the so-called Volga-Finnish group, which included the Mari, Erzyans and Mokshans (Mordovians). The Permian-Finnish group includes Besermyans, Komi and Udmurts. Ingrian Finns, Setos, Finns, Izhorians, Vepsians, descendants of the Meri and other peoples belong to the group of Balto-Finns. Separately, there is the so-called Ugric group, which includes peoples such as Hungarians, Khanty and Mansi. Some scientists classify the Volga Finns as a separate group, which included peoples who are descendants of the Morums and the medieval Meshchera.

Heterogeneity of the anthropology of the Finno-Ugric peoples

Some researchers believe that, along with the Mongoloid and Caucasoid, there is the so-called Ural race, whose peoples are characterized by characteristics of representatives of both the first and second races. Mansi, Khanty, Mordovians and Mari are more characterized by Mongoloid features. Among other peoples, the characteristics of the Caucasian race dominate, or they are evenly divided. However, the Finno-Ugrians do not have the features of the Indo-European group.

Cultural characteristics

All Finno-Ugric tribes are characterized by identical material and spiritual cultural values. They always strived for harmony with the surrounding world, nature, and the peoples bordering them. Only they were able to preserve their culture and traditions, including Russian ones, to this day. This is easily explained by the fact that the Finno-Ugrians have always revered not only their own traditions and customs, but also those that they borrowed from neighboring peoples.

Most of the ancient Russian legends, fairy tales and epics that make up epic folklore are attributed to the Vepsians and Karelians - the descendants of the Finno-Ugrians who lived in the Arkhangelsk province. Many monuments of ancient Russian wooden architecture also came to us from the lands occupied by these peoples.

Connection between Finno-Ugrians and Russians

Undoubtedly, the Finno-Ugrians had a significant influence on the formation of the Russian people. The entire territory of the Russian Plain, which the Russians now occupy, previously belonged to these tribes. The material and spiritual culture of the latter, and not the Turks or South Slavs, was largely borrowed by the Russians.

It is easy to notice common features of the national character and psychological characteristics of Russians and Finno-Ugric peoples. This is especially true for that part of the population that lives in the northeastern, northern and northwestern parts of European Russia, which is considered indigenous to the Russian people.

The famous academician O. B. Tkachenko, who devoted his life to the study of the Meri people, stated that representatives of the Russian people on their father’s side are connected with the Finns, and only on their mother’s side with the Slavic ancestral home. This opinion is confirmed by multiple cultural features characteristic of the Russian nation. Novgorod and Muscovite Rus' arose and began their development precisely in those territories occupied by the Finno-Ugrians.

Various opinions of scientists

According to the historian N.A. Polevoy, who in his works touched upon the problem of the ethnogenesis of the Great Russians, the Russian people are genetically and culturally purely Slavic. The Finno-Ugric tribes did not have any influence on its formation. The opposite opinion was expressed by F. G. Dukhinsky, who also lived in the 19th century. The Polish historian believed that the Russian people were formed on the basis of the Turks and Finno-Ugrians, and only linguistic features were borrowed from the Slavs.

Lomonosov and Ushinsky, who agreed, defended an intermediate point of view. They believed that the Finno-Ugrians and Slavs exchanged cultural values ​​with each other. Over time, the Russian people included Muroma, Chud and Merya, making their contribution to the Russian ethnic group that was just emerging at that time. The Slavs, in turn, influenced the Ugro-Hungarian peoples, as evidenced by the presence of Slavic vocabulary in the Hungarian language. Both Slavic and Finno-Ugric blood flows in the veins of Russians, and there is nothing wrong with this, according to Ushinsky.

Many peoples living on the shores of the Baltic coast, as well as the Danes, Swedes and even Russians, trace their origins to the inexplicably silent disappearance of the Finno-Ugric peoples. These tribes, who lived mainly in Europe, were formed so long ago that they cannot be called peoples who migrated from other lands. Perhaps they previously lived throughout the northern part of Asia and Europe, and even occupied the territory of central Europe. Thus, the Finno-Ugrians actually laid a solid foundation for the formation of the majority of northern and European powers, which include Russia.

Finno-Ugric languages ​​are related to modern Finnish and Hungarian. The peoples who speak them make up the Finno-Ugric ethnolinguistic group. Their origin, territory of settlement, commonality and differences in external features, culture, religion and traditions are the subjects of global research in the field of history, anthropology, geography, linguistics and a number of other sciences. This review article will try to briefly cover this topic.

Peoples included in the Finno-Ugric ethnolinguistic group

Based on the degree of similarity of languages, researchers divide the Finno-Ugric peoples into five subgroups.

The basis of the first, Baltic-Finnish, are Finns and Estonians - peoples with their own states. They also live in Russia. Setu - a small group of Estonians - settled in the Pskov region. The most numerous of the Baltic-Finnish peoples of Russia are the Karelians. In everyday life they use three autochthonous dialects, while Finnish is considered their literary language. In addition, the Vepsians and Izhorians belong to the same subgroup - small peoples who have preserved their languages, as well as the Vods (there are less than a hundred people left, their own language has been lost) and Livs.

The second is the Sami (or Lapp) subgroup. The main part of the peoples who gave it its name are settled in Scandinavia. In Russia, the Sami live on the Kola Peninsula. Researchers suggest that in ancient times these peoples occupied a larger territory, but were subsequently pushed further north. At the same time, their own language was replaced by one of the Finnish dialects.

The third subgroup that makes up the Finno-Ugric peoples - the Volga-Finnish - includes the Mari and Mordovians. The Mari are the main part of Mari El; they also live in Bashkortostan, Tatarstan, Udmurtia and a number of other Russian regions. They have two literary languages ​​(with which, however, not all researchers agree). Mordva - autochthonous population of the Republic of Mordovia; at the same time, a significant part of the Mordvins are settled throughout Russia. This people consists of two ethnographic groups, each with its own literary written language.

The fourth subgroup is called Permian. It also includes the Udmurts. Even before October 1917, in terms of literacy (though in Russian), the Komi were approaching the most educated peoples of Russia - Jews and Russian Germans. As for the Udmurts, their dialect has been preserved for the most part in the villages of the Udmurt Republic. Residents of cities, as a rule, forget both the indigenous language and customs.

The fifth, Ugric, subgroup includes the Hungarians, Khanty and Mansi. Although the lower reaches of the Ob and the northern Urals are separated by many kilometers from the Hungarian state on the Danube, these peoples are actually the closest relatives. The Khanty and Mansi belong to the small peoples of the North.

Disappeared Finno-Ugric tribes

The Finno-Ugric peoples also included tribes, mentions of which are currently preserved only in chronicles. Thus, the Merya people lived between the Volga and Oka rivers in the first millennium AD - there is a theory that they subsequently merged with the Eastern Slavs.

The same thing happened with Muroma. This is an even more ancient people of the Finno-Ugric ethno-linguistic group, who once inhabited the Oka basin.

The long-vanished Finnish tribes that lived along the Northern Dvina are called Chudya by researchers (according to one hypothesis, they were the ancestors of modern Estonians).

Commonality of languages ​​and culture

Having declared the Finno-Ugric languages ​​as a single group, researchers emphasize this commonality as the main factor uniting the peoples who speak them. However, the Ural ethnic groups, despite the similarity in the structure of their languages, still do not always understand each other. Thus, a Finn will certainly be able to communicate with an Estonian, an Erzyan with a Moksha, and an Udmurt with a Komi. However, the peoples of this group, geographically distant from each other, must make quite a lot of effort to identify common features in their languages ​​that would help them conduct a conversation.

The linguistic kinship of the Finno-Ugric peoples is primarily traced in the similarity of linguistic constructions. This significantly influences the formation of the thinking and worldview of peoples. Despite the differences in cultures, this circumstance contributes to the emergence of mutual understanding between these ethnic groups.

At the same time, the unique psychology determined by the thought process in these languages ​​enriches universal human culture with their unique vision of the world. Thus, unlike the Indo-Europeans, the representative of the Finno-Ugric people is inclined to treat nature with exceptional respect. Finno-Ugric culture also largely contributed to the desire of these peoples to peacefully adapt to their neighbors - as a rule, they preferred not to fight, but to migrate, preserving their identity.

Also, a characteristic feature of the peoples of this group is openness to ethnocultural exchange. In search of ways to strengthen relationships with related peoples, they maintain cultural contacts with all those who surround them. Basically, the Finno-Ugric people managed to preserve their languages ​​and basic cultural elements. The connection with ethnic traditions in this area can be seen in their national songs, dances, music, traditional dishes, and clothing. Also, many elements of their ancient rituals have survived to this day: wedding, funeral, memorial.

Brief history of the Finno-Ugric peoples

The origin and early history of the Finno-Ugric peoples remain the subject of scientific debate to this day. The most common opinion among researchers is that in ancient times there was a single group of people who spoke a common Finno-Ugric proto-language. The ancestors of the current Finno-Ugric peoples until the end of the third millennium BC. e. maintained relative unity. They were settled in the Urals and the western Urals, and possibly also in some adjacent areas.

In that era, called Finno-Ugric, their tribes came into contact with the Indo-Iranians, which was reflected in myths and languages. Between the third and second millennia BC. e. The Ugric and Finno-Permian branches separated from each other. Among the peoples of the latter, who settled in a western direction, independent subgroups of languages ​​gradually emerged and became distinct (Baltic-Finnish, Volga-Finnish, Permian). As a result of the transition of the autochthonous population of the Far North to one of the Finno-Ugric dialects, the Sami were formed.

The Ugric group of languages ​​disintegrated by the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. The Baltic-Finnish division occurred at the beginning of our era. Perm lasted a little longer - until the eighth century. Contacts of Finno-Ugric tribes with Baltic, Iranian, Slavic, Turkic, and Germanic peoples played a major role in the separate development of these languages.

