Literary movements: romanticism and classicism. How does “romanticism” differ from “classicism”? “Romanticism” as a change in aesthetic program and a change in lifestyle

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Classicism or neoclassicism of the early twentieth century is also called Empire (from the French empire - empire) or Empire style. He completed the evolution of classicism and demonstrated the triumph of state power. Empire style absorbed ancient Egyptian motifs (the geometricism of Egyptian ornaments, stylized sphinxes), motifs from Pompeii paintings, and Etruscan vases that were used in the interiors of palaces. The architecture is distinguished by massive porticoes with columns of the Doric (sometimes Tuscan) order, military emblems (eagles, laurel wreaths, military armor, announcer bundles). During this period, memorial structures (triumphal arches, memorial columns) were erected. If we consider the evolution of painting in France from classicism to the Empire style as a single line, we find that if classicism glorified the magnificent splendor of the palace life of the French kings, then the Empire style glorified the military exploits of Napoleon and the tastes of the emerging bourgeoisie. The purpose of glorifying the successes of the state was served by memorial architecture (triumphal arches, memorial columns), repeating ancient Roman models.

At the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries, a new direction in spiritual and artistic culture arose in Germany and other European countries, called romanticism. Romanticism became a kind of reaction to classicism with its cult of reason and rationalism. Romanticism was the first movement in art that recognized the artist as a subject of creativity and proclaimed the unconditional priority of the individual tastes of a creative person. Romanticism reached its greatest development in France (T. Gericault, E. Delacroix, G. Doré). Its largest representatives in Germany are F.O. Runge, K.D. Friedrich, P. Cornelius, in Great Britain: - J. Constable, W. Turner. In Russia, the features of romanticism appeared in the works of O.A. Kiprensky, partly - V.A. Tropinina, S.F. Shchedrina, M.I. Lebedeva, K.P. Bryullova, F.A. Bruni, F.P. Tolstoy.

Romanticism contrasted the utilitarianism and materiality of the emerging bourgeois society with a break with everyday reality, a retreat into the world of dreams and fantasies, and an idealization of the past. Romanticism is a world in which melancholy, irrationality, and eccentricity reign. Its traces appeared in European consciousness back in the 17th century, but were regarded by doctors as a sign of mental disorder. But romanticism is opposed to rationalism, not humanism. On the contrary, he creates a new humanism, proposing to consider man in all his manifestations.

The first signs of romanticism appeared almost simultaneously in different countries, but each made its own contribution to its development. Germany is considered the birthplace of romanticism; the foundations of romantic aesthetics were laid here. From Germany, the new trend quickly spread throughout Europe. Romanticism embraced literature, music, theater, humanities, and plastic arts.

The philosophical and aesthetic theory of early romanticism was developed in Germany by A. V. and F. Schlegel, Novalis, I. Fichte, F. W. Schelling, F. Schleiermacher, L. Tieck, whose creative association, which existed in 1798-1801, received name of the Jena Romantics. The circle of German romantics created the aesthetic concept of a new universal culture and helped form romantic philosophy in the first half of the 19th century, whose representatives include Friedrich Wilhelm Schelling (1775-1854), Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860), Søren Kierkegaard (1813-1855).

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It is necessary, first of all, to pay attention to the fact that classicism and romanticism of the late XΙΙΙ beginning of the XΙX century become not only artistic styles, but reflect two oppositional worldviews of this era.

Like the art style classicism(from Latin - exemplary) began to take shape in European art in the 15th century. Its most important appeal was to the principles antique arts:

- rationalism

- symmetry, direction, restraint

- strict compliance of the content of the work with its form

There are two stages in the development of classicism:

The end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th century.

The second stage became a pan-European style and was associated with the bourgeois Enlightenment and became an exponent of the civil ideals of this time. Principles classicism were based on ideas philosophical rationalism, defending the idea of ​​a reasonable pattern of the world and a beautiful, ennobled nature. According to this concept, a work of art is the fruit of reason and logic who triumph and conquer the chaos and fluidity of life perceived by the senses. For classicists, the only thing that has aesthetic value is that timeless.

Classicism put forward new aesthetic standards, since it attached great importance social and educational function of art. Representatives of classicism believed that the heroes of works should only be positive, models for others, and be resistant to the cruelty of fate. For them the general is higher than the personal, passions are subordinated to public interests. The main character in classicism is an exemplary citizen of the fatherland.

The aesthetics of classicism, based on the orientation towards a rational principle, determined the corresponding requirements, i.e. regulatory rules. A hierarchy of genres was established. Thus, in painting, historical, mythological, and religious paintings were recognized as “high” genres. The “low” ones included landscape, portrait, and still life. In literature, tragedy, epic, and ode were considered “high,” and comedy, satire, and fable were considered “low.”

