Russian system of measures. Ancient units of measurement
Since ancient times, the measure of length and weight has always been a person: how far he can stretch his arm, how much he can lift on his shoulders, etc.
The system of Old Russian measures of length included the following basic measures: verst, fathom, arshin, elbow, span and vershok.
ARSHIN is an ancient Russian measure of length, equal, in modern terms, to 0.7112 m. Arshin was also the name given to a measuring ruler, on which divisions in vershoks were usually applied.
There are different versions of the origin of the arshin measure of length. Perhaps, initially, “arshin” denoted the length of a human step (about seventy centimeters, when walking on the plain, at an average pace) and was the base value for other large measures of determining length, distances (fathom, verst). The root "AR" in the word a rsh i n - in the Old Russian language (and in other neighboring ones) means "EARTH", "surface of the earth", and indicates that this measure could be used in determining the length of the path traveled on foot. There was another name for this measure STEP. In practice, counting could be done in pairs of steps of an adult (“small fathoms”; one-two one, one-two two, one-two three...), or in threes (“official fathoms”; one-two-three one, one -two-three two...), and when measuring small distances in steps, step-by-step counting was used. Subsequently, they also began to use, under this name, an equal amount of arm length.
For small measures of length, the base value was the measure used from time immemorial in Rus' - “span” (from the 17th century - a length equal to a span was called otherwise “a quarter of an arshin”, “a quarter”, “chet”), from which one can easily it was possible to obtain smaller shares of two inches (1/2 inch) or an inch (1/4 inch).
Merchants, when selling goods, as a rule, measured it with their arshin (ruler) or quickly measuring it “from the shoulder.” To exclude measurements, the authorities introduced as a standard the “official arshin,” which is a wooden ruler with metal tips with a state mark riveted at the ends.
STEP - the average length of a human step = 71 cm. One of the oldest measures of length.
PYAD (pyatnitsa) is an ancient Russian measure of length.
SMALL SPAND (they said - “span”; since the 17th century it was called “quarter”) - the distance between the ends of the spread thumb and index (or middle) fingers = 17.78 cm.
BIG SPAN - the distance between the ends of the thumb and little finger (22-23 cm).
SPAND WITH A TUMPLER ("span with a somersault", according to Dahl - "span with a somersault") - span with the addition of two joints of the index club = 27-31 cm
Our old icon painters measured the size of icons in spans: [nine icons of seven spans (1 3/4 arshins). The Most Pure Tikhvin Pyadnitsa on Gold (4 vershoks). Icon of St. George the Great deeds of four spans (1 arshin)k
VERSTA is an old Russian travel measure (its early name was “field”). This word originally referred to the distance traveled from one turn of the plow to another during plowing. The two names have long been used in parallel, as synonyms. There are known mentions in written sources of the 11th century. In manuscripts of the 15th century. there is an entry: “field of 7 hundred and 50 fathoms” (750 fathoms long). Before Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, 1 verst was considered 1000 fathoms. Under Peter the Great, one verst was equal to 500 fathoms, in modern terms - 213.36 X 500 = 1066.8 m.
"Verstoy" was also called a milestone on the road.
The size of the verst changed repeatedly depending on the number of fathoms included in it and the size of the fathom. The Code of 1649 established a “boundary mile” of 1 thousand fathoms. Later, in the 18th century, along with it, a “travel mile” of 500 fathoms (“five hundredth mile”) began to be used.
Mezhevaya Versta is an old Russian unit of measurement equal to two versts. A verst of 1000 fathoms (2.16 km) was widely used as a boundary measure, usually when determining pastures around large cities, and on the outskirts of Russia, especially in Siberia, and to measure distances between populated areas.
The 500-fathom verst was used somewhat less frequently, mainly for measuring distances in the European part of Russia. Long distances, especially in Eastern Siberia, were determined in days of travel. In the 18th century boundary versts are gradually being replaced by travel ones, and the only verst in the 19th century. there remains a “travel” mileage equal to 500 fathoms.
SAZHEN is one of the most common length measures in Rus'. There were more than ten fathoms of different purposes (and, accordingly, size). “Makhovaya fathom” is the distance between the ends of the fingers of an adult man’s widely spaced hands. “Oblique fathom” is the longest: the distance from the toe of the left foot to the end of the middle finger of the raised right hand. Used in the phrase: “he has slanting fathoms in his shoulders” (meaning - hero, giant)
This ancient measure of length was mentioned by Nestor in 1017. The name sazhen comes from the verb to reach (reach) - as far as one could reach with one’s hand. To determine the meaning of the ancient Russian fathom, a major role was played by the discovery of a stone on which the inscription was carved in Slavic letters: “In the summer of 6576 (1068) of the 6th day of indictment, Prince Gleb measured... 10,000 and 4,000 fathoms.” From a comparison of this result with the measurements of topographers, a fathom value of 151.4 cm was obtained. The results of measurements of temples and the value of Russian folk measures coincided with this value. There were fathomed measuring ropes and wooden “folds” that were used in measuring distances and in construction.
According to historians and architects, there were more than 10 fathoms and they had their own names, were incommensurable and not multiples of one another. Fathoms: city - 284.8 cm, untitled - 258.4 cm, great - 244.0 cm, Greek - 230.4 cm, state - 217.6 cm, royal - 197.4 cm, church - 186.4 cm, folk - 176.0 cm, masonry - 159.7 cm, simple - 150.8 cm, small - 142.4 cm and another one without a name - 134.5 cm (data from one source), as well as - courtyard, pavement.
FLY FATTH - the distance between the ends of the middle fingers of arms outstretched to the sides is 1.76 m.
OBLIQUE SAZHEN (originally “oblique”) - 2.48 m.
Fathoms were used before the introduction of the metric system of measures.
ELBOW was equal to the length of the arm from the fingers to the elbow (according to other sources - “the distance in a straight line from the elbow to the end of the extended middle finger of the hand”). The size of this ancient measure of length, according to various sources, ranged from 38 to 47 cm. Since the 16th century, it was gradually replaced by the arshin and in the 19th century it was almost not used.
Elbow is a native ancient Russian measure of length, known already in the 11th century. The value of the Old Russian cubit of 10.25-10.5 vershoks (on average approximately 46-47 cm) was obtained from a comparison of measurements in the Jerusalem Temple made by Abbot Daniel, and later measurements of the same dimensions in an exact copy of this temple in the main temple of the New Jerusalem Monastery on Istra River (XVII century). The cubit was widely used in trade as a particularly convenient measure. In the retail trade of canvas, cloth, and linen, the elbow was the main measure. In large-scale wholesale trade, linen, cloth, etc., were supplied in the form of large pieces of “postavy”, the length of which at different times and in different places ranged from 30 to 60 cubits (in places of trade, these measures had a specific, well-defined meaning)
PALM = 1/6 cubit (six-palmed cubit)
VERSHOK equaled 1/16 of an arshin, 1/4 of a quarter. In modern terms - 4.44 cm. The name "Vershok" comes from the word "top". In the literature of the 17th century. There are also fractions of an inch - half an inch and a quarter inch.
When determining the height of a person or animal, counting was carried out after two arshins (mandatory for a normal adult): if it was said that the person being measured was 15 vershoks in height, then this meant that he was 2 arshins 15 vershoks, i.e. 209 cm.
Ancient Russian measures of length, weight, volume
For humans, two methods of fully expressing height have been used:
1 - combination of “height *** elbows, *** spans”
2 - combination “height *** arshin, *** vershoks”
from the 18th century - "*** feet, *** inches"
For small domestic animals they used - “height *** inches”
For trees - “height *** arshins”
Measures of length (used in Russia after the Decree of 1835 and before the introduction of the metric system):
1 verst = 500 fathoms = 50 poles = 10 chains = 1.0668 kilometers
1 fathom = 3 arshins = 7 feet = 48 vershoks = 2.1336 meters
Oblique fathom = 2.48 m.
Mach fathom = 1.76 m.