Settlement area

Finno-Ugric peoples today mainly live in Northwestern Europe. Geographically, they are settled over a vast territory from Scandinavia to the Urals, Volga-Kama, lower and middle Tobol region. The Hungarians are the only people of the Finno-Ugric ethno-linguistic group who formed their own state away from other related tribes - in the Carpathian-Danube region.

Number of Finno-Ugric peoples

The total number of peoples speaking Uralic languages ​​(these include Finno-Ugric and Samoyed) is 23-24 million people. The most numerous representatives are Hungarians. There are more than 15 million of them in the world. They are followed by Finns and Estonians (5 and 1 million people, respectively). Most other Finno-Ugric ethnic groups live in modern Russia.

Finno-Ugric ethnic groups in Russia

Russian settlers flocked en masse to the lands of the Finno-Ugrians in the 16th-18th centuries. Most often, the process of their settlement in these areas occurred peacefully, but some indigenous peoples (for example, the Mari) for a long time and fiercely resisted the annexation of their region to the Russian state.

The Christian religion, writing, and urban culture, introduced by the Russians, over time began to displace local beliefs and dialects. People moved to cities, moved to Siberian and Altai lands - where Russian was the main and common language. However, he (especially his northern dialect) absorbed many Finno-Ugric words - this is most noticeable in the field of toponyms and names of natural phenomena.

In some places, the Finno-Ugric peoples of Russia mixed with the Turks, converting to Islam. However, a significant part of them were still assimilated by the Russians. Therefore, these peoples do not constitute a majority anywhere - even in those republics that bear their name.

However, according to the 2002 population census, there are very significant Finno-Ugric groups in Russia. These are the Mordovians (843 thousand people), Udmurts (almost 637 thousand), Mari (604 thousand), Komi-Zyryans (293 thousand), Komi-Permyaks (125 thousand), Karelians (93 thousand). The number of some peoples does not exceed thirty thousand people: Khanty, Mansi, Vepsians. The Izhorians number 327 people, and the Vod people number only 73 people. Hungarians, Finns, Estonians, and Sami also live in Russia.

Development of Finno-Ugric culture in Russia

In total, sixteen Finno-Ugric peoples live in Russia. Five of them have their own national-state entities, and two have national-territorial ones. Others are dispersed throughout the country.

In Russia, considerable attention is paid to the preservation of the original cultural traditions of those inhabiting it. At the national and local level, programs are being developed with the support of which the culture of the Finno-Ugric peoples, their customs and dialects is being studied.

Thus, Sami, Khanty, Mansi are taught in primary schools, and Komi, Mari, Udmurt, and Mordovian languages ​​are taught in secondary schools in those regions where large groups of the corresponding ethnic groups live. There are special laws on culture and languages ​​(Mari El, Komi). Thus, in the Republic of Karelia there is a law on education that enshrines the right of Vepsians and Karelians to study in their native language. The priority for the development of the cultural traditions of these peoples is determined by the Law on Culture.

Also, the republics of Mari El, Udmurtia, Komi, Mordovia, and the Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug have their own concepts and programs for national development. The Foundation for the Development of Cultures of the Finno-Ugric Peoples has been created and operates (on the territory of the Mari El Republic).

Finno-Ugric peoples: appearance

The ancestors of the current Finno-Ugrians were the result of a mixture of Paleo-European and Paleo-Asian tribes. Therefore, the appearance of all the peoples of this group contains both Caucasoid and Mongoloid features. Some scientists even put forward a theory about the existence of an independent race - the Ural, which is “intermediate” between Europeans and Asians, but this version has few supporters.

Finno-Ugrians are heterogeneous in anthropological terms. However, any representative of the Finno-Ugric people possesses characteristic “Ural” features to one degree or another. This is usually of average height, very light hair color, wide face, sparse beard. But these features manifest themselves in different ways. Thus, the Erzya Mordvins are tall, have blond hair and blue eyes. Mordvins-Moksha - on the contrary, are shorter, with wide cheekbones, and darker hair. The Udmurts and Mari often have characteristic “Mongolian” eyes with a special fold at the inner corner of the eye - epicanthus, very wide faces, and a thin beard. But at the same time, their hair, as a rule, is blond and red, and their eyes are blue or gray, which is typical for Europeans, but not Mongoloids. The “Mongolian fold” is also found among the Izhorians, Vodians, Karelians and even Estonians. Komi people look different. Where there are mixed marriages with the Nenets, representatives of this people have braided hair and black hair. Other Komi, on the contrary, are more like Scandinavians, but have wider faces.

Finno-Ugric traditional cuisine in Russia

Most of the dishes of traditional Finno-Ugric and Trans-Ural cuisines, in fact, have not been preserved or have been significantly distorted. However, ethnographers manage to trace some general patterns.

The main food product of the Finno-Ugrians was fish. It was not only processed in different ways (fried, dried, boiled, fermented, dried, eaten raw), but each type was also prepared in its own way, which would better convey the taste.

Before the advent of firearms, the main method of hunting in the forest was snares. They caught mainly forest birds (grouse, wood grouse) and small animals, mainly hares. Meat and poultry were stewed, boiled and baked, and much less often, fried.

For vegetables they used turnips and radishes, and for herbs - watercress, hogweed, horseradish, onions, and young mushrooms growing in the forest. Western Finno-Ugric peoples practically did not consume mushrooms; at the same time, for the eastern ones they constituted a significant part of the diet. The oldest types of grain known to these peoples are barley and wheat (spelt). They were used to prepare porridges, hot jelly, and also as a filling for homemade sausages.

The modern culinary repertoire of the Finno-Ugric people contains very few national features, since it has been strongly influenced by Russian, Bashkir, Tatar, Chuvash and other cuisines. However, almost every nation has preserved one or two traditional, ritual or festive dishes that have survived to this day. Taken together, they allow us to get a general idea of ​​Finno-Ugric cooking.

Finno-Ugric peoples: religion

Most Finno-Ugrians profess the Christian faith. Finns, Estonians and Western Sami are Lutherans. Catholics predominate among Hungarians, although you can also meet Calvinists and Lutherans.

Finno-Ugrians living in are predominantly Orthodox Christians. However, the Udmurts and Mari in some places managed to preserve the ancient (animistic) religion, and the Samoyed peoples and inhabitants of Siberia - shamanism.

In the third quarter of the 1st millennium AD. The Slavic population, settled in the Upper Dnieper region and mixed with local East Baltic groups, with its further advancement to the north and east, reached the borders of regions that had anciently belonged to Finno-Ugric tribes. These were the Estonians, Vodians and Izhoras in the South-Eastern Baltic, all on White Lake and the tributaries of the Volga - Sheksna and Mologa, Merya in the eastern part of the Volga-Oka interfluve, Mordovians and Muroms on the Middle and Lower Oka. If the eastern Balts were neighbors of the Finno-Ugrians since ancient times, then the Slavic

The Russian population encountered them closely for the first time. The subsequent colonization of some Finno-Ugric lands and the assimilation of their indigenous population represented a special chapter in the history of the formation of the Old Russian people. The economy of the Finno-Ugric tribes was complex. Agriculture was relatively poorly developed; Cattle breeding played a major role in the economy; it was accompanied by hunting, fishing and forestry. Various Finno-Ugric groups had their own characteristics and differed from each other in the level of socio-economic development and in the nature of culture. The most advanced among them were the Chud tribes of the South-Eastern Baltic - the Ests, Vods and Izhoras. By the end of the 1st millennium AD. the ancient Estonian tribes stood on the threshold of feudalism, crafts developed among them, the first urban-type settlements arose, maritime trade connected the ancient Estonian tribes with each other and with their neighbors, contributing to the development of the economy, culture and social inequality. Tribal associations were replaced at this time by unions of territorial communities. The local features that distinguished individual groups of ancient Estonians in the past began to gradually disappear, indicating the beginning of the formation of the Estonian nation. The pastoral aspect of the economy was, to one degree or another, preserved among the Finno-Ugric population of the Volga region during the period of Ancient Russia. Most of them, for a long time, home crafts were common, in particular the production of numerous and varied metal jewelry, which abounded in women's costumes. The technical equipment of the home craft at that time differed little from the equipment of a professional artisan - these were the same casting molds, dolls, crucibles, etc.

Findings of these things during archaeological excavations, as a rule, do not allow us to determine whether there was a domestic or specialized craft, a product of the social division of labor. In the first half of the 1st millennium AD. e. Finno-Ugric tribes living in the Oka and Kama basins also experienced a certain development. Ancient authors mention the Finno-Ugric tribes under the name of Fenians (Tacitus) or Finns (Ptolemy), and possibly also Estii (Tacitus), although the name “Estii” could also refer to the Baltic tribes at that time. The first mention of individual Finno-Ugric tribes in Eastern Europe is found in the Gothic historian Jordanes, who attributes the “King of the Goths” Hermanaric with victories over the Mordovians (“Mordens”), Mers (“Merens”) and other tribes. Archaeological data allows us to trace the fate of the Finno-Ugric tribes and at earlier stages of their development. Thus, they show that in the first half of the 1st millennium AD. e. Among the Finno-Ugric tribes, iron finally replaced bronze, from which only jewelry was now made - buckles, breast plates, brooches, bracelets, pendants, necklaces, characteristic women's headdresses with rims and pendants in the form of bells, ending in a spiral of earrings. Weapons, of which the most common were spears, javelins, axes and swords similar to Roman ones, were made of iron or equipped with iron parts: tips, etc. At the same time, many objects, in particular arrows, were still made of bone. As before, hunting for fur-bearing animals played an important role, the fur of which was exported.