Classicism was characterized by features of utopianism and idealization, which intensified during the period of its decline. In the middle of the 19th century, classicism was reborn into academicism

A new phenomenon in the artistic culture of the late 18th century was sentimentalism, which was a reaction to the excessive prudence of classicism. Sentimentalism asserted a sensual personality, opposed to the personality of the Enlightenment. The rejection of “vicious” civilization and the merging of man with nature, the idealization of patriarchy, with its traditionalism and conservatism, and pastoralism - these are the characteristic themes of sentimentalism.

But a more serious attempt to overcome the one-sidedness of rationalism was predetermined by romanticism. Romanticism, which originated in Germany, where the foundations of the romantic worldview were laid, became not just an artistic style, but a general cultural movement that embraced a wide variety of phenomena in social life. It covered all spheres of spiritual culture: literature, music, theater, humanities, plastic arts, but did not affect architecture, influencing mainly landscape gardening and architecture of small forms. Romantic philosophy also emerged: Fichte, Schelling, Schopenhauer, Kierkegaard.

The ideological core of romanticism is conflict between personality and reality. A romantic is a rebel who rejects reality from the standpoint of a higher ideal. The hero of romanticism is an exceptional person in exceptional circumstances.

Interest in individuality is a hallmark of Romanticism.

Unlike classicism, romance is idealized not by antiquity, but Middle Ages, because they believe that the foundations of national culture are laid there. So they turn to:

-folklore (fairy tales, folk music, etc.);

- glorification of national nature;

-transmission of religious feeling

In addition, there is a connection between the romantic and the medieval knight. Therefore, like a knight:

Romantic – lover of travel;

A romantic is an admirer of sublime rather than carnal love

Romantic - Knight of Honor (duels of this era)

The romantic is a fatalist (tempting fate in the game).

Two sides of personality - the pathos of freedom and individualism– manifested themselves very complexly in the romantic concept of the world and man.

Baroque - a historical artistic style that became widespread initially in Italy in the middle. XVI-XVII centuries, and then in France, Spain, Flanders and Germany in the XVII-XVIII centuries. More broadly, this term is used to define the ever-renewing tendencies of a restless, romantic attitude, thinking in expressive, dynamic forms. Finally, in every time, in almost every historical artistic style, one can find its own “Baroque period” as a stage of the highest creative upsurge, tension of emotions, explosiveness of forms.

Michelangelo Caravaggio "The Beatitude of Saint Francis" 1595

Baroque is characterized by contrast, tension, dynamic images, affectation, the desire for grandeur and splendor, for combining reality and illusion, for the fusion of arts (city and palace and park ensembles, opera, religious music, oratorio); at the same time, there is a tendency towards autonomy of individual genres (concerto grosso, sonata, suite in instrumental music). The ideological foundations of the style were formed as a result of the shock that the Reformation and the teachings of Copernicus became for the 16th century. The idea of ​​the world, established in antiquity, as a rational and constant unity, as well as the Renaissance idea of ​​man as the most intelligent being, changed. As Pascal put it, man began to recognize himself as “something in between everything and nothing,” “one who captures only the appearance of phenomena, but is unable to understand either their beginning or their end.”

Peter Paul Rubens "Venus before the Mirror"

Baroque style in painting characterized by the dynamism of compositions, “flatness” and splendor of forms, aristocracy and originality of plots. The most characteristic features of Baroque are flashy floridity and dynamism; A striking example is the work of Rubens and Caravaggio.

St. Peter's Basilica in Rome

For Baroque architecture (L. Bernini, F. Borromini in Italy, B.F. Rastrelli in Russia, Jan Christoph Glaubitz in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth) are characterized by spatial scope, unity, and fluidity of complex, usually curvilinear forms. Often there are large-scale colonnades, an abundance of sculpture on the facades and in the interiors, volutes, a large number of bracings, arched facades with bracing in the middle, rusticated columns and pilasters. Domes take on complex shapes, often multi-tiered, like those of St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome. Characteristic Baroque details - telamon (Atlas), caryatid, mascaron.

St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome. Interior

Sculpture- an integral part of the Baroque style. The greatest sculptor and recognized architect of the 17th century was the Italian Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680). Among his most famous sculptures are the mythological scenes of the abduction of Proserpina by the god of the underworld Pluto and the miraculous transformation of the nymph Daphne into a tree, pursued by the god of light Apollo, as well as the altar group “The Ecstasy of St. Teresa” in one of the Roman churches. The last of them, with its clouds carved from marble and the clothes of the characters as if fluttering in the wind, with theatrically exaggerated feelings, very accurately expresses the aspirations of the sculptors of this era.