1 arshin = 4 quarters (spans) = 16 vershok = 28 inches = 71.12 cm
(divisions in vertices were usually applied to arshins)
1 cubit = 44 cm (according to various sources from 38 to 47 cm)
1 foot = 1/7 fathom = 12 inches = 30.479 cm
1 quarter (span, small pip, pyadnitsa, pyada, pyaden, pyadyka) = 4 vershka = 17.78 cm (or 19 cm - according to B.A. Rybakov)
The name p i d comes from the Old Russian word “metacarpus”, i.e. wrist. One of the oldest measures of length (since the 17th century, “span” was replaced by “quarter arshin”)
Synonym for "quarter" - "chet"
Large span = 1/2 cubit = 22-23 cm - the distance between the ends of the extended thumb and middle (or little) finger.
A “span with somersault” is equal to a small span plus two or three joints of the index or middle finger = 27 - 31 cm.
1 vershok = 4 nails (width - 1.1 cm) = 1/4 span = 1/16 arshin = 4.445 centimeters
- an ancient Russian measure of length equal to the width of two fingers (index and middle).
1 finger ~ 2 cm.
New measures (introduced since the 18th century):
1 inch = 10 lines = 2.54 cm
The name comes from Dutch - "thumb". Equal to the width of your thumb or the length of three dry grains of barley taken from the middle part of the ear.
1 line = 10 points = 1/10 inch = 2.54 millimeters (example: Mosin’s “three-ruler” - d = 7.62 mm.)
The line is the width of a wheat grain, approximately 2.54 mm.
1 hundredth fathom = 2.134 cm
1 point = 0.2540 millimeters
1 geographical mile (1/15 degree of the earth's equator) = 7 versts = 7.42 km
(from the Latin word "milia" - a thousand (steps))
1 nautical mile (1 minute of arc of the earth's meridian) = 1.852 km
1 English mile = 1.609 km
1 yard = 91.44 centimeters
In the second half of the 17th century, the arshin was used together with the vershok in various branches of production. In the [Description Books of the Armory Chamber of the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery (1668) it is written: “... a copper regimental cannon, smooth, nicknamed Kashpir, Moscow made, length three arshins and a half-eleven vershok (10.5 vershok) Large cast-iron pischal, iron Lion , with belts, length three arshins, three quarters and a half inch." The ancient Russian measure “elbow” continued to be used in everyday life for measuring cloth, linen and woolen fabrics. As follows from the Trade Book, three cubits are equivalent to two arshins. The span as an ancient measure of length still continued to exist, but since its meaning changed due to agreement with a quarter of the arshin, this name (span) gradually fell out of use. The span was replaced by a quarter arshin.
From the second half of the 18th century, the divisions of the vershok, in connection with the reduction of the arshin and sazhen to a multiple ratio with English measures, were replaced by small English measures: inch, line and point, but only the inch took root. Lines and dots were used relatively little. The lines expressed the dimensions of lamp glasses and the calibers of guns (for example, ten- or 20-line glass, known in everyday life). The dots were used only to determine the sizes of gold and silver coins. In mechanics and mechanical engineering, the inch was divided into 4, 8, 16, 32 and 64 parts.
In construction and engineering, dividing fathoms into 100 parts was widely used.
The foot and inch used in Russia are equal in size to English measures.
The decree of 1835 determined the relationship between Russian measures and English ones:
Fathom = 7 feet
Arshin = 28 inches
A number of units of measurement (verst divisions) were abolished, and new measures of length came into use: inch, line, point, borrowed from English measures.
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Since ancient times, the measure of length and weight has always been a person: how far he can stretch his arm, how much he can lift on his shoulders, etc.
The system of Old Russian measures of length included the following basic measures: verst, fathom, arshin, elbow, span and vershok.
ARSHIN- an ancient Russian measure of length, equal in modern terms to 0.7112 m. Arshin was also the name given to a measuring ruler, on which divisions in vershoks were usually applied.
There are different versions of the origin of the arshin measure of length. Perhaps, initially, “arshin” meant the length of a human step (about seventy centimeters, when walking on the plain, at an average pace) and was the base value for other major measures determining lengths, distances(fathom, verst). The root “AR” in the word a r sh i n - in the Old Russian language (and in other neighboring ones) means “EARTH”, “surface of the earth”, and indicates that this measure could be used in determining the length of the path traveled on foot. There was another name for this measure - STEP. In practice, counting could be done in pairs of steps of an adult (“small fathoms”; one-two – one, one-two – two, one-two – three...), or in threes (“official fathoms”; one-two-three – one , one-two-three - two...), and when measuring small distances in steps, step-by-step counting was used. Subsequently, they also began to use, under this name, an equal value - the length of the arm.
For small measures of length the basic value was the measure used from time immemorial in Rus' - “span” (since the 17th century - a length equal to a span was called differently - “quarter arshin”, “quarter”, “chet”), from which, by eye, it was easy to get smaller shares - two vershok (1/2 span) or vershok (1/4 span).
Merchants, when selling goods, as a rule, measured it with their arshin (ruler) or quickly - measuring ‘from the shoulder’. To exclude measurements, the authorities introduced, as a standard, the “government arshin,” which is a wooden ruler with metal tips with a state mark riveted at the ends.
STEP- average length of a human step = 71 cm. One of the oldest measures of length.
SPAN(pyatnitsa) - an ancient Russian measure of length. SMALL SPAND (they said - “span”; since the 17th century it was called “quarter”) - the distance between the ends of the spread thumb and index (or middle) fingers = 17.78 cm.
BIG SPAN- the distance between the ends of the thumb and little finger (22-23 cm).
FUCKING FLIP(“span with somersault”, according to Dahl - ‘span with somersault’) - span with the addition of two joints of the index club = 27-31 cm
Our old icon painters measured the size of icons in spans: “nine icons - seven spans (1 3/4 arshins). The Most Pure Tikhvin on gold - pyadnitsa (4 vershoks). Icon of St. George the Great deeds of four spans (1 arshin)"
VERST- Old Russian travel measure (its early name was “field”). This word originally referred to the distance traveled from one turn of the plow to another during plowing. The two names have long been used in parallel, as synonyms. There are known mentions in written sources of the 11th century. In manuscripts of the 15th century. there is an entry: “field of 7 hundred and 50 fathoms” (750 fathoms long). Before Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, 1 verst was considered 1000 fathoms. Under Peter the Great, one verst was equal to 500 fathoms, in modern terms - 213.36 X 500 = 1066.8 m.
“Verstoy” was also called a milestone on the road.
The size of the verst changed repeatedly depending on the number of fathoms included in it and the size of the fathom. The Code of 1649 established a “boundary mile” of 1 thousand fathoms. Later, in the 18th century, along with it, a “travel mile” of 500 fathoms (“five hundredth mile”) began to be used.
Mezhevaya Versta- Old Russian unit of measurement equal to two versts. A verst of 1000 fathoms (2.16 km) was widely used as a boundary measure, usually when determining pastures around large cities, and on the outskirts of Russia, especially in Siberia, and to measure distances between populated areas.
The 500-fathom verst was used somewhat less frequently, mainly for measuring distances in the European part of Russia. Long distances, especially in Eastern Siberia, were determined in days of travel. In the 18th century boundary versts are gradually being replaced by travel ones, and the only verst in the 19th century. the “travel” mileage remains, equal to 500 fathoms.
SAZHEN- one of the most common length measures in Rus'. There were more than ten fathoms of different purposes (and, accordingly, size). “Fly fathom” is the distance between the ends of the fingers of an adult man’s widely spaced hands. “Oblique fathoms” is the longest: the distance from the toe of the left foot to the end of the middle finger of the raised right hand. Used in the phrase: “he has oblique fathoms in his shoulders” (in the meaning - hero, giant)
This ancient measure of length was mentioned by Nestor in 1017. The name sazhen comes from the verb to reach (reach) - as far as one could reach with one’s hand. To determine the meaning of the ancient Russian fathom, a major role was played by the discovery of a stone on which the inscription was carved in Slavic letters: “In the summer of 6576 (1068) of the 6th day of indictment, Prince Gleb measured ... 10,000 and 4,000 fathoms.” From a comparison of this result with the measurements of topographers, a fathom value of 151.4 cm was obtained. The results of measurements of temples and the value of Russian folk measures coincided with this value. There were fathomed measuring ropes and wooden “folds”, which were used in measuring distances and in construction.