By the end of the first half of the 1st millennium, trade ties between the Kama tribes and Iran and the Eastern Roman Empire were strengthening. In the Kama region, especially in the region of Solikamsk and Kungur, one can often find silver Late Antique and Sasanian dishes decorated with highly artistic images, which came here in exchange for furs and, apparently, were used for the needs of the cult. In the Oka basin, the role of horse breeding continues to increase. In the graves of men, and sometimes women, horse harnesses are found, from which we can conclude that horses were now also used for riding. At the same time, the remains of woolen fabrics preserved in the graves indicate the development of sheep breeding, and the remains of linen fabrics, finds of sickles and hoes indicate that the Finno-Ugric tribes were also familiar with agriculture. Wealth inequality was already quite significant. Along with poor graves, where only knives were found or no things were found at all, there are rich burials with a lot of jewelry, weapons, etc. Especially a lot of jewelry is found in women's graves. However, property inequality, apparently, has not yet led to the disintegration of the clan system, since only personal items accumulated in the hands of individuals. The long-term preservation of former forms of life is evidenced by the similarity of the Finno-Ugric settlements of the first centuries of our era with earlier ones. Thus, the Pyanobor culture on the Kama, which replaced the Ananino culture, differs from it only in the style of bronze items and the predominance of iron. Religious monuments and works of art are of significant interest. The latter is characterized by bronze relief pendants depicting deer, eagles with a human face on the chest, lizards, seven-headed elk, people, as well as small bronze and lead idols in the form of birds, animals and people. About 2 thousand of these figurines were found 20 km from the city of Molotov, down the Kama, where, apparently, there was a sanctuary of the god to whom they were sacrificed. A huge number of bones of various sacrificial animals, about 2 thousand bone and iron arrowheads and about 15 thousand gilded glass beads were also discovered there. Another cult monument is a cave on the Chusovaya River, where several thousand bone and iron arrowheads were found. Archaeologists believe that archery competitions took place in this place in connection with some religious rituals.

Finno-Ugrians, their place in the history of the Russian nation and the Russian state is an academic question. However, in the last twenty years, at the level of the yellow press, the question of Finns and Ugrians began to discuss the delitants. I do not consider myself an expert in anthropology, but I am able to identify the main problematic points that do not allow Ukrainians and Russians to find a common language and stick to the thread of the discussion.

The main problems in the issue of the history of the Finno-Ugric peoples, standing on the way to mutual understanding, are the following

Low level of education in the Internet era. Unfortunately, the majority of people do not strive for knowledge of academic ( scientific) parts of the question Slavs (including their appearance, jewelry, myths, tales, religion and culture) in the history of Russia. Unfortunately, reading academic literature is difficult because of the way the material is presented. And so it is! Read the yellow press on the topic " Slavs"(or similar) with loud anti-Ukrainian phrases and extreme statements is very simple and, most importantly, remembered easily and quickly! Unfortunately! Moreover, having access to the Internet does not help solve the issue, but on the contrary, it complicates it. Exciting prospects for "shut up “the opponent’s mouth on the forum and mixing everything into one pile outweighs common sense and - one’s own mythology and zombification about the Finno-Ugric people began...

Reluctance of the authorities to meet people halfway. For the Russian authorities, this position of Russian citizens is extremely beneficial: no expenses on the part of Russia for the publication and promotion of academic literature; publish yellow press not at the expense of the state, naturally, and it spreads like lightning. Lots of literature on the topic Finno-Ugrians(and not only) was published back in the last century and the century before last, and today new-fangled clever people have not come up with anything new on this issue, but are relaying those old sources, without even bothering to review them for refutations. In addition, it is much easier to control stupid and embittered people - point your finger and say: “Fass!”

As a result, the following problem emerges: looking for himself and can't find him(or afraid). However, Karamzin had already “found” Russia at one time. Since then that Karamzin's story influenced to some extent another Russian historian, Klyuchevsky. This is what has happened since then - the main beneficial provisions of the history of the Russian state of Karamzin flow from one textbook to another, forgetting about the population and equating it with the state, which is extremely wrong! In fact, Karamzin’s story became the first custom-made political version of Russian history, after which history moved from the plane of science to the plane of politics. It is possible that in Russia no one had studied history as a science before Karamzin. Otherwise, Karamzin would not have had to write it to the Tsar’s order.

What can help in resolving the issue of the Finno-Ugric peoples?

Separate the issues of language and DNA. It turns out that according to DNA (roots, clan), the population of Russia really consisted mostly of Finno-Ugric peoples ( read below). However, who said that Finno-Ugric people cannot master the Slavic language and, being essentially Finno-Ugric people, speak Russian and beat themselves in the chest with their fists?

Having read all sorts of things about the Ukrainians from the times of Tsar Gorokh, the Russians, for some reason, accuse the Ukrainians of dislike for the Finno-Ugric people. We (Ukrainians) do not show dislike towards the Finno-Ugrians. We oppose the fact that the Russians themselves show dislike for the Finno-Ugrians, trying to disown kinship with them. As a result, the Russians are trying renounce a large part of yourself, and fill in this part, which is not relevant. I'm not saying that the Russians Dont Have nothing to do with, but the Russians pose the question this way that we (Ukrainians) remain out of work. As a result, the Russians themselves, with their behavior and lack of education, cause negativity on the part of Ukrainians, calling them names. Guys, Ukrainians by definition cannot! The question is, why do Russians disown their part of the Finno-Ugric heritage???

Lack of information gives rise to rumors and fabrications. In question with Finno-Ugric heritage on Russian territory the situation is similar. actively opposes filling in the blank spots in their Finno-Ugric history and this “forces” the Ukrainians (giving every reason and reason) to fill in these blank spots for the Russians, while stating, of course, your vision of the issue. But for all this responsibility The Russians themselves bear it - don’t be silent! Actively analyze yourself (and don’t invent) and thereby you will deprive your opponents of arguments. Who's stopping?

Additional information on the Finno-Ugric topic...

According to a successful comparison by academician Orest Borisovich Tkachenko, world famous Meryanist (a discipline in Finno-Ugric studies that deals with the study of the Meri people): " The Russian people, connected on the maternal side with the Slavic ancestral home, had a Finn as their father. On the paternal side, Russians go back to the Finno-Ugric peoples". This explanation makes clear many cultural facts in the life and development of the Russian nation. In the end, both Muscovite Rus' and Novgorod developed precisely on the lands inhabited by the Finno-Ugric tribes Chud, Meri and Meshchera, as well as on the Mordovian, Vepsian, Vodian-Izhora , Karelian and Permian territories.

The Slavs did not assimilate the Finnish tribes A. This Finno-Ugrians adapted to the new language and accepted part of the Byzantine spiritual culture. Therefore, Russians have a choice. Realize your roots in this land, discern in your ancestors not only and not so much Slavs, feel that the culture of the Russian people is based on the Finno-Ugric basis.

Who are the Finno-Ugrians (literature on the topic)

Finno-Ugrians- an ethno-linguistic community of peoples numbering more than 20 million people. All Finno-Ugric peoples are indigenous to their territories. Ancestors of the Finno-Ugric peoples lived in Eastern Europe and the Urals since Neolithic times (New Stone Age). From the Baltic Sea to Western Siberia, from the forest-steppes of the Russian Plain to the coast of the Arctic Ocean - primordial Finno-Ugric lands and the Samoyed peoples close to them.

Linguistically Finno-Ugrians are divided into several subgroups. The Permo-Finnish subgroup consists of the Komi, Udmurts and Besermyans. Volga-Finnish group: Mordovians (Erzyans and Mokshans) and Mari. The Balto-Finns include: Finns, Ingrian Finns, Estonians, Setos, Kvens in Norway, the mysterious Vod, Izhorians, Karelians, Vepsians and descendants of the Meri. The Khanty, Mansi and Hungarians belong to a separate Ugric group. The descendants of the medieval Meshchera and Murom most likely belong to the Volga Finns.

Anthropologically Finno-Ugric peoples heterogeneous. Some scientists highlight a special Ural race, transitional between Caucasians and Mongoloids. All peoples of the Finno-Ugric group have both Caucasoid and Mongoloid characteristics. The Ob Ugrians (Khanty and Mansi), part of the Mari, and the Mordovians have more pronounced Mongoloid features. For the rest, these traits are either equally distributed, or the Caucasoid component dominates. But this does not testify in favor of the Indo-European origin of the Finno-Ugrians; Indo-European anthropological features should be distinguished from the linguistic Indo-European community.

Finno-Ugrians all over the world are united by a common material and spiritual culture. All true Finno-Ugric people live in harmony with nature, with the world around them and with neighboring peoples. Only the Finno-Ugric peoples, even at the beginning of the third millennium, preserved traditional culture in Europe to the fullest extent, including, paradoxically, Russian culture. However, this paradox can be explained. Unlike many peoples, Finno-Ugric people try to preserve as many customs and traditions as possible in their culture, including (perhaps in Russia this explains the rather large number of preserved ancient traditions and elements from the times of Rus').

The Karelian-Finnish epic "Kalevala" was preserved for history by the White Sea Karelians, and not by the urbanized Finns; almost all ancient Russian fairy tales, epics and legends (epic folklore is the oldest of all forms of oral folk culture) were recorded by ethnographers at the end of the 19th century in the areas inhabited by Karelians, Vepsians and descendants of Finno-Ugric peoples in the Arkhangelsk province. Most of the monuments of ancient Russian wooden architecture were inherited from the Finno-Ugric lands. Several years ago, the epic of the Erzyan people “Mastorava” was recorded and restored, which in itself is unique.