Lorenzo Bernini "The Ecstasy of Saint Teresa"

Classicism- artistic style in Western European art of the 17th - early years. XIX century and in Russian XVIII - early. XIX, who turned to the ancient heritage as an ideal to follow. It manifested itself in architecture, sculpture, painting, decorative and applied arts. Classical artists considered antiquity the highest achievement and made it their standard in art, which they sought to imitate. Over time, it degenerated into academicism.

Jacques - Louis David "Sappho and Phaon"

Romanticism- a direction in European and Russian art of the 1820-1830s, which replaced classicism. The Romantics highlighted individuality, contrasting the ideal beauty of the classicists with an “imperfect” reality. Artists were attracted to bright, rare, extraordinary phenomena, as well as images of a fantastic nature. In the art of romanticism, acute individual perception and experience play an important role. Romanticism freed art from abstract classicist dogmas and turned it to national history and images of folklore.

Karl Bryullov "The Dream of a Young Girl Before Dawn"

Romanticism in painting

Representatives: Francisco Goya, Antoine-Jean Gros, Theodore Gericault, Eugene Delacroix, Karl Bryullov, William Turner, Caspar David Friedrich, Karl Friedrich Lessing, Karl Spitzweg, Karl Blechen, Albert Bierstadt, Frederic Edwin Church.

The development of romanticism in painting proceeded in sharp polemics with adherents of classicism. The Romantics reproached their predecessors for “cold rationality” and the lack of “movement of life.” In the 20-30s, the works of many artists were characterized by pathos and nervous excitement; they showed a tendency towards exotic motifs and play of imagination, capable of leading away from the “dull everyday life”. The struggle against frozen classicist norms lasted a long time, almost half a century. The first who managed to consolidate the new direction and “justify” romanticism was Theodore Gericault.

One of the branches of romanticism in painting is the Biedermeier style.

The material was prepared by Tatyana Nesvetailo, art critic, senior researcher at the State Russian Museum

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CLASSICISM, one of the most important areas of art of the past, an artistic style based on normative aesthetics, requiring strict adherence to a number of rules, canons, and unities. The rules of classicism are of paramount importance as means to ensure the main goal - to enlighten and instruct the public, turning it to sublime examples. The aesthetics of classicism reflected the desire to idealize reality, due to the refusal to depict a complex and multifaceted reality. In theatrical art, this direction established itself in the works, first of all, of French authors: Corneille, Racine, Voltaire, Moliere. Classicism had a great influence on the Russian national theater (A.P. Sumarokov, V.A. Ozerov, D.I. Fonvizin, etc.).

“Classicism” (from the Latin “classicus”, i.e. “exemplary”) presupposed a stable orientation of new art towards the ancient style, which did not mean simply copying ancient models. Classicism also maintains continuity with the aesthetic concepts of the Renaissance, which were oriented towards antiquity.

SENTIMENTALISM(French Sentiment) - a movement in European literature and art of the second half of the 18th century, formed within the framework of the late Enlightenment and reflecting the growth of democratic sentiments in society. Originated in lyric poetry and novel; later, penetrating into theatrical art, it gave impetus to the emergence of the genres of “tearful comedy” and bourgeois drama.

ROMANTICISM- (French romantisme, from the medieval French romant - novel) - a direction in art that was formed within the framework of a general literary movement at the turn of the 18th–19th centuries. in Germany. It has become widespread in all countries of Europe and America. The highest peak of romanticism occurred in the first quarter of the 19th century.

The French word romantisme goes back to the Spanish romance (in the Middle Ages, this was the name for Spanish romances, and then a chivalric romance), the English romantic, which turned into 18th century. in romantique and then meaning “strange”, “fantastic”, “picturesque”. At the beginning of the 19th century. Romanticism becomes the designation of a new direction, opposite to classicism.

Entering into the antithesis of “classicism” - “romanticism,” the movement suggested contrasting the classicist demand for rules with romantic freedom from rules. This understanding of romanticism persists to this day, but, as literary critic Yu. Mann writes, romanticism “is not simply a denial of the ‘rules’, but the following of ‘rules’ that are more complex and whimsical.”

The center of the artistic system of romanticism is the individual, and its main conflict is the individual and society. The decisive prerequisite for the development of romanticism were the events of the Great French Revolution. The emergence of romanticism is associated with the anti-enlightenment movement, the reasons for which lie in disappointment in civilization, in social, industrial, political and scientific progress, the result of which was new contrasts and contradictions, leveling and spiritual devastation of the individual.