According to historians and architects, there were more than 10 fathoms and they had their own names, were incommensurable and not multiples of one another. Fathoms: city - 284.8 cm, untitled - 258.4 cm, great - 244.0 cm, Greek - 230.4 cm, state - 217.6 cm, royal - 197.4 cm, church - 186.4 cm, folk - 176.0 cm, masonry - 159.7 cm, simple - 150.8 cm, small - 142.4 cm and another one without a name - 134.5 cm (data from one source), as well as - courtyard, pavement.
Makhovaya Fathom- the distance between the ends of the middle fingers of arms outstretched to the sides is 1.76 m.
OBLIQUE FATHOUS(originally “splait”) - 2.48 m.
Fathoms were used before the introduction of the metric system of measures.
ELBOW equal to the length of the arm from the fingers to the elbow (according to other sources - “the distance in a straight line from the elbow to the end of the extended middle finger”). The size of this ancient measure of length, according to various sources, ranged from 38 to 47 cm. Since the 16th century, it was gradually replaced by the arshin and in the 19th century it was almost not used.
Elbow is a native ancient Russian measure of length, known already in the 11th century. The value of the Old Russian cubit of 10.25-10.5 vershoks (on average approximately 46-47 cm) was obtained from a comparison of measurements in the Jerusalem Temple made by Abbot Daniel, and later measurements of the same dimensions in an exact copy of this temple - in the main temple of the New Jerusalem Monastery on the Istra River (XVII century). The cubit was widely used in trade as a particularly convenient measure. In the retail trade of canvas, cloth, and linen, the elbow was the main measure. In large wholesale trade, linen, cloth, etc., were supplied in the form of large pieces - “postavs”, the length of which at different times and in different places ranged from 30 to 60 cubits (in places of trade these measures had a specific, well-defined meaning)
PALM= 1/6 cubit (six-palmed cubit)
VERSHOK equaled 1/16 arshin, 1/4 quarter. In modern terms - 4.44 cm. The name “Vershok” comes from the word “top”. In the literature of the 17th century. There are also fractions of an inch - half an inch and a quarter inch.
When determining the height of a person or animal, counting was carried out after two arshins (mandatory for a normal adult): if it was said that the person being measured was 15 vershoks in height, then this meant that he was 2 arshins 15 vershoks, i.e. 209 cm.
For humans, two methods of fully expressing height have been used:
1 - combination of “height *** elbows, *** spans”
2 - combination “height *** arshin, *** vershoks”
from the 18th century - "*** feet, *** inches"
For small domestic animals they used - “height *** inches”
For trees - “height *** arshins”
Measures of length (used in Russia after the Decree of 1835 and before the introduction of the metric system):
1 verst = 500 fathoms = 50 poles = 10 chains = 1.0668 kilometers
1 fathom = 3 arshins = 7 feet = 48 vershoks = 2.1336 meters
Oblique fathom = 2.48 m.
Mach fathom = 1.76 m.
1 arshin = 4 quarters (spans) = 16 vershok = 28 inches = 71.12 cm
(divisions in vertices were usually applied to arshins)
1 cubit = 44 cm (according to various sources from 38 to 47 cm)
1 foot = 1/7 fathom = 12 inches = 30.479 cm
1 quarter (span, small pip, pyadnitsa, pyada, pyaden, pyadyka) = 4 vershka = 17.78 cm (or 19 cm - according to B.A. Rybakov)
The name p i d comes from the Old Russian word “metacarpus”, i.e. wrist. One of the oldest measures of length (since the 17th century, “span” was replaced by “quarter arshin”)
Synonym for “quarter” is “chet”
Large span = 1/2 cubit = 22-23 cm - the distance between the ends of the extended thumb and middle (or little) finger.
A “span with somersault” is equal to a small span plus two or three joints of the index or middle finger = 27 - 31 cm.
1 vershok = 4 nails (width - 1.1 cm) = 1/4 span = 1/16 arshin = 4.445 centimeters
- an ancient Russian measure of length equal to the width of two fingers (index and middle).
1 finger ~ 2 cm.
New measures (introduced since the 18th century):
1 inch = 10 lines = 2.54 cm
The name comes from Dutch - “thumb”. Equal to the width of your thumb or the length of three dry grains of barley taken from the middle part of the ear.
1 line = 10 points = 1/10 inch = 2.54 millimeters (example: Mosin’s “three-ruler” - d = 7.62 mm.)
The line is the width of a wheat grain, approximately 2.54 mm.
1 hundredth fathom = 2.134 cm
1 point = 0.2540 millimeters
1 geographical mile (1/15 degree of the earth's equator) = 7 versts = 7.42 km
(from the Latin word "milia" - a thousand (steps))
1 nautical mile (1 minute of arc of the earth's meridian) = 1.852 km
1 English mile = 1.609 km
1 yard = 91.44 centimeters
In the second half of the 17th century, the arshin was used together with the vershok in various branches of production. In the “Description Books” of the Armory Chamber of the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery (1668) it is written: “... a copper regimental cannon, smooth, nicknamed Kashpir, Moscow made, length three arshins and a half-eleven vershoks (10.5 vershoks) ... Large cast-iron arcal, iron Lion , with belts, length three arshins, three quarters and a half inch.” The ancient Russian measure “elbow” continued to be used in everyday life for measuring cloth, linen and woolen fabrics. As follows from the Trade Book, three cubits are equivalent to two arshins. The span as an ancient measure of length still continued to exist, but since its meaning changed due to agreement with a quarter of the arshin, this name (span) gradually fell out of use. The span was replaced by a quarter arshin.
From the second half of the 18th century, the divisions of the vershok, in connection with the reduction of the arshin and sazhen to a multiple ratio with English measures, were replaced by small English measures: inch, line and point, but only the inch took root. Lines and dots were used relatively little. The lines expressed the dimensions of lamp glasses and the calibers of guns (for example, ten- or 20-line glass, known in everyday life). The dots were used only to determine the sizes of gold and silver coins. In mechanics and mechanical engineering, the inch was divided into 4, 8, 16, 32 and 64 parts.
In construction and engineering, dividing fathoms into 100 parts was widely used.
The foot and inch used in Russia are equal in size to English measures.
The decree of 1835 determined the relationship between Russian measures and English ones:
Fathom = 7 feet
Arshin = 28 inches
A number of units of measurement (verst divisions) were abolished, and new measures of length came into use: inch, line, point, borrowed from English measures.
Volume measures
Bucket
The basic Russian premetric measure of the volume of liquids is a bucket = 1/40 of a barrel = 10 mugs = 30 pounds of water = 20 vodka bottles (0.6) = 16 wine bottles (0.75) = 100 glasses = 200 scales = 12 liters (15 l - according to other sources, rarely) V. - iron, wooden or leather utensils, mostly cylindrical in shape, with ears or a bow for wearing. In everyday life, two buckets on the rocker should be in a “woman’s lift.” Division into smaller measures was carried out according to the binary principle: the bucket was divided into 2 half-buckets or 4 quarters of a bucket or 8 half-quarters, as well as into mugs and cups. The oldest “international” measure of volume is “handful”.
Until the middle of the 17th century. the bucket contained 12 mugs; in the second half of the 17th century. the so-called government bucket contained 10 mugs, and a mug contained 10 cups, so the bucket contained 100 cups. Then, according to the decree of 1652, the glasses were made three times larger than before (“three glasses”). The sales bucket held 8 mugs. The value of the bucket was variable, but the value of the mug was constant, 3 pounds of water (1228.5 grams). The volume of the bucket was 134.297 cubic inches.