The spiritual life of the Finno-Ugric people is impossible without folk beliefs. Even baptized peoples long ago retained a huge layer of culture associated with pre-Christian beliefs. And some, like the Mari, still adhere mainly to the traditional faith. These beliefs should not be confused with paganism. The Mari, Erzyans, part of the Udmurts, and the Ob Ugrians have national religions.

Finno-Ugric question– this is without a doubt a Russian question. The question of ethnic identification of the Great Russian ethnos. In all the territories of the Russian Plain, where Russians now live, Finno-Ugric peoples used to live. The big problem is what was the nature of Slavic colonization. After all, Russians preserve the same material and spiritual traditional culture precisely with the Finno-Ugric peoples, and not with the southern Slavs or Turks. The psychological characteristics of the population, its national character, especially in the north, northwest and northeast of the European part of Russia (the most indigenous part of Russia), are also common among Russians and Finno-Ugric peoples.

I hope that the information presented above on the topic of Finno-Ugric peoples and Russia will help to find problem areas in the history of Russia and understand in which direction the history of Russia itself should be built, putting politics aside.

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• Development strategy of Ukraine - why is there no state development strategy in Ukraine?
• Russian friendship and its longevity as a kind of commercial project
• Finno-Ugric people and Russian culture. Finno-Ugrians are in the blood of Russians
• Russia is rewriting the history of neighboring peoples and states - why?
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The Komi language is part of the Finno-Ugric language family, and with the closest Udmurt language it forms the Perm group of Finno-Ugric languages. In total, the Finno-Ugric family includes 16 languages, which in ancient times developed from a single base language: Hungarian, Mansi, Khanty (Ugric group of languages); Komi, Udmurt (Perm group); Mari, Mordovian languages ​​- Erzya and Moksha: Baltic - Finnish languages ​​- Finnish, Karelian, Izhorian, Vepsian, Votic, Estonian, Livonian languages. A special place in the Finno-Ugric family of languages ​​is occupied by the Sami language, which is very different from other related languages.

Finno-Ugric languages ​​and Samoyed languages ​​form the Uralic family of languages. The Amodian languages ​​include Nenets, Enets, Nganasan, Selkup, and Kamasin languages. Peoples speaking Samoyed languages ​​live in Western Siberia, except for the Nenets, who also live in northern Europe.

Hungarians moved to the territory surrounded by the Carpathians more than a thousand years ago. The self-name of the Hungarians Modyor has been known since the 5th century. n. e. Writing in the Hungarian language appeared at the end of the 12th century, and the Hungarians have a rich literature. The total number of Hungarians is about 17 million people. In addition to Hungary, they live in Czechoslovakia, Romania, Austria, Ukraine, Yugoslavia.

Mansi (Voguls) live in the Khanty-Mansiysk district of the Tyumen region. In Russian chronicles, they, together with the Khanty, were called Yugra. The Mansi use a written language based on Russian graphics and have their own schools. The total number of Mansi is over 7,000 people, but only half of them consider Mansi their native language.

The Khanty (Ostyaks) live on the Yamal Peninsula, lower and middle Ob. Writing in the Khanty language appeared in the 30s of our century, but the dialects of the Khanty language are so different that communication between representatives of different dialects is often difficult. Many lexical borrowings from the Komi language penetrated into the Khanty and Mansi languages

The Baltic-Finnish languages ​​and peoples are so close that speakers of these languages ​​can communicate with each other without a translator. Among the languages ​​of the Baltic-Finnish group, the most widespread is Finnish, it is spoken by about 5 million people, the self-name of the Finns is Suomi. In addition to Finland, Finns also live in the Leningrad region of Russia. Writing arose in the 16th century, and in 1870 the period of the modern Finnish language began. The epic "Kalevala" is written in Finnish, and a rich original literature has been created. About 77 thousand Finns live in Russia.

Estonians live on the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea; the number of Estonians in 1989 was 1,027,255 people. Writing existed from the 16th century to the 19th century. Two literary languages ​​developed: southern and northern Estonian. In the 19th century these literary languages ​​became closer based on the Central Estonian dialects.

Karelians live in Karelia and the Tver region of Russia. There are 138,429 Karelians (1989), a little more than half speak their native language. The Karelian language consists of many dialects. In Karelia, Karelians study and use the Finnish literary language. The most ancient monuments of Karelian writing date back to the 13th century; in Finno-Ugric languages, this is the second oldest written language (after Hungarian).

Izhora is an unwritten language and is spoken by about 1,500 people. Izhorians live on the southeastern coast of the Gulf of Finland, on the river. Izhora, a tributary of the Neva. Although the Izhorians call themselves Karelians, in science it is customary to distinguish an independent Izhorian language.

Vepsians live on the territory of three administrative-territorial units: Vologda, Leningrad regions of Russia, Karelia. In the 30s there were about 30,000 Vepsians, in 1970 there were 8,300 people. Due to the strong influence of the Russian language, the Vepsian language is noticeably different from other Baltic-Finnish languages.

The Votic language is on the verge of extinction, because there are no more than 30 people who speak this language. Vod lives in several villages located between the northeastern part of Estonia and the Leningrad region. The Votic language is unwritten.

The Livs live in several seaside fishing villages in northern Latvia. Their number has sharply decreased over the course of history due to the devastation during World War II. Now the number of Livonian speakers is only about 150 people. Writing has been developing since the 19th century, but currently the Livonians are switching to the Latvian language.

The Sami language forms a separate group of Finno-Ugric languages, since there are many specific features in its grammar and vocabulary. The Sami live in the northern regions of Norway, Sweden, Finland and the Kola Peninsula in Russia. There are only about 40 thousand people, including about 2000 in Russia. The Sami language has much in common with the Baltic-Finnish languages. Sami writing develops on the basis of different dialects in Latin and Russian graphic systems.

Modern Finno-Ugric languages ​​have diverged so much from each other that at first glance they seem completely unrelated to each other. However, a deeper study of the sound composition, grammar and vocabulary shows that these languages ​​have many common features that prove the former common origin of the Finno-Ugric languages ​​from one ancient parent language.

Turkic languages

Turkic languages ​​belong to the Altaic language family. Turkic languages: about 30 languages, and with dead languages ​​and local varieties, the status of which as languages ​​is not always indisputable, more than 50; the largest are Turkish, Azerbaijani, Uzbek, Kazakh, Uyghur, Tatar; the total number of speakers of Turkic languages ​​is about 120 million people. The center of the Turkic range is Central Asia, from where, in the course of historical migrations, they also spread, on the one hand, to southern Russia, the Caucasus and Asia Minor, and on the other, to the northeast, to eastern Siberia up to Yakutia. The comparative historical study of Altai languages ​​began in the 19th century. Nevertheless, there is no generally accepted reconstruction of the Altaic proto-language; one of the reasons is the intensive contacts of the Altaic languages ​​and numerous mutual borrowings, which complicate the use of standard comparative methods.

Read also:

AVITO notebook VKontakte group on VKontakte
II. HYDROXYL GROUP – OH (ALCOHOLS, PHENOLS)
III. CARBONYL GROUP
A. Social group as a fundamental determinant of living space.
B. Eastern group: Nakh-Dagestan languages
The influence of the individual on the group. Leadership in small groups.
Question 19 Typological (morphological) classification of languages.
Question 26 Language in space. Territorial variation and interaction of languages.
Question 30 Indo-European family of languages. General characteristics.
Question 39 The role of translation in the formation and improvement of new languages.

Read also:

Väinemöinen was alone,
Eternal singer, -
Born by a beautiful virgin,
He was born from Ilmatar...
Old faithful Väinämöinen
Wanders in the womb of the mother,
He spends thirty years there,
Zim spends exactly the same amount of time
On waters full of slumber,
On the foggy waves of the sea...
He fell into the blue sea,
He grabbed the waves with his hands.
The husband is at the mercy of the sea,
The hero remained among the waves.
He lay at sea for five years,
I rocked in it for five and six years,
And another seven years and eight.
Finally floats to land,
To an unknown shallows,
He swam out onto the treeless shore.
Väinämöinen has risen,
I stood with my feet on the shore,
To an island washed by the sea,
To a plain without trees.

Kalevala.

Ethnogenesis of the Finnish race.

In modern science, it is customary to consider the Finnish tribes together with the Ugric ones, uniting them into a single Finno-Ugric group. However, research by the Russian professor Artamonov on the origins of the Ugric peoples shows that their ethnogenesis took place in an area covering the upper reaches of the Ob River and the northern coast of the Aral Sea. It should be noted that the ancient Paleosian tribes, related to the ancient population of Tibet and Sumer, acted as one of the ethnic substrates for both the Ugric and Finnish tribes. This relationship was discovered by Ernst Muldashev with the help of a special ophthalmological study (3). This fact allows us to talk about the Finno-Ugric people as a single ethnic group. However, the main difference between the Ugrians and Finns is that different tribes acted as the second ethnic component in both cases. Thus, the Ugric peoples were formed as a result of the mixing of the ancient Palaisians with the Turks of Central Asia, while the Finnish peoples were formed as a result of the mixing of the former with the ancient Mediterranean (Atlantic tribes) supposedly related to the Minoans. As a result of this mixture, the Finns inherited a megalithic culture from the Minoans, which died out in the middle of the second millennium BC due to the destruction of its metropolis on the island of Santorini in the 17th century BC.

Subsequently, the settlement of the Ugric tribes occurred in two directions: downstream of the Ob and to Europe. However, due to the low passionarity of the Ugric tribes, they only in the 3rd century AD. reached the Volga, crossing the Ural ridge in two places: in the area of ​​modern Yekaterinburg and in the lower reaches of the great river. As a result, the Ugric tribes reached the Baltic territory only by the 5th-6th century AD, i.e. just a few centuries before the arrival of the Slavs on the Central Russian Upland. While Finnish tribes lived in the Baltic region at least since the 4th millennium BC.