Realism- (lat. real, real) - a direction in literature and art that aims to truthfully reproduce reality in its typical features.

Signs:

1. An artistic depiction of life in images that corresponds to the essence of the phenomena of life itself.

2. Reality is a means for a person to understand himself and the world around him.

3. Typification of images. This is achieved through the truthfulness of details in specific conditions.

4. Even in a tragic conflict, art is life-affirming.

5. Realism is characterized by the desire to consider reality in development, the ability to detect the development of new social, psychological and public relations.

Realists denied the “dark set” of mystical concepts, the sophisticated forms of modern poetry.

Young realism of the border era had all the signs of an art that is transforming, moving and finding truth, and its creators went to their discoveries through subjective worldviews, thoughts, and dreams. This feature, born of the author’s perception of time, determined the difference between realistic literature of the beginning of our century and Russian classics.

The prose of the 19th century was always characterized by an image of a person that, if not adequate to the ideal of the writer, then embodied his cherished thoughts. The hero, the bearer of the artist’s own ideas, has almost disappeared from the works of the new era. There was a sense of tradition here Gogol, and especially Chekhov.

Modernism- (French: newest, modern) – art born in the 20th century.

This concept is used to denote new phenomena in literature and other forms of art.

Modernism in literature- This literary direction, an aesthetic concept that was formed in the 1910s and developed into an artistic movement in the literature of the war and post-war years.

The founders of modernism are M. Proust “In Search of Lost Time”, J. Joyce “Ulysses”, F. Kafka “The Trial”.

Heyday modernism falls on 1920. The main task of modernism is to penetrate into the depths of a person’s consciousness and subconscious, to convey the work of memory, the peculiarities of perception of the environment, in how the past, present are refracted in “moments of existence” and the future is foreseen. The main technique in the work of modernists is the “stream of consciousness,” which allows one to capture the movement of thoughts, impressions, and feelings.

Modernism influenced the work of many writers of the 20th century. However, his influence was not and could not be comprehensive. The traditions of literary classics continue their life and development

Postmodernism- a term denoting structurally similar phenomena in world social life and culture of the second half of the 20th century: it is used both to characterize the post-non-classical type of philosophizing and to describe a set of styles in the arts. Postmodernity is a state of modern culture, which includes the pre-post-non-classical philosophical paradigm, pre-postmodern art, as well as the mass culture of this era. Emerging as the antithesis of modernism, open to understanding only by a few, postmodernism, putting everything in a playful form, levels the distance between the mass and elite consumers, reducing the elite to the masses (glamour). Modernism is an extremist denial of the world of Modernity (with its positivism and scientism), and postmodernism is a non-extremist denial of the same Modernity.

Classicism from a literary point of view

Classicism originated in Western Europe in the first half of the 17th century, when there was a period of strengthening of the so-called “absolutism,” that is, the supreme power of monarchs. The ideas of absolute monarchy and the order generated by it served as the basis for classicism. This literary trend required authors to strictly adhere to prescribed rules and schemes, deviations from which were considered unacceptable.

Classical works were clearly divided into higher and lower genres. The highest genres included epic, epic poem, tragedy and ode. To the lowest - satire, comedy, fable. The main characters of works of the highest genre could only be representatives of the noble classes, as well as gods or heroes of ancient myths. Common, colloquial speech was prohibited. Particularly solemn, pathetic language was required when creating the ode. In works of lower genres, describing the everyday life of ordinary people, colloquial speech and even slang expressions were allowed.

The composition of any work, regardless of genre, had to be simple, understandable and concise. Each character was subject to detailed explanation by the author. In addition, the author of the work was obliged to observe the rule of “three unities” - time, place and action.

Among the Russian writers, the most prominent representatives of classicism were A.P. Sumarokov, D.I. Fonvizin, M.V. Lomonosov, I.A. Krylov.

What is literary romanticism

At the turn of the 18th–19th centuries. After the changes and upheavals caused by the Great French Revolution, a new literary movement appeared in Western Europe - romanticism. Its adherents did not want to take into account the strict rules established by classicism. They paid main attention in their works to depicting the inner world of a person, his experiences, feelings.

The main genres of romanticism were: elegy, idyll, short story, ballad, novel, story. In contrast to the typical hero of classicism, who had to behave in strict accordance with the requirements of the society to which he belonged, the heroes of romantic works could perform unexpected, unpredictable actions and come into conflict with society. The most famous representatives of Russian literary romanticism: V.A. Zhukovsky, A.S. Pushkin, M.Yu. Lermontov, F.I. Tyutchev.