Barrel
The barrel, as a measure of liquids, was used mainly in the process of trade with foreigners, who were prohibited from conducting retail trade in wine in small quantities. Equal to 40 buckets (492 l)
The material for making the barrel was chosen depending on its purpose:
oak - for beer and vegetable oils
spruce - under water
linden - for milk and honey
Most often, small barrels and kegs from 5 to 120 liters were used in peasant life. Large barrels could hold up to forty buckets (forty)
Barrels were also used for washing (beating) linen.
In the 15th century The ancient measures were still common - golvazhnya, lukno and harvesting. In the XVI-XVII centuries. Along with the fairly common korobya and belly, the Vyatka grain measure marten, the Perm sapsa (measure of salt and bread), the Old Russian bast and poshev are often found. The Vyatka marten was considered equal to three Moscow quarters, the saptsa contained 6 pounds of salt and approximately 3 pounds of rye, bast - 5 pounds of salt, poshev - about 15 pounds of salt.
Household measures of the volume of liquids were very diverse and were widely used even at the end of the 17th century: Smolensk barrel, bocha-selyodovka (8 pounds of herring; one and a half times less than Smolensk).
Measuring barrel "... from edge to edge one and a half arshins, and across - an arshin, and to measure up, like a leader, half an arshin."
In everyday life and in trade they used a variety of household vessels: cauldrons, jugs, pots, bratins, valleys. The significance of such household measures varied in different places: for example, the capacity of boilers ranged from half a bucket to 20 buckets. In the 17th century a system of cubic units based on the 7-foot fathom was introduced, and the term cubic (or "cubic") was introduced. A cubic fathom contained 27 cubic arshins or 343 cubic feet; cubic arshin - 4096 cubic vershoks or 21952 cubic inches.
Wine measures
The Wine Charter of 1781 established that every drinking establishment should have “measures certified in the Treasury Chamber.”
Bucket– Russian premetric measure of the volume of liquids, equal to 12 liters
Quarter = 3 liters (it used to be a narrow neck glass bottle)
The “bottle” measure appeared in Russia under Peter I.
Russian bottle = 1/20 of a bucket = 1/2 of a shtof = 5 glasses = 0.6 liters (the half-liter appeared later - in the twenties of the 20th century)
Since the bucket held 20 bottles (2 0 * 0.6 = 12 liters), and in trade the count was on buckets, the box still holds 20 bottles.
For wine, the Russian bottle was larger - 0.75 liters.
In Russia, glass production began in a factory way in 1635. The production of glass vessels also dates back to this time. The first domestic bottle was produced at the plant, which was built on the territory of the modern Istra station near Moscow, and the products were, at first, intended exclusively for pharmacists.
Overseas, a standard bottle holds one-sixth of a gallon - in different countries this ranges from 0.63 to 0.76 liters
A flat bottle is called a flask.
Shtof (from German Stof) = 1/10 of a bucket = 10 glasses = 1.23 liters. Appeared under Peter I. Served as a measure of the volume of all alcoholic beverages. The shape of the damask was like a quarter.
Mug (the word means ‘for drinking in a circle’) = 10 glasses = 1.23 liters.
Modern faceted glass was previously called “doskan” (“planed boards”), consisting of fret-boards tied with rope around a wooden bottom.
Charka (Russian measure of liquid) = 1/10 shtofa = 2 scales = 0.123 l.
Stack = 1/6 bottle = 100 grams It was considered the size of a single dose.
Shkalik (popular name - ‘kosushka’, from the word ‘mow’, according to the characteristic movement of the hand) = 1/2 cup = 0.06 l.
Quarter (half a scale or 1/16th of a bottle) = 37.5 grams.
Barrelware (that is, for liquid and bulk products) was distinguished by a variety of names depending on the place of production (baklazhka, baklusha, barrels), on the size and volume - badia, pudovka, sorokovka), its main purpose (resin, salt, wine, tar) and the wood used for their manufacture (oak, pine, linden, aspen). Finished cooperage products were divided into buckets, tubs, vats, kegs and casks.
Endova
Wooden or metal utensils (often decorated with ornaments) used for serving drinks. It was a low bowl with a spout. The metal valley was made of copper or brass. Wooden valleys were made from aspen, linden or birch.
Leather bag(skin) – up to 60 l
Korchaga- 12 l
Nozzle- 2.5 buckets (Nogorod liquid measure, 15th century)
Ladle
Zhban
Tub– vessel height – 30-35 centimeters, diameter – 40 centimeters, volume – 2 buckets or 22-25 liters
Krynki
Sudenci, misa
Tuesa
Box- from solid pieces of bast, sewn together with strips of bast. The bottom and top cover are made of boards. Sizes - from small boxes to large chests of drawers
Balakir- a dugout wooden vessel, 1/4-1/5 in volume, buckets.
As a rule, in the central and western parts of Russia, measuring containers for storing milk were proportional to the daily needs of the family and consisted of a variety of clay pots, pots, milk pans, lids, jugs, throats, milking bowls, birch bark with lids, containers, the capacity of which was approximately 1 /4- 1/2 buckets (about 3-5 l). The containers of makhotok, stavtsy, tuesk, in which fermented milk products were kept - sour cream, yogurt and cream, approximately corresponded to 1/8 of a bucket.
Kvass was prepared for the whole family in vats, tubs, barrels and tubs (lagushki, izhemki, etc.) with a capacity of up to 20 buckets, and for a wedding - for 40 or more poods. In drinking establishments in Russia, kvass was usually served in kvass pots, decanters and jugs, the capacity of which varied in different areas from 1/8-1/16 to about 1/3-1/4 of a bucket. The commercial measure of kvass in the central regions of Russia was a large clay (drinking) glass and jug.
Under Ivan the Terrible, eagle-shaped (branded with the sign of an eagle), that is, standardized drinking measures: bucket, octagon, half-octagon, stop and mug, first appeared in Russia.
Despite the fact that valleys, ladles, staves, stacks remained in use, and for small sales - hooks (cups with a long hook at the end instead of a handle, hanging along the edges of the valley).
In Old Russian measures and in vessels used for drinking, the principle of volume ratio is laid down - 1: 2: 4: 8: 16.
Ancient volume measures:
1 cu. fathom = 9.713 cubic meters meters
1 cu. arshin = 0.3597 cubic meters meters=
1 cu. vershok = 87.82 cubic meters. cm
1 cu. ft = 28.32 cu. decimeter (liter)
1 cu. inch = 16.39 cu. cm
1 cu. line = 16.39 cu. mm
1 quart is a little more than a liter.
In trade practice and in everyday life, according to L.F. Magnitsky, the following measures of bulk solids (“grain measures”) were used for a long time:
flipper- 12 quarters
quarter(chet) – 1/4 part of kadi
octopus(eighth - eighth part)
Kad(tub, shackle) = 20 buckets or more
Big tub - bigger tub
Tsybik- box (of tea) = 40 to 80 pounds (by weight).
Details: Tea was compacted tightly into wooden boxes, “tsibiki” - leather-covered frames in the shape of a square (two feet on a side), braided on the outside with reeds in two or three layers, which could be carried by two people. In Siberia, such a box of tea was called Umesta (‘Place’ is a possible option).
half an octagon
quadruple
Liquid measures (“wine measures”):
barrel(40 buckets)
boiler(from half a bucket to 20 buckets)
bucket
half a bucket
quarter bucket
osmuha (1/8)
crush(1/16 bucket)
Measures of volume of liquid and granular bodies:
1 quarter= 2.099 hectoliters = 209.9 l
1 quadruple(“measure”) = 2.624 deciliters = 26.24 l
1 garnets= 3.280 liters
Weights
In Rus', the following weight measures (Old Russian) were used in trade:
Berkovets = 10 poods
pud = 40 pounds = 16.38 kg
pound (hryvnia) = 96 spools = 0.41 kg
lot = 3 spools = 12.797 g
spool = 4.27 g
fraction = 0.044 g
…
The hryvnia (later pound) remained unchanged. The word “hryvnia” was used to designate both a weight and a monetary unit. This is the most common measure of weight in retail and craft applications. It was also used for weighing metals, in particular gold and silver.