Currently, there is every reason to believe that the Finnish tribes were carriers of an ancient culture, which archaeologists conventionally call the “funnel beaker culture.” This name arose due to the fact that a characteristic feature of this archaeological culture are special ceramic cups that are not found in other parallel cultures. Judging by archaeological data, these tribes were mainly engaged in hunting, fishing and raising small livestock. The main hunting weapon was a bow, the arrows of which were tipped with bone. These tribes lived in the floodplains of large European rivers and, during the period of their greatest expansion, occupied the northern European lowlands, which were completely freed from the ice sheet around the 5th millennium BC. The famous archaeologist Boris Rybakov describes the tribes of this culture as follows (4, p. 143):

In addition to the agricultural tribes mentioned above, who moved to the territory of the future “ancestral home of the Slavs” from the Danube south, because of the Sudetes and the Carpathians, foreign tribes also penetrated here from the North Sea and the Baltic. This is the “funnel cup culture” (TRB), associated with megalithic structures. It is known in Southern England and Jutland. The richest and most concentrated finds are concentrated outside the ancestral home, between it and the sea, but individual settlements are often found along the entire course of the Elbe, Oder and Vistula. This culture is almost synchronous with the Pinnacle, Lendel, and Trypillian, coexisting with them for more than a thousand years. The unique and fairly high culture of funnel-shaped beakers is considered the result of the development of local Mesolithic tribes and, in all likelihood, non-Indo-European, although there are supporters of attributing it to the Indo-European community. One of the centers of development of this megalithic culture probably lay in Jutland.

Judging by the linguistic analysis of the languages ​​of the Finnish group, they do not belong to the Aryan (Indo-European) group. Famous philologist and writer, professor at Oxford University D.R. Tolkien devoted a lot of time to studying this ancient language and came to the conclusion that it belongs to a special language group. It turned out to be so isolated that the professor constructed on the basis of the Finnish language the language of the mythological people - the elves, whose mythical history he described in his fantasy novels. So, for example, the name of the Supreme God in the mythology of the English professor sounds like Iljuvatar, while in Finnish and Karelian it is Ilmarinen.

By their origin, the Finno-Ugric languages ​​are not related to the Aryan languages, which belong to a completely different language family - Indo-European. Therefore, numerous lexical convergences between the Finno-Ugric and Indo-Iranian languages ​​testify not to their genetic relationship, but to deep, diverse and long-term contacts between the Finno-Ugric and Aryan tribes. These connections began in the pre-Aryan period and continued in the pan-Aryan era, and then, after the division of the Aryans into “Indian” and “Iranian” branches, contacts were carried out between Finno-Ugric and Iranian-speaking tribes.

The range of words borrowed by Finno-Ugric languages ​​from Indo-Iranian languages ​​is very diverse. This includes numerals, kinship terms, animal names, etc. Particularly characteristic are words and terms related to the economy, the names of tools and metals (for example, “gold”: Udmurt and Komi - “zarni”, Khanty and Mansi - “sorni”, Mordovian “sirne”, Iranian “zaranya” ", modern Ossetian - "zerin"). A number of correspondences have been noted in the field of agricultural terminology (“grain”, “barley”); Words used in various Finno-Ugric languages ​​for cow, heifer, goat, sheep, lamb, sheep skin, wool, felt, milk and a number of others were borrowed from Indo-Iranian languages.

Such correspondences, as a rule, indicate the influence of more economically developed steppe tribes on the population of the northern forest regions. Also indicative are examples of borrowing into Finno-Ugric languages ​​from Indo-European languages ​​terms related to horse breeding (“foal”, “saddle”, etc.). The Finno-Ugrians became acquainted with the domestic horse, apparently as a result of connections with the population of the steppe South. (2, 73 pages).

A study of basic mythological subjects shows that the core of Finnish mythology differs significantly from the common Aryan one. The most complete presentation of these stories is contained in Kalevala, a collection of Finnish epics. The main character of the epic, unlike the heroes of the Aryan epic, is endowed not only and not so much with physical, but with magical power, which allows him to build, for example, a boat with the help of a song. The heroic duel again boils down to competitions in magic and poetry. (5, p. 35)

He sings – and Joukahainen
I went thigh-deep into the swamp,
And up to the waist in the quagmire,
And up to the shoulders in loose sand.
That's when Joukahainen
I could comprehend with my mind,
That I went the wrong way
And took the journey in vain
Compete in chants
With the mighty Väinämöinen.

The Scandinavian “Saga of Halfdan Eisteysson” also reports about the outstanding witchcraft abilities of the Finns (6, 40):

In this saga, the Vikings meet in battle with the leaders of the Finns and Biarms - terrible werewolves.

One of the Finnish leaders, King Floki, could shoot three arrows at once from a bow and hit three people at once. Halfdan cut off his hand so that it flew into the air. But Floki exposed his stump, and his hand grew to it. Another Finnish king, meanwhile, turned into a giant walrus, which simultaneously crushed fifteen people. The king of the Biarms, Harek, turned into a fearsome dragon. With great difficulty, the Vikings managed to deal with the monsters and take possession of the magical country of Biarmia.

All these and many other elements indicate that the Finnish tribes belong to some very ancient race. It is the antiquity of this race that explains the “slowness” of its modern representatives. After all, the more ancient a people is, the more life experience they have accumulated, and the less vain they are.

Elements of the culture of the Finnish race are found mainly among the peoples living along the shores of the Baltic Sea. Therefore, the Finnish race can also be called the Baltic race. It is characteristic that the Roman historian Tacitus in the 1st century AD. pointed out that the Aestii people, living on the shores of the Baltic Sea, have many similarities with the Celts. This is a very important point, since it was through Celtic culture that the ancient Finnish nation was able to preserve its historical heritage. In this sense, the Frisian tribe is of greatest interest, from the point of view of studying ancient Finnish history. In ancient times, this people lived on the territory of modern Denmark. The descendants of this tribe still live in this territory, although they have long lost their language and culture. However, the Frisian chronicle “Hurray Linda Brook” has survived to this day, which tells how the ancestors of the Frisians sailed to the territory of modern Denmark after a terrible catastrophe - the flood that destroyed Plato’s Atlantis. This chronicle is often cited by Atlantologists as confirmation of the existence of a legendary civilization. As a result, the version of the antiquity of the Baltic race receives further confirmation.

Each nation can also be identified by the nature of its burials. The main funeral rite of the ancient Balts is the laying of stones over the body of the deceased. This ritual has been preserved in both Ireland and Scotland. Over time, it was modified and was reduced to installing a tombstone on the grave.

Such a ritual indicates a direct cultural connection between the Finnish/Baltic race and the megalithic structures found mainly in the Baltic Sea basin and surrounding areas. The only place that falls outside this range is the North Caucasus, however, there is an explanation for this fact, which, however, cannot be given within the framework of this work.

As a result, we can state the fact that one of the essential elements of the ethnic substrate of the modern Baltic peoples is the ancient Finnish race, whose origin is lost in the depths of millennia. This race went through its own history of development, different from the Aryans, as a result of which it formed a unique language and culture, which are part of the genetic heritage of the modern Balts and Finns.

Individual tribes.

The overwhelming number of ethnographers agree that the tribes that inhabited northeastern Europe and adjacent territories, immediately before the start of the Slavic and Germanic colonization of this region, were ethnically Finno-Ugric, i.e. to the 10th century AD Finnish and Ugric elements in the local tribes mixed quite strongly. The most famous tribe that lived on the territory of modern Estonia, after which the lake located on the border of the Slavic and German colonization zones is named, is Chud. According to legend, miracles possessed various witchcraft abilities. In particular, they could suddenly disappear in the forest, or they could remain under water for a long time. It was believed that the white-eyed miracle knew the spirits of the elements. During the Mongol invasion, the Chud went into the forests and disappeared forever from the chronicle history of Rus'. It is believed that it is she who inhabits the legendary Kitezh-grad, located at the bottom of Beloozero. However, in Russian legends, the Chud are also called the more ancient dwarf people who lived in prehistoric times, and in some places lived as a relic until the Middle Ages. Legends about dwarf people are usually common in areas where there are clusters of megalithic structures.

In Komi legends, these short and dark-skinned people, for whom the grass seems like a forest, sometimes acquire animal features - they are covered with hair, and miracles have pig legs. The miracles lived in a fabulous world of abundance, when the sky was so low above the earth that the miracles could reach it with their hands, but they do everything wrong - they dig holes in the arable land, feed the cattle in the hut, mow the hay with a chisel, reap the bread with an awl, store threshed grain in stockings, pounding oatmeal in an ice hole. The strange woman insults Yen because she stains the low sky with sewage or touches it with a rocker. Then En (the demiurge god of the Komi) raises the sky, tall trees grow on the ground, and tall white people do not replace the miracles: the miracles leave them in their holes underground, because they are afraid of agricultural tools - the sickle, etc...

...There is a belief that miracles have turned into evil spirits that hide in dark places, abandoned dwellings, baths, even under water. They are invisible, leave behind traces of birds' paws or children's feet, harm people and can replace their children with their own...