BERKOVETS- this large measure of weight was used in wholesale trade mainly for weighing wax, honey, etc.
Berkovets - from the name of the island of Bjerk. This is what was called in Rus' a measure of weight of 10 pounds, just a standard barrel of wax, which one person could roll onto a merchant boat sailing to this very island. (163.8 kg).
There is a known mention of Berkovets in the 12th century in the charter of Prince Vsevolod Gabriel Mstislavich to the Novgorod merchants.
GOLDEN equaled 1/96 of a pound, in modern terms 4.26 g. They said about it: “the spool is small but expensive.” This word originally meant a gold coin.
LB(from the Latin word ‘pondus’ - weight, weight) was equal to 32 lots, 96 spools, 1/40 pood, in modern terms 409.50 g. Used in combinations: “not a pound of raisins”, “find out how much a pound of raisins is”.
The Russian pound was adopted under Alexei Mikhailovich.
Sugar was sold by the pound.
They bought tea with gold coins. Spool = 4.266g.
Until recently, a small packet of tea weighing 50 grams was called an “octam” (1/8 pound)
LOT- an old Russian unit of mass measurement equal to three spools or 12.797 grams.
SHARE– the smallest old Russian unit of mass measurement, equal to 1/96 of a spool or 0.044 grams.
PUD equaled 40 pounds, in modern terms - 16.38 kg. It was already used in the 12th century.
Pud - (from the Latin pondus - weight, heaviness) is not only a measure of weight, but also a weighing device. When weighing metals, the pud was both a unit of measurement and a unit of counting. Even when the results of weighings were reported to tens and hundreds of poods, they were not transferred to Berkovites. Back in the XI-XII centuries. they used various scales with equal-armed and unequal-armed beams: “pud” - a type of scale with a variable fulcrum and a fixed weight, “skalvy” - equal-armed scales (two-cup).
The pud as a unit of mass was abolished in the USSR in 1924.
Measures of weight used in the 18th century:
Note: the most used at that time (XVIII century) are highlighted
Area measures
The main measure of area was considered to be a tithe, as well as shares of a tithe: half a tithe, a quarter (a quarter was 40 fathoms of length and 30 fathoms of latitude) and so on. Land surveyors used (especially after the “Cathedral Code” of 1649) mainly the official three-arshine fathom, equal to 2.1336 m, so a tithe of 2400 square fathoms was equal to approximately 1.093 hectares.
The scale of use of tithes and quarters grew in accordance with the development of land and the increase in the territory of the state. However, already in the first half of the 16th century it became clear that when measuring lands in quarters, the general inventory of lands would take many years. And then, in the 40s of the 16th century, one of the most enlightened people, Ermolai Erasmus, proposed using a larger unit - a tetrahedral field, which meant a square area with a side of 1000 fathoms. This proposal was not accepted, but played a certain role in the process of introducing the large plow. Ermolai Erasmus is one of the first theoretical metrologists, who also sought to combine the solution of metrological and social issues. When determining the areas of hayfields, tithes were introduced with great difficulty because the lands were inconvenient for measurement due to their location and irregular shapes. The most commonly used yield measure was a haystack. Gradually, this measure acquired a meaning linked to the tithe, and was divided into 2 half-shocks, 4 quarter-shocks, 8 half-quarters of a hay, etc. Over time, a haystack, as a measure of area, was equated to 0.1 tithes (i.e., it was believed that an average of 10 copecks of hay were taken from a tithe). Labor and sowing measures were expressed through a geometric measure - tithe.
Surface area measures:
1 sq. verst = 250,000 square fathoms = 1.138 sq. kilometers
1 tithe = 2400 square fathoms = 1.093 hectares
1 kopn = 0.1 tithe
1 sq. fathom = 16 square arshins = 4.552 sq. meters
1 sq. arshin=0.5058 sq. meters
1 sq. vershok=19.76 sq. cm
1 sq. ft=9.29 sq. inches=0.0929 sq. m
1 sq. inch=6.452 sq. centimeter
1 sq. line=6.452 sq. millimeters
Units of measurement in Rus' in the 18th century
By the 18th century, there were up to 400 units of measures of different sizes used in different countries. The variety of measures made trading operations difficult. Therefore, each state sought to establish uniform measures for its country.
In Russia, back in the 16th and 17th centuries, uniform systems of measures were defined for the entire country. In the 18th century In connection with economic development and the need for strict accounting in foreign trade, the question of measurement accuracy and the creation of standards on the basis of which verification work (“metrology”) could be organized in Russia arose.
The question of choosing standards from the many existing ones (both domestic and overseas) turned out to be difficult. In the middle of the 18th century. foreign coins and precious metals were weighed at customs upon arrival, and then reweighed repeatedly at the mints; At the same time, the weight turned out to be different.
By the mid-30s of the 18th century. There was an opinion that, more precisely, the scales at the St. Petersburg customs office. It was decided to make model scales from the customs scales, place them under the Senate and carry out verification using them.
A ruler that previously belonged to Peter I served as an example of a measure of length when determining the size of an arshin and a sazhen. The ruler was marked with a half-arshin. Using this half-arshin measure, samples of length measures were made - a copper arshin and a wooden fathom.
Among the measures of bulk solids received by the Commission, the quadrangle of the Moscow Big Customs was selected, according to which the measurements of bulk solids in other cities were verified.
The basis for liquid measurements was a bucket sent from the Kamennomostsky drinking yard in Moscow.
In 1736, the Senate decided to form a Commission of Weights and Measures, headed by the chief director of the Monetary Board, Count Mikhail Gavrilovich Golovkin. The commission created exemplary measures - standards, established the relationship of various measures to each other, and developed a project for organizing verification work in the country. A project was introduced on the decimal construction of measures, taking into account the fact that the Russian monetary account system was built on the decimal principle.
Having decided on the starting units of measures, the Commission began to establish connections between different units of measurement using measures of length. Determine the volume of the bucket and quadrangle. The volume of the bucket was 136.297 cubic vershok, and the volume of the four-piece was 286.421 cubic vershok. The result of the work of the Commission was the “Regulations...”
According to the arshin, the value of which was determined by the Commission of 1736–1742, it was recommended in 1745 to produce arshins “in the entire Russian state.” In accordance with the volume of the quadrangle adopted by the Commission, in the second half of the 18th century. Quadruples, half-octagons and octagons were made.
Under Paul I, by decree of April 29, 1797 on the “Establishment of correct scales, drinking and grain measures throughout the Russian Empire,” a lot of work began on streamlining measures and weights. Its completion dates back to the 30s of the 19th century. The decree of 1797 was drawn up in the form of desirable recommendations. The decree concerned four issues of measurement: weighing instruments, weight measures, measures of liquid and granular bodies. Both the weighing instruments and all the measures had to be replaced, for which it was planned to cast cast iron measures.
By 1807, three arshin standards were made (stored in St. Petersburg): crystal, steel and copper. The basis for determining their value was the reduction of arshin and fathom to a multiple ratio with English. measures - in fathoms 7 English feet, in arshins - 28 English. inches. The standards were approved by Alexander I and transferred for storage to the Ministry of Internal Affairs. 52 copper tetrahedral arshins were made to be sent to each province. It’s interesting that before this, the saying: “Measure by your own yardstick” literally corresponded to reality. Sellers measured the length of the fabric with a yardstick - using a drawbar from their shoulder.
On July 10, 1810, the State Council of Russia decided to introduce a single measure of length throughout the country - the standard 16 vershok arshin (71.12 cm). It was ordered to introduce state-branded yardsticks priced at 1 silver ruble in all provinces, with the simultaneous withdrawal of old yardstick templates.