According to other legends, Chud are, on the contrary, ancient heroes, which include Pera and Kudy-osh. They also go underground or turn to stone or become trapped in the Ural Mountains after Russian missionaries spread the new Christian religion. Ancient settlements (kars) remained from the Chud; the Chud giants could throw axes or clubs from settlement to settlement; sometimes they are credited with the origin of lakes, the founding of villages, etc. (6, 209-211)

The next large tribe was “Vod”. Semenov-Tianshansky in the book “Russia. Complete geographical description of our Fatherland. Lake Region" in 1903 wrote about this tribe as follows:

“In the east of the miracle there once lived water. This tribe, ethnographically, is considered transitional from the western (Estonian) branch of the Finns to other Finnish tribes. Vody settlements, as far as can be judged by the prevalence of Votic names, occupied a vast area ranging from the river. Narova and to the river. Msta, reaching in the north to the Gulf of Finland, and in the south going beyond Ilmen. Vod participated in the alliance of tribes that called the Varangian princes. It was first mentioned in the “Charter of Bridges”, attributed to Yaroslav the Wise. The colonization of the Slavs pushed this tribe to the coast of the Gulf of Finland. The vod lived amicably with the Novgorodians, participating in the campaigns of the Novgorodians, and even in the Novgorod army a special regiment consisted of “leaders.” Subsequently, the area inhabited by Vodya became part of one of the five Novgorod regions under the name “Vodskaya Pyatina”. From the middle of the 12th century, the Swedes began crusades in the land of water, which they called “Vatland”. A number of papal bulls are known to encourage Christian preaching here, and in 1255 a special bishop was appointed for Watland. The connection of the Vod with the Novgorodians, however, was stronger; the Vod gradually merged with the Russian and became strongly channeled. The remnants of the Vodi are considered to be the small tribe “Vatyalayset”, living in the Peterhof and Yamburg districts.”

It is also necessary to mention the unique Setu tribe. Currently it lives in the Pskov region. Scientists believe that it is an ethnic relic of the ancient Finnish race, which was the first to populate these lands as the glacier melted. Some national characteristics of this tribe allow us to think so.

The Karela tribe managed to preserve the most complete collection of Finnish myths. Thus, the basis of the famous Kalevala (4) - the Finnish epic - is mostly based on Karelian legends and myths. The Karelian language is the most ancient of the Finnish languages, containing a minimal number of borrowings from languages ​​belonging to other cultures.

Finally, the most famous Finnish tribe, which has preserved its language and culture to this day, is the Livs. Representatives of this tribe live in the territory of modern Latvia and Estonia. It was this tribe that was the most civilized in the initial period of the formation of the Estonian and Latvian ethnic groups. Occupying territory along the coast of the Baltic Sea, representatives of this tribe came into contact with the outside world earlier than others. For several centuries, the territory of modern Estonia and Latvia was called Livonia, after the estate of this tribe.

Comments.

It can be assumed that the description of this ethnic contact, which occurred in ancient times, was preserved in the Kalevala in the second rune. (1), where it is indicated that a short hero in copper armor came out of the sea to help the hero Väinämöinen, who then miraculously turned into a giant and cut down a huge oak tree that covered the Sky and eclipsed the Sun.

Literature.

1. Tolkien John, The Silmarilion;
2. Bongard-Levin G.E., Grantovsky E.A., “From Scythia to India” M. “Mysl”, 1974
3. Muldashev Ernst. "From whom did we come?"
4. Rybakov Boris. "The paganism of the ancient Slavs." – M. Sofia, Helios, 2002
5. Kalevala. Translation from Finnish by Belsky. – St. Petersburg: Publishing house “Azbuka-classics”, 2007.
6. Petrukhin V.Ya. “Myths of the Finno-Ugric peoples”, M, Astrel AST Transitbook, 2005

Finno-Ugric peoples

Finno-Ugric peoples: history and culture. Finno-Ugric languages

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Peoples of the Finno-Ugric language group

The Finno-Ugric language group is part of the Ural-Yukaghir language family and includes the peoples: Sami, Vepsians, Izhorians, Karelians, Nenets, Khanty and Mansi.

Sami live mainly in the Murmansk region. Apparently, the Sami are the descendants of the oldest population of Northern Europe, although there is an opinion about their migration from the east. For researchers, the greatest mystery is the origin of the Sami, since the Sami and the Baltic-Finnish languages ​​go back to a common base language, but anthropologically the Sami belong to a different type (Uralic type) than the Baltic-Finnish peoples, who speak languages ​​that are closest to them related, but mainly of the Baltic type. To resolve this contradiction, many hypotheses have been put forward since the 19th century.

The Sami people most likely descend from the Finno-Ugric population. Presumably in the 1500-1000s. BC e. the separation of the proto-Sami begins from a single community of native language speakers, when the ancestors of the Baltic Finns, under Baltic and later German influence, began to move to a sedentary lifestyle as farmers and cattle breeders, while the ancestors of the Sami in Karelia assimilated the autochthonous population of Fennoscandia.

The Sami people, in all likelihood, were formed by the merger of many ethnic groups. This is indicated by anthropological and genetic differences between the Sami ethnic groups living in different territories. Genetic studies in recent years have revealed that modern Sami have common features with the descendants of the ancient population of the Atlantic coast of the Ice Age - the modern Basque Berbers. Such genetic characteristics were not found in more southern groups of Northern Europe. From Karelia, the Sami migrated further and further north, fleeing the spreading Karelian colonization and, presumably, tribute. Following the migrating herds of wild reindeer, the ancestors of the Sami, at the latest during the 1st millennium AD. e., gradually reached the coast of the Arctic Ocean and reached the territories of their current residence. At the same time, they began to move on to breeding domesticated reindeer, but this process reached a significant extent only in the 16th century.

Their history over the past one and a half millennia represents, on the one hand, a slow retreat under the onslaught of other peoples, and on the other hand, their history is an integral part of the history of nations and peoples that have their own statehood in which an important role is given to the imposition of tribute on the Sami. A necessary condition for reindeer herding was that the Sami wandered from place to place, driving herds of reindeer from winter to summer pastures. In practice, nothing prevented people from crossing state borders. The basis of the Sami society was a community of families, which were united on the principles of joint ownership of land, which gave them the means to subsist. Land was allocated by family or clan.

Figure 2.1 Dynamics of the population of the Sami people 1897 – 2010 (compiled by the author based on materials).

Izhorians. The first mention of Izhora occurs in the second half of the 12th century, where it speaks of pagans, who half a century later were already recognized in Europe as a strong and even dangerous people. It was from the 13th century that the first mentions of Izhora appeared in Russian chronicles. In the same century, the Izhora land was first mentioned in the Livonian Chronicle. At the dawn of a July day in 1240, the elder of the Izhora land, while on patrol, discovered the Swedish flotilla and hastily sent a report on everything to Alexander, the future Nevsky.

Obviously, at this time the Izhorians were still very close ethnically and culturally to the Karelians who lived on the Karelian Isthmus and in the Northern Ladoga region, north of the area of ​​​​the supposed distribution of the Izhorians, and this similarity persisted until the 16th century. Quite accurate data on the approximate population of the Izhora land were first recorded in the Scribe Book of 1500, but the ethnicity of the residents was not shown during the census. It is traditionally believed that the inhabitants of the Karelian and Orekhovetsky districts, most of whom had Russian names and nicknames of Russian and Karelian sound, were Orthodox Izhorians and Karelians. Obviously, the border between these ethnic groups passed somewhere on the Karelian Isthmus, and perhaps coincided with the border of Orekhovetsky and Karelian counties.

In 1611, Sweden took possession of this territory. During the 100 years that this territory became part of Sweden, many Izhorians left their villages. Only in 1721, after the victory over Sweden, Peter I included this region in the St. Petersburg province of the Russian state. At the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th centuries, Russian scientists began to record the ethno-confessional composition of the population of the Izhora lands, then already included in the St. Petersburg province. In particular, to the north and south of St. Petersburg, the presence of Orthodox residents is recorded, ethnically close to the Finns - Lutherans - the main population of this territory.

Veps. At present, scientists cannot finally resolve the question of the genesis of the Veps ethnic group. It is believed that by origin the Vepsians are associated with the formation of other Baltic-Finnish peoples and that they separated from them, probably in the 2nd half. 1 thousand n. e., and by the end of this thousand settled in the southeastern Ladoga region. The burial mounds of the 10th-13th centuries can be defined as ancient Vepsian. It is believed that the earliest mentions of the Vepsians date back to the 6th century AD. e. Russian chronicles from the 11th century call this people the whole. Russian scribal books, lives of saints and other sources more often know the ancient Vepsians under the name Chud. The Vepsians lived in the interlake region between Lakes Onega and Lake Ladoga from the end of the 1st millennium, gradually moving east. Some groups of Vepsians left the inter-lake region and merged with other ethnic groups.

In the 1920s and 30s, Vepsian national districts, as well as Veps rural councils and collective farms, were created in places where people lived compactly.

In the early 1930s, the introduction of teaching the Vepsian language and a number of academic subjects in this language in primary schools began, and Vepsian language textbooks based on Latin script appeared. In 1938, Vepsian-language books were burned, and teachers and other public figures were arrested and expelled from their homes. Since the 1950s, as a result of increased migration processes and the associated spread of exogamous marriages, the process of assimilation of the Vepsians has accelerated. About half of the Vepsians settled in cities.

Nenets. History of the Nenets in the 17th-19th centuries. rich in military conflicts. In 1761, a census of yasak foreigners was carried out, and in 1822, the “Charter on the Management of Foreigners” was put into effect.

Excessive monthly exactions and the arbitrariness of the Russian administration have repeatedly led to riots, accompanied by the destruction of Russian fortifications; the most famous is the Nenets uprising in 1825-1839. As a result of military victories over the Nenets in the 18th century. first half of the 19th century The area of ​​settlement of the tundra Nenets expanded significantly. By the end of the 19th century. The territory of Nenets settlement has stabilized, and their numbers have increased compared to the end of the 17th century. approximately doubled. Throughout the Soviet period, the total number of Nenets, according to census data, also increased steadily.