Stage
Stage [Greek. stadion - stages (measure of length)] - this ancient measure of distances is more than two thousand years old (from it - Stadium in other Greece; Greek stadion - place for competitions). The size of the stage is about two hundred meters. “...directly opposite the city lay the island of Pharos, on the northern tip of which stood the famous lighthouse of the same name, built of white marble, connected to the city by a long pier called the septastadion (7 stages)” (F.A. Brockhaus, I.A. Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary)
Ancient measures in modern language
In modern Russian, ancient units of measurement and words denoting them have been preserved mainly in the form of proverbs and sayings
Sayings:
“You write in big letters” - large
“Kolomenskaya Versta” is a humorous name for a very tall person.
“Oblique fathom in the shoulders” - broad-shouldered
in poetry:
You can’t understand Russia with your mind, you can’t measure it with a common (official) yardstick. Tyutchev
Dictionary
Currency units
Quarter = 25 rubles
Ruble = 2 half
Tselkovy - the colloquial name for the metal ruble
Poltina = 50 kopecks
Quarter = 25 kopecks
Five-altyn = 15 kopecks
Altyn = 3 kopecks
Dime = 10 kopecks
kidney = 1 half
2 money = 1 kopeck
1/2 copper money (half a coin) = 1 kopeck.
Grosh (copper penny) = 2 kopecks.
Polushka (otherwise half money) was equal to one kopeck. This is the smallest unit in the ancient money account. Since 1700, half coins were minted from copper = 1/2 copper money was equal to 1 kopeck.
Foreign names:
Pint is an old French measure of liquids, about 0.9 liters; in England and the USA - a measure of the volume of liquids and bread, approximately 0.57 l
Eighth of a pound = 1/8 pound
Gallon English - 4.546 l
Barrel - 159 l
Carat - 0.2 g, weight of wheat grain
Ounce - 28.35 g
English pound - 0.45359 kg
1 stone = 14 pounds = 6.35 kilograms
1 small handweight = 100 pounds = 45.36 kg.
Yard -91.44 cm.
Nautical mile - 1852 m
1 cable - tenth of a mile
Rhumb - 11 1/4° = 1/32 fraction of a circle - unit of angular measure
Sea knot (speed) = 1 mph
Ancient Russian quantities:
Quarter - quarter, quarter
‘a quarter of wine’ = a fourth of a bucket.
‘four quarter grains’ = 1/4 cadi
kad - an old Russian measure of bulk solids (usually four pounds)
Osmina, osmukha - eighth (eighth) part = 1/8
An eighth of a pound was called osmushka (“osmushka tea”).
‘a quarter to eight’ – time = 7:45 am or pm
Five - five units of weight or length
A ream is a measure of paper, formerly equal to 480 sheets; later - 1000 sheets
‘one hundred and eighty osmago November day osmago’ – 188 November eighth
Pregnancy is a burden, an armful, as much as you can wrap your arms around.
Half a third - two and a half
Half a point = 4.5
Half elevenths = 10.5
Half a hundred - two hundred and fifty
Field - ‘arena, lists’ (115 steps - a variant of magnitude), later - the first name and synonym for ‘verst’ (field - million - mile), Dahl has a variant meaning of this word: “daily march, about 20 versts”
“Printed fathom” - official (standard, with a state stamp), measured, three arshins
A cut is an amount of material in a single piece of fabric sufficient to make any clothing (for example, a shirt)
“No estimate” - no number
Perfect, perfect - suitable, to match
Additional reading:
New domestic research
In the old days, units of mass were formed according to natural patterns. So the mass of water with which a jug of a certain volume was filled was taken as a unit of mass. Based on the mass of grains or water, weights of different weights were made, which were used when weighing.
A bag of grain, flour or salt could be taken as a measure of weight.
In Russia, the following mass measures were used at different times:
Berkovets– this measure was used before the introduction of the metric system. It was used mainly in wholesale trade for weighing certain goods, such as wax and honey. This is exactly the mass of a standard barrel of wax. The measure is equal to 10 pounds.
Spool– in our time it is 4.26 grams. This unit of measurement was used when weighing the smallest goods that were of great value.
Hryvnia or hryvnia– went through a difficult stage of development and formation, at the same time serving as a monetary unit and a measure of mass. It got its name from an ornament made of gold or silver that was worn around the neck (colloquially on the back of the neck). The weight of the hryvnia was equal to one pound of silver. There were small and large hryvnia, the weight of which was 48 and 96 spools, respectively. In the 18th century, a new measure was introduced - the pound, while the large hryvnia was no longer used, and the small one remained in use under the name hryvnia (the adjective small was abolished).
Lb- appeared in the 18th century and was equal to a large hryvnia, that is, 96 spools. In 1747, this measure became the standard and for a long time was the basis of the weight measures of Russia: according to the bronze and gold-plated pound made in the same 1747, in 1835 a platinum pound was produced, which formed the basis of the weight measures first of the Russian Empire, and then what that time and Soviet Russia.
Lot- equal to three spools, which corresponds to 12.797 grams. Found its application in determining the amount of postage when weighing various postal items.
The smallest unit of mass measurement is a fraction, which is equal to 0.044 grams.
In the 12th century, the measuring unit pud appeared, which was equal to 40 pounds. In 1924, this unit of measurement fell into oblivion and ceased to be used.
The unit of measurement for medicines and pearls was the gran. 1 grain = 62.209 mg.
In the 17th and 18th centuries, the measure of certain goods was a quarter or a quarter. It was called a waxed quarter and was equal to 12 pounds. It was used to weigh the wax. This unit was one of the largest; only the fin was larger. The last measure appeared in the 14th century and was equal to 90 to 120 poods. However, from the 15th to the 17th centuries, fins were equated to 72 pounds. In the 18th century, this measure was completely removed from use.
In the Russian mass spectrum there is also a clearly visible connection with wheat grain, which in ancient times was called pie (from the Old Russian name for wheat - piro): pie = 42.625 mg, kidney - 4 pie = 0.1705 g.
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In Rus', the following weight measures (Old Russian) were used in trade:
- Berkovets = 10 poods
- pud = 40 pounds = 16.38 kg
- pound (hryvnia) = 96 spools = 0.41 kg
- lot = 3 spools = 12.797 g
- spool = 4.27 g
- fraction = 0.044 g
The hryvnia (later pound) remained unchanged. The word "hryvnia" was used to designate both a weight and a monetary unit. This is the most common measure of weight in retail and craft applications. It was also used for weighing metals, in particular gold and silver.
BERKOVETS - this large measure of weight was used in wholesale trade mainly for weighing wax, honey, etc.
Berkovets - from the name of the island of Bjerk. This is what was called in Rus' a measure of weight of 10 pounds, just a standard barrel of wax, which one person could roll onto a merchant boat sailing to this very island. (163.8 kg).
There is a known mention of Berkovets in the 12th century in the charter of Prince Vsevolod Gabriel Mstislavich to the Novgorod merchants.
The spool was equal to 1/96 of a pound, in modern terms 4.26 g. They said about it: “the spool is small and expensive.” This word originally meant a gold coin.
POUND (from the Latin word “pondus” - weight, weight) was equal to 32 lots, 96 spools, 1/40 pood, in modern terms 409.50 g. Used in combinations: “not a pound of raisins”, “find out how much a pound of raisins is”.
The Russian pound was adopted under Alexei Mikhailovich.
Sugar was sold by the pound.
They bought tea with gold coins. Spool = 4.266g.
Until recently, a small packet of tea weighing 50 grams was called an “octam” (1/8 pound)
LOT is an old Russian unit of mass measurement equal to three spools or 12.797 grams.
SHARE is the smallest old Russian unit of mass measurement, equal to 1/96 of a spool or 0.044 grams.
PUD was equal to 40 pounds, in modern terms - 16.38 kg. It was already used in the 12th century.