Today the Nenets are the largest of the indigenous peoples of the Russian North. The share of Nenets who consider the language of their nationality to be their native language is gradually decreasing, but still remains higher than that of most other peoples of the North.

Figure 2.2 Number of Nenets peoples 1989, 2002, 2010 (compiled by the author based on materials).

In 1989, 18.1% of Nenets recognized Russian as their native language, and in general were fluent in Russian, 79.8% of Nenets - thus, there is still a fairly noticeable part of the linguistic community, adequate communication with which can only be ensured by knowledge of the Nenets language. It is typical that young people retain strong Nenets speech skills, although for a significant part of them the Russian language has become the main means of communication (as with other peoples of the North). A certain positive role is played by the teaching of the Nenets language at school, the popularization of national culture in the media, and the activities of Nenets writers. But first of all, the relatively favorable language situation is due to the fact that reindeer husbandry - the economic basis of Nenets culture - was generally able to survive in its traditional form despite all the destructive trends of the Soviet era. This type of production activity remained entirely in the hands of the indigenous population.

Khanty- a small indigenous Ugric people living in the north of Western Siberia.

Volga region center of cultures of Finno-Ugric peoples

There are three ethnographic groups of Khanty: northern, southern and eastern, and the southern Khanty mixed with the Russian and Tatar population. The ancestors of the Khanty penetrated from the south into the lower reaches of the Ob and settled the territories of modern Khanty-Mansiysk and the southern regions of the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug, and from the end of the 1st millennium, based on the mixing of aborigines and alien Ugric tribes, the ethnogenesis of the Khanty began. The Khanty called themselves more by rivers, for example “people of Konda”, “people of the Ob”.

Northern Khanty. Archaeologists associate the genesis of their culture with the Ust-Polui culture, localized in the river basin. Ob from the mouth of the Irtysh to the Ob Bay. This is a northern, taiga fishing culture, many of whose traditions are not followed by modern northern Khanty.
From the middle of the 2nd millennium AD. The northern Khanty were strongly influenced by the Nenets reindeer herding culture. In the zone of direct territorial contacts, the Khanty were partially assimilated by the tundra Nenets.

Southern Khanty. They spread upward from the mouth of the Irtysh. This is the territory of the southern taiga, forest-steppe and steppe and culturally it gravitates more towards the south. In their formation and subsequent ethnocultural development, the southern forest-steppe population played a significant role, layering on the general Khanty base. The Russians had a significant influence on the southern Khanty.

Eastern Khanty. They settle in the Middle Ob region and along the tributaries: Salym, Pim, Agan, Yugan, Vasyugan. This group, to a greater extent than others, retains North Siberian cultural features that go back to the Ural population - draft dog breeding, dugout boats, the predominance of swing clothing, birch bark utensils, and a fishing economy. Within the modern territory of their habitat, the Eastern Khanty interacted quite actively with the Kets and Selkups, which was facilitated by belonging to the same economic and cultural type.
Thus, in the presence of common cultural features characteristic of the Khanty ethnic group, which is associated with the early stages of their ethnogenesis and the formation of the Ural community, which, along with the mornings, included the ancestors of the Kets and Samoyed peoples, the subsequent cultural “divergence”, the formation of ethnographic groups, to a greater extent was determined by the processes of ethnocultural interaction with neighboring peoples. Muncie- a small people in Russia, the indigenous population of the Khanty-Mansiysk Autonomous Okrug. Closest relatives of the Khanty. They speak the Mansi language, but due to active assimilation, about 60% use Russian in everyday life. As an ethnic group, the Mansi were formed as a result of the merger of local tribes of the Ural culture and Ugric tribes moving from the south through the steppes and forest-steppes of Western Siberia and Northern Kazakhstan. The two-component nature (a combination of the cultures of taiga hunters and fishermen and steppe nomadic herders) in the culture of the people persists to this day. Initially, the Mansi lived in the Urals and its western slopes, but the Komi and Russians in the 11th-14th centuries forced them out into the Trans-Urals. The earliest contacts with Russians, primarily Snovgorodians, date back to the 11th century. With the annexation of Siberia to the Russian state at the end of the 16th century, Russian colonization intensified, and already at the end of the 17th century the number of Russians exceeded the number of the indigenous population. The Mansi were gradually forced out to the north and east, partially assimilated, and were converted to Christianity in the 18th century. The ethnic formation of Mansi was influenced by various peoples.

In the Vogul cave, located near the village of Vsevolodo-Vilva in the Perm region, traces of Voguls were discovered. According to local historians, the cave was a temple (pagan sanctuary) of the Mansi, where ritual ceremonies were held. In the cave, bear skulls with traces of blows from stone axes and spears, shards of ceramic vessels, bone and iron arrowheads, bronze plaques of the Permian animal style with an image of an elk man standing on a lizard, silver and bronze jewelry were found.

Finno-Ugrians or Finno-Ugric- a group of peoples with related linguistic features and formed from the tribes of northeastern Europe since the Neolithic times, they inhabited Western Siberia, the Trans-Urals, the northern and middle Urals, the territory north of the upper Volga, the Volga Oksya interfluve and the middle Volga region until midnight of the modern Saratov region in Russia.

1. Title

In Russian chronicles they are known under the unifying names Chud and Samoyeds (self-name suomaline).

2. Settlement of Finno-Ugric ethnic groups in Russia

On the territory of Russia there live 2,687,000 people belonging to the Finno-Ugric ethnic groups. In Russia, Finno-Ugric peoples live in Karelia, Komi, Mari El, Mordovia, and Udmurtia. According to chronicle references and linguistic analysis of toponyms, the Chud united several tribes: Mordva, Muroma, Merya, Vesps (All, Vepsians) and etc..

The Finno-Ugric people were an autochthonous population between the Oka and Volga rivers; their tribes, Estonians, Merya, Mordovians, and Cheremis, were part of the Gothic kingdom of Germanaric in the 4th century. The chronicler Nestor in the Ipatiev Chronicle indicates about twenty tribes of the Ural group (Ugro-Finivs): Chud, Livs, Vodi, Yam (Ӕm), all (also the North of them on the White Lake Sedѧt Vs), Karelians, Ugra, caves, Samoyeds, Perm (Perm) ), cheremis, casting, zimigola, kors, nerom, Mordovians, Merya (and on Rostov the river Merya and on Kleshchina and the river lake there is the same), Muroma (and there is a river where the Volga flows into the Volga Svoi Muroma) and meshchera . The Muscovites called all local tribes Chud from the indigenous Chud, and accompanied this name with irony, explaining it through the Muscovite weird, weird, strange. Now these peoples have been completely assimilated by the Russians, they have disappeared from the ethnic map of modern Russia forever, adding to the number of Russians and leaving only a wide range of their ethnic geographical names.

These are all the names of rivers from ending-wa: Moscow, Protva, Kosva, Silva, Sosva, Izva, etc. The Kama River has about 20 tributaries, the names of which end in na-va, means "water" in Finnish. From the very beginning, the Muscovite tribes felt their superiority over the local Finno-Ugric peoples. However, Finno-Ugric place names are found not only where these peoples today make up a significant part of the population, forming autonomous republics and national districts. Their distribution area is much larger, for example, Moscow.

According to archaeological data, the settlement area of ​​the Chud tribes in Eastern Europe remained unchanged for 2 thousand years. Starting from the 9th century, the Finno-Ugric tribes of the European part of present-day Russia were gradually assimilated by Slavic colonists who came from Kievan Rus. This process formed the basis for the formation of modern Russian nation.

The Finno-Ugric tribes belong to the Ural-Altai group and a thousand years ago they were close to the Pechenegs, Cumans and Khazars, but were at a much lower level of social development than the others; in fact, the ancestors of the Russians were the same Pechenegs, only forest ones. At that time, these were the primitive and culturally most backward tribes of Europe. Not only in the distant past, but even at the turn of the 1st and 2nd millennia they were cannibals. The Greek historian Herodotus (5th century BC) called them androphages (eaters of people), and the chronicler Nestor, already during the period of the Russian state, called Samoyeds (Samoyed).

Finno-Ugric tribes of a primitive gathering-hunting culture were the ancestors of the Russians. Scientists claim that the Moscow people received the greatest admixture of the Mongoloid race through the assimilation of the Finno-Ugric people, who came to Europe from Asia and partially absorbed the Caucasoid admixture even before the arrival of the Slavs. A mixture of Finno-Ugric, Mongolian and Tatar ethnic components contributed to the ethnogenesis of the Russians, which was formed with the participation of the Slavic tribes of the Radimichi and Vyatichi. Due to ethnic mixing with the Ugrofinans, and later with the Tatars and partly with the Mongols, Russians have an anthropological type that is different from the Kiev-Russian (Ukrainian). The Ukrainian diaspora jokes about this: “The eyes are narrow, the nose is plus - completely Russian.” Under the influence of the Finno-Ugric language environment, the formation of the Russian phonetic system (akanye, gekanya, ticking) took place. Today, “Ural” features are inherent to one degree or another in all the peoples of Russia: average height, wide face, nose, called “snub-nosed,” and sparse beard. The Mari and Udmurts often have eyes with the so-called Mongolian fold - epicanthus; they have very wide cheekbones and a thin beard. But at the same time she has blond and red hair, blue and gray eyes. The Mongolian fold is sometimes found among Estonians and Karelians. Komi are different: in those places where there are mixed marriages with adults, they are dark-haired and slanted, others are more reminiscent of Scandinavians, but with a slightly wider face.