Pud - (from the Latin pondus - weight, heaviness) is not only a measure of weight, but also a weighing device. When weighing metals, the pud was both a unit of measurement and a unit of counting. Even when the results of weighings were reported to tens and hundreds of poods, they were not transferred to Berkovites. Back in the XI-XII centuries. they used various scales with equal-armed and unequal-armed beams: “pud” - a type of scale with a variable fulcrum and a fixed weight, “skalvy” - equal-armed scales (two-cup).
The pud as a unit of mass was abolished in the USSR in 1924.
Measures of weight used in the 18th century:
Note: the most used at that time (XVIII century) are highlighted
Area measures
The main measure of area was considered to be a tithe, as well as shares of a tithe: half a tithe, a quarter (a quarter was 40 fathoms of length and 30 fathoms of latitude) and so on. Land surveyors used (especially after the “Cathedral Code” of 1649) mainly the official three-arshine fathom, equal to 2.1336 m, so a tithe of 2400 square fathoms was equal to approximately 1.093 hectares.
The scale of use of tithes and quarters grew in accordance with the development of land and the increase in the territory of the state. However, already in the first half of the 16th century it became clear that when measuring lands in quarters, the general inventory of lands would take many years. And then in the 40s of the 16th century, one of the most enlightened people, Ermolai Erasmus, proposed using a larger unit, the tetrahedral field, which meant a square area with a side of 1000 fathoms. This proposal was not accepted, but played a certain role in the process of introducing the large plow. Ermolai Erasmus is one of the first theoretical metrologists, who also sought to combine the solution of metrological and social issues. When determining the areas of hayfields, tithes were introduced with great difficulty because the lands were inconvenient for measurement due to their location and irregular shapes. The yield measure of the haystack was used more often. Gradually, this measure acquired a meaning linked to the tithe, and was divided into 2 half-shocks, 4 quarter-shocks, 8 half-quarters of a hay, etc. Over time, a haystack, as a measure of area, was equated to 0.1 tithes (i.e., it was believed that an average of 10 copecks of hay were taken from a tithe). Labor and sowing measures were expressed through the geometric measure tithe.
A little history
With the development of product metabolism in society, the need arose to measure the amount of different substances. The mass of stone, building materials, and fibrous substances could not be determined by volume; therefore, a method was invented to measure the amount of substances by weighing on lever scales.
It is unknown which people invented scales and when. This invention was probably made by many peoples independently of each other. Many images of lever scales have come down to us in ancient Egyptian inscriptions dating back to the 2nd millennium BC. The Egyptians believed that after death a person's soul goes to the afterlife, where the gods weigh his good and evil deeds and, depending on the results, determine its future fate.
To weigh bodies on lever scales, you need to have measures in the form of standard weights, or, as they are called, standards. Plant grains, which were used to obtain some measures of length, also served man in choosing units of weight (mass). 
RUSSIAN WEIGHT MEASURES
The oldest Russian weight unit was GRIVNA. It was mentioned in the 10th century treaties between the Kyiv princes and Byzantine emperors. Through complex calculations, scientists learned that the hryvnia weighed 68.22 g. The hryvnia was equal to the Arabic unit of weight Rotl. Then the main units for weighing became pound and pood. The words "pound" and "pud" come from the same Latin word "pondus", meaning "heaviness". The officials who checked the scales were called “pudovschiki” or “weights”. In one of the stories by Maxim Gorky, in the description of the kulak barn, we read: “There are two locks on one bolt - one is heavier than the other.”
When weighing in Rus', two types of scales were used. Scales with a movable fulcrum and a fixed weight were called steelyard
And cup scales were called in Novgorod scalvoy.
German merchants trading with Novgorod demanded that everyone
goods were weighed on a rock, and not using a steelyard. Not because of these
a person who is ready to quarrel over small settlements is called
"sinkhole"? 
Nowadays, we do not hesitate to make calculations in meters, grams, liters, etc. This is convenient, the unified SI system suits almost everyone. But, of course, this was not always the case. And so, starting from the ancient times of paganism, right up to the 19th century, our ancestors used other measures and units. We often hear the words: Pound, pound, spool - but we don’t know how much this is translated. Here are some weight values:
1) The hryvnia was equal to 68.22 g.
2) A pound was equal to 6 hryvnia = 96 spools = 0.41 kg. Used in combinations: “not a pound of raisins”, “find out how much a pound is worth.” The Russian pound was adopted under Alexei Mikhailovich. Sugar was sold by the pound.
3) Russian pud = 40 pounds = 16.38 kg. Pud is an ancient Russian unit of weight. Mentioned, in particular, in the charter of Vsevolod Mstislavovich (1134-35).
4) Zolotnik - a small measure of weight = 4.266 g. In ancient Rus' it was often used by jewelry craftsmen. For example, there is a saying “the spool is small, but expensive!” Spool = 1/9216 pounds or 96 fractions. The origin of the word spool is unclear. It is assumed that it comes from the word zlatnik - the name of a coin during the reign of Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavovich (10th century). From the end of the 16th century. served as a unit of weight for precious metals and stones. They bought tea with gold coins.
5) Kap - an ancient unit of weight = 65.52 kg. Known since the end of the 12th century. At the end of the 13th century, it was approved at 4 pounds. Kad is a measure of bulk solids in ancient Rus', otherwise called okov, since the Kad, or barrel, was bound at the edges with iron so that it could not be cut and thus reduce the size of the measure.
6) Berkovets (163.8 kg) - this large measure of weight was used in wholesale trade mainly for weighing wax, honey, etc. Berkovets - from the name of the island of Bjerk. This is what was called in Rus' a measure of weight of 10 pounds, just a standard barrel of wax, which one person could roll onto a merchant boat sailing to this very island. There is a known mention of Berkovets in the 12th century in the charter of Prince Vsevolod Gabriel Mstislavich to the Novgorod merchants.
7) Lot – old Russian unit of measurement of mass,
equal to three spools or 12.797 grams.
8) Share is the smallest old Russian unit of mass measurement,
equal to 1/96 of the spool or 0.044 grams.
9) Gran (pharmaceutical) = 62.209 mg. From the Latin word granum - grain, grain,
in the Russian system of measures it was used as a unit of weight for medicines and
precious stones, in particular for weighing pearls,
used in old Russian pharmaceutical practice
10) Carat=0.2g. From the Arabic word "qirat" - a unit of weight of precious stones,
diamonds, rough diamonds, etc., as well as gold, which is used by jewelers of all countries,
including in Russia. 
Measures of weight used in the 18th century:
Ancient measures of mass in Russian folk proverbs and sayings
“Not a share in pounds, a share in spools.”
“The spool is small, but expensive” - this is what they say about something insignificant in appearance, but very valuable.
“Health (fame) comes in gold and goes away in pounds.
“The spool is small, but it weighs gold; the camel is large, but it carries water.”
“Trouble (grief, misfortune, misfortune) comes in pounds, and goes away in gold.”
“That’s a pound!” they say, expressing disappointment and surprise.
“This is not a pound of raisins” is a humorous expression about some humorous matter.
“The pound must give way” - i.e. one must have respect for elders, more knowledgeable, experienced ones.
“A grain saves a pound.”
“You recognize a person when you eat a peck (three pounds) of salt with him.”
“Hay for pounds, gold for spools” - i.e. Each thing has its own specific value.
“You’ll take a lot of grief off your shoulders, but you’ll choke on the spool valves” - i.e. Even an insignificant danger should not be neglected.
“The bad comes down by the pound, and the good drops in the spools.”
“He doesn’t have half a spool of brain (mind) in his head.
“I ate half a meal and I’m still full.”
“Your own spool is more valuable than someone else’s.”
“One grain of puda brings.”
“It’s not bad that it’s half a pound of bun.”
“A grain saves a pound.”
“You can light a pound (ruble) candle for this.”
“Not everywhere with faith, sometimes with moderation.”
“The measure is the beauty of every matter, it does not lie.”
“Weight and measure will not allow sin” - i.e. to deception, error.
“Believe the word, measure the bread, and count the money.”
“Keep your joy in moderation, and don’t lose faith in resentment.”
“Where there is rye, there is measure, where there are people, there is faith.”
British Imperial System of Mass Measures
In 1266, the English king Henry III, by his decree, determined that “with the consent of all
English state, English penny, called sterling, round and without
trimmings, should weigh the same as 32 grains of wheat taken in the middle
ears, 20 pennies should be an ounce, 12 ounces a pound.” It is easy to calculate that
here 7680 grains corresponded to a pound.
1. Grand
Gran (grain) is a measure of weight that originally corresponded to the weight of one grain of wheat. But either wheat grew differently in different countries, or something else, but the weight of one grain in different countries was different: in England it was equal to 0.0455 grams until 1526 and 0.0648 grams (1/5760- I pound) after 1526, in the Netherlands - 0.0534 grams, in Germany since 1524 - 0.812 grams (1/288 mark). Since 1766, the Viennese gran has been equal to 0.0582 grams (1/4824 Viennese mark). In Russia, a grain was equal to 0.062 grams.
2. Ounce
An ounce in translation means 1/12th of a whole. Be it a pound, a mark or even a ruble. But in the Middle Ages, only the Carolingian pound was equal to 12 ounces, and the mark was equal to 8 ounces or 16 lots. The ounce itself was divided into 20 pfennigs or 24 scruples. An ounce was equal to 27.2875 grams. In the modern world, the troy ounce is accepted, which is equal to 31.1035 grams and is used to measure precious metals. The ounce on which Bolton and Watt's English copper pennies rested was 28.35 grams. One ounce =
16 drachmas = 437.5 grains = 28.3495 grams.
3. Pound
The pound (Latin pondus - heaviness) dates back to the ancient Roman libra, equal to 327.45 grams. The Carolingian pound was equal to almost 408 grams. The basic unit of mass in the English system of measures. One pound (trade or imperial) is equal to 453.59237 grams or 16 ounces or 256 drachmas or 7000 grains.
4. Carat
Carat is a measure of the weight of precious stones, equal to 0.2 grams (since 1914)
From Greek keration - a carob pod, the seeds of which served as a measure of mass. It is used in jewelry to determine the weight of precious stones and pearls. An English carat is equal to 205 mg. An English carat of gold is a measure of the gold content in alloys, equal to 1/24 of the mass of the alloy. Pure gold corresponds to 24 carats. 
1 ton big (long) ( long tone) = 20 handweight (quintals) = 2240 pounds = 1016.05 kg
1 ton small (short) ( short tone, USA, Canada, etc.) = 20 small handweights (centals) = 2000 pounds = 32000 ounces = 907.185 kg
1 ton metric ( metric tone) = 2204,6 pound= 0.984 large tons = 1000 kg
1 keel = 8 Cheldrons=424 handweight =47488 pounds =21540.16 kg
1 Cheldron for coal ( chaldron) = 1/8 keel = 53 dwt = 5936 lb = 2692.52 kg
1 wei = 2-3 handweight = 101.6-152.4 kg
1 quintal (quintal) = 1 large handweight (long hundredweight) = 112 pounds = 50.802 kg
1 central (hundredweight) = 1 small handweight ( short hundredweight) = 100 pounds = 45.36 kg
1 slug= 14.6 kg
1 tod (tod, rus. cargo) = 1 quarter long = 1/4 handweight large = 28 lbs = 2 stone = 12.7 kg
1 quarter short ( short quarter, rus. quarter) = 1/4 handweight small = 25 lbs = 11.34 kg
1 Stone (stone, rus. stone) = 1/2 quarter large = 1/8 handweight large = 14 pounds = 6.350293 kg
1 cool(set) = 1/2 stone = 1/16 handweight = 7 pounds = 3.175 kg (previously the catch was 6.25-8 pounds = 2.834-3.629 kg)
1 quaternary= 1/4 stone = 3.5 lbs = 1.588 kg
1 lb. (pound, lat. pondus, abbr. lb) = 16 ounces = 7000 grains = 453.59237 g
1 ounce (ounce, oz) = 16 drachmas = 437.5 grains = 28.349523125 g
1 drachma (dram)= 1/16 ounce = 27.34375 grains = 1.7718451953125 g
1 gran (grain, lat. granum, abbr. gr) (before 1985) = 64.79891 mg
You've probably already noticed that the basic unit of measurement, the pound, is almost half a kilogram. Therefore, converting the number you need into pounds and back is not difficult. To indicate your weight in pounds, for example, simply double it.
Baby Brianna weighed 13 ounces at birth. – Little Brianna weighed 13 ounces (370 g) at birth.
How to lose 20 pounds forever in exercise and diet? – How to lose 20 pounds (9 kg) permanently through exercise and diet? 
A LETTER TO A FRIEND
Kolchugino
May 12, 2012
Dear Mark,
Thank you for your last letter. How are the things going on? Did something new happen in your life? Having received your letter, I wanted to answer it immediately. But, I was studying a lot during the last two weeks. So I was pressed for time and didn’t manage to carry out my intentions. In your letter you asked me questions about Moscow’s sights.
I want to answer your questions with pleasure.
In my country spring has already set. It’s quite, warm and really
sunny all day long. Moscow, the capital of my country, is one
of the largest cities in the world. A Russian Prince
Yuri Dolgoruky found a fortress on the bank of the wide and deep Moskwa river. As the time passed, Moscow turned into the capital of the state. Our capital is rich in monuments, museums, art galleries, stadiums, cinemas, concert halls, theaters.
All the tourists can visit the Museum of History, the Kremlin
Museum, the Battle of Borodino Panorama Museum,
the Tretyakov Art Gallery, the Pushkin Fine Arts Museum
and a great number of theatrical, musical, literary and
different memorial museums. You can enjoy your stay
in the Bolshoy and Maly Theatres, the Children Musical
Theater and many others. 
The Kremlin is the place where Moscow was born. The Kremlin ensemble is completed by the bell – tower called the Bell-tower of Ivan the Great. At the foot of the bell-tower there stands the biggest bell in the world – the Tsar Bell. Its history, in brief, is as follows.
In 1730 Empress Anna Ivanovna ordered that a bell weighing 124 long ton
(9,000 poods= 126 tons) should be cast. German, the casting master of the
French king, thought it was a joke. Ivan Motorin, the most famous casting
master in Moscow in those days, declared that it was possible. Here are
a few statistics about the dimensions and weight of the giant.
It is 6.14 meters high, has a diameter of 6.6 meters, and weighs 9.42 kil
(202 tons and 924 kg). The fragment of the Tsar Bell is 12,677 short ton
(11.5 tons).
The most famous sight of Moscow is Red Square. There is the Kremlin in the center of Moscow. A lot of tourists want to visit this place because it’s the heart of great Russia.
I want to tell you about Armony Museum treasures. There is the most well-known
diamond in the world which is called the Shah. It is weight is 10,158 dram
(90 carat=18gr) and length of 3 sm, it has been found in the Central India.
The brilliant of “Orlov” with greenish-blue outflow, with weight of 1.41 oz (200 carat)
crowns an imperial scepter of Russia. The diamond which has become a basis of this brilliant, has been found at the beginning of the 16th century in India.
The big imperial crown of the Russian empire was made by court jeweler Ieremya Poze for crowning of empress Catherine II Velikoya in 1792. The weight of the crown is 37.2 lb (1993.8 gr.)
“Nuggest the big triangee” is 2.83 tod (36 kg).
SHAH CROWN 
Next to the center there is a circus in Tsvetnoi Bulvar. And the circus building has a monument to the most cheerful clown Yuri Nikulin. The sculpture weighs more than 1.3 chaldron
(3.5 tons. The car was casted in Minsk, and a figure of Nikulin -- in Italy.
By the way, have you ever been to Russia?
Are you interested in Russian culture and science?
I'll wait for your next letter. Come to Russian capital and I’ll show it to you. May be we will be able to meet one day.
Best wishes,
Your very sincere friend, Slava 