According to the research of Meryanist Orest Tkachenko, “In the Russian people, connected on the maternal side with the Slavic ancestral home, the father was a Finn. On the paternal side, Russians descended from the Finno-Ugric peoples.” It should be noted that according to modern studies of Y-chromosome halotypes, in fact the situation was the opposite - Slavic men married women of the local Finno-Ugric population. According to Mikhail Pokrovsky, Russians are an ethnic mixture, in which Finns belong to 4/5, and Slavs -1/5. Remnants of Finno-Ugric culture in Russian culture can be traced in such features that are not found among other Slavic peoples: women's kokoshnik and sundress , men's shirt-shirt, bast shoes (bast shoes) in national costume, dumplings in dishes, style of folk architecture (tent buildings, porch), Russian bathhouse, sacred animal - bear, 5-tone singing scale, a-touch and vowel reduction, paired words like stitches-paths, arms-legs, alive and well, so-and-so, turnover I have(instead of I, characteristic of other Slavs) the fairytale beginning “once upon a time”, the absence of the rusal cycle, carols, the cult of Perun, the presence of the cult of the birch rather than the oak.

Not everyone knows that there is nothing Slavic in the surnames Shukshin, Vedenyapin, Piyashev, but they come from the name of the Shuksha tribe, the name of the war goddess Vedeno Ala, and the pre-Christian name Piyash. Thus, a significant part of the Finno-Ugrians was assimilated by the Slavs, and some, having converted to Islam, mixed with the Turks. Therefore, today Ugrofins do not make up the majority of the population even in the republics to which they gave their name. But, having dissolved in the mass of Russians (Rus. Russians), Ugrofins have retained their anthropological type, which is now perceived as typically Russian (Rus. Russian) .

According to the vast majority of historians, the Finnish tribes had an extremely peaceful and gentle disposition. This is how the Muscovites themselves explain the peaceful nature of colonization, declaring that there were no military clashes, because written sources do not remember anything like that. However, as the same V.O. Klyuchevsky notes, “in the legends of Great Russia, some vague memories of the struggle that broke out in some places survived.”

3. Toponymy

Toponyms of Meryan-Erzyan origin in Yaroslavl, Kostroma, Ivanovo, Vologda, Tver, Vladimir, Moscow regions account for 70-80% (Vexa, Voxenga, Elenga, Kovonga, Koloksa, Kukoboy, lekht, Melexa, Nadoxa, Nero (Inero), Nux, Nuksha, Palenga, Peleng, Pelenda, Peksoma, Puzhbol, Pulokhta, Sara, Seleksha, Sonokhta, Tolgobol, otherwise, Sheksheboy, Shekhroma, Shileksha, Shoksha, Shopsha, Yakhrenga, Yakhrobol(Yaroslavl region, 70-80%), Andoba, Vandoga, Vokhma, Vokhtoga, Voroksa, Lynger, Mezenda, Meremsha, Monza, Nerekhta (flicker), Neya, Notelga, Onga, Pechegda, Picherga, Poksha, Pong, Simonga, Sudolga, Toekhta, Urma, Shunga, Yakshanga(Kostroma region, 90-100%), Vazopol, Vichuga, Kineshma, Kistega, Kokhma, Ksty, Landeh, Nodoga, Paks, Palekh, Parsha, Pokshenga, Reshma, Sarokhta, Ukhtoma, Ukhtokhma, Shacha, Shizhegda, Shileksa, Shuya, Yukhma etc. (Ivanovo region), Vokhtoga, Selma, Senga, Solokhta, Sot, Tolshma, Shuya and others. (Vologda region), "Valdai, Koy, Koksha, Koivushka, Lama, Maksatikha, Palenga, Palenka, Raida, Seliger, Siksha, Syshko, Talalga, Udomlya, Urdoma, Shomushka, Shosha, Yakhroma etc. (Tver region), Arsemaki, Velga, Voininga, Vorsha, Ineksha, Kirzhach, Klyazma, Koloksha, Mstera, Moloksha, Mothra, Nerl, Peksha, Pichegino, Soima, Sudogda, Suzdal, Tumonga, Undol etc. (Vladimir region), Vereya, Vorya, Volgusha, Lama, Moscow, Nudol, Pakhra, Taldom, Shukhroma, Yakhroma etc. (Moscow region)

3.1. List of Finno-Ugric peoples

3.2.

FINNO-UGRIAN PEOPLES

Personalities

Ugrofinams by origin were Patriarch Nikon and Archpriest Avvakum - both Mordovians, Udmurts - physiologist V. M. Bekhterev, Komi - sociologist Pitirim Sorokin, Mordvins - sculptor S. Nefedov-Erzya, who adopted the name of the people as his pseudonym; Mikhail Ivanovich Pugovkin is a Russified Merya, his real name sounds Meryan - Pugorkin, composer A.Ya. Eshpai is a Mari, and many others:

See also

Sources

Notes

Map of the approximate settlement of Finno-Ugric tribes in Art. 9.

Stone gravestone with the image of a warrior. Ananyinsky burial ground (near Yelabuga). VI-IV centuries BC.

The history of the Russian tribes that inhabited the Volga-Oka and Kama basins in the 1st millennium BC. e., is distinguished by significant originality. According to Herodotus, the Boudins, Tissagets and Irki lived in this part of the forest line. Noting the difference between these tribes from the Scythians and Sauromatians, he points out that their main occupation was hunting, which supplied not only food, but also furs for clothing. Herodotus especially notes the horse hunting of the hirks with the help of dogs. The information of the ancient historian is confirmed by archaeological sources indicating that hunting really occupied a large place in the life of the studied tribes.

However, the population of the Volga-Oka and Kama basins was not limited only to those tribes mentioned by Herodotus. The names he gives can only be attributed to the southern tribes of this group - the immediate neighbors of the Scythians and Sauromatians. More detailed information about these tribes began to penetrate into ancient historiography only at the turn of our era. Tacitus probably relied on them when he described the life of the tribes in question, calling them Fenians (Finns).

The main occupation of the Finno-Ugric tribes in the vast territory of their settlement should be considered cattle breeding and hunting. Swidden farming played a minor role. A characteristic feature of production among these tribes was that, along with iron tools, which came into use around the 7th century. BC e., bone tools were used here for a very long time. These features are typical of the so-called Dyakovo (interfluve of the Oka and Volga), Gorodets (southeast of the Oka) and Ananino (Prikamye) archaeological cultures.

The southwestern neighbors of the Finno-Ugric tribes, the Slavs, throughout the 1st millennium AD. e. significantly advanced into the area of ​​settlement of Finnish tribes. This movement caused the displacement of part of the Finno-Ugric tribes, as an analysis of numerous Finnish names of rivers in the central part of European Russia shows. The processes under consideration occurred slowly and did not violate the cultural traditions of the Finnish tribes. This makes it possible to connect a number of local archaeological cultures with Finno-Ugric tribes, already known from Russian chronicles and other written sources. The descendants of the tribes of the Dyakovo archaeological culture were probably the Merya and Muroma tribes, the descendants of the tribes of the Gorodets culture - the Mordovians, and the origin of the chronicle Cheremis and Chud goes back to the tribes that created the Ananyin archaeological culture.

Many interesting features of the life of the Finnish tribes have been studied in detail by archaeologists. The most ancient method of obtaining iron in the Volga-Oka basin is indicative: iron ore was smelted in clay vessels standing in the middle of open fires. This process, noted in settlements of the 9th-8th centuries, is characteristic of the initial stage of the development of metallurgy; later ovens appeared. Numerous bronze and iron products and the quality of their manufacture suggest that already in the first half of the 1st millennium BC. e. Among the Finno-Ugric tribes of Eastern Europe, the transformation of domestic production industries into crafts, such as foundry and blacksmithing, began. Among other industries, the high development of weaving should be noted. The development of cattle breeding and the beginning emphasis on crafts, primarily metallurgy and metalworking, led to an increase in labor productivity, which in turn contributed to the emergence of property inequality. Nevertheless, the accumulation of property within the clan communities of the Volga-Oka basin occurred rather slowly; because of this, until the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. the ancestral villages were relatively weakly fortified. Only in subsequent centuries did the settlements of the Dyakovo culture become fortified with powerful ramparts and ditches.

The picture of the social structure of the inhabitants of the Kama region is more complex. The burial inventory clearly indicates the presence of wealth stratification among local residents. Some burials dating back to the end of the 1st millennium allowed archaeologists to suggest the emergence of some kind of disadvantaged category of the population, possibly slaves from among prisoners of war.

Settlement area

On the position of the tribal aristocracy in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. evidenced by one of the striking monuments of the Ananyinsky burial ground (near Yelabuga) - a stone tombstone with a relief image of a warrior armed with a dagger and a war hammer and decorated with a mane. The rich grave goods in the grave under this slab contained a dagger and a hammer made of iron, and a silver hryvnia. The buried warrior was undoubtedly one of the clan leaders. The isolation of the clan nobility especially intensified by the 2nd-1st centuries. BC e. It should be noted, however, that at this time the clan nobility was probably relatively few in number, since low labor productivity still greatly limited the number of members of society who lived off the labor of others.

The population of the Volga-Oka and Kama basins was associated with the Northern Baltic, Western Siberia, the Caucasus, and Scythia. Many objects came here from the Scythians and Sarmatians, sometimes even from very distant places, such as the Egyptian figurine of the god Amon, found in a settlement excavated at the spout of the Chusovaya and Kama rivers. The shapes of some iron knives, bone arrowheads and a number of vessels among the Finns are very similar to similar Scythian and Sarmatian products. Connections of the Upper and Middle Volga region with the Scythian and Sarmatian world can be traced back to the 6th-4th centuries, and by the end of the 1st millennium BC. e. are made permanent.