Basic principles of the Jewish religion. Main stages of the history of Judaism

Judaism arose in the 2nd millennium BC. based on the polytheistic rituals of the nomadic Jewish tribes of Northern Arabia, and after the conquest of Palestine in the 13th century. absorbed the religious ideas of local agricultural peoples.

The most ancient period: the origin of beliefs and archaic cults.

Archaic cults in Judaism include:

Family cults.

Funeral cult.

Cattle breeding cult.

Numerous taboos.

The veneration of the spirits of ancestors testifies to ancestral cults. Thus, the book of Genesis describes how one of Jacob’s wives stole her father’s idols during her flight. Idols (teraphim) were tribal patrons. The father was angry not so much for the flight of his daughters and son-in-law, but for the kidnapping, he caught up and demanded the return of the idols. In the Book of Kings, David says, “We have a kindred sacrifice in our city.” Also, tribal cults can be traced in legends about patriarchs; their images are considered as the personification of tribal divisions. In ancient times, religious honors were given to ancestors.

The funeral cult of the ancient Jews was simple. The dead were buried in the ground. Ideas about the afterlife were very vague. There was no belief in retribution after death: God punished people for their sins in this life, or their offspring. There are episodes in the Bible in which God punishes the guilt of fathers in children up to the third and fourth generation. They believed in the ability to summon the shadows (souls) of the dead and talk with them, for example, King Saul ordered the sorceress to summon the shadow of the deceased Samuel.

The origin of Easter (Passover), which is believed to have a totemistic origin and was originally dedicated to the spring sacrifice of the first offspring of the herd, is associated with the pastoral cult (Passover later became associated with the exodus of the Jews from Egypt). Also, the nomadic lifestyle of the ancient Jews reflects the mythical image of Azazel, to whom they sacrificed a goat (“scapegoat”) - they drove him alive into the desert, placing all the sins of the people on his head (atonement sacrifice). In the nomadic era, there was also a lunar cult, with which the celebration of Saturday, which originates from the full moon holiday, is associated.

The Jewish religion is characterized by many prohibitions (taboos) related to food and sex life, which are seen as a reflection of ancient cults. For example, the ban on eating the meat of certain animals (pork, camel, hare, jerboa and some birds) has existed since nomadic times, as well as the ban on eating blood, which was considered the soul of the body. The rite of circumcision arose from initiations - initiations into adulthood. It represented the sanctification of marriage, and later came to be seen as a sign of the covenant.

Moses and the Exodus to Israel

The actual emergence of Judaism as a religion is usually associated with the name of Moses (hence one of the names of this religion - mosaic), as well as Yahweh - the central figures of the entire religion. The origin of Yahweh is controversial: some researchers believe that initially it was a totem, the god of thunderstorms, the personification of the desert, etc. At first, Yahweh was the god of only the Jews (the Levite tribe), and then became the national god of all Hebrew-Israelites. At the same time, the existence of other gods was not excluded: each people had its own patron god (henotheism).

The formation of the image of Yahweh and his cult took place during the conquest of Palestine. Yahweh acts primarily as a warrior and leader in the fight against all enemies (Sabaoth is the god of armies). He helped in battles and ordered the conquest of Palestine. Its characteristic features at this time are mercilessness, bloodthirstiness and cruelty: “they killed everything that breathed,” “for it was from the Lord that they hardened their hearts,” “they were destroyed as the Lord commanded Moses,” etc. Yahweh gave Moses laws - commandments (Exodus 20.1-17), which represent the ethical code of the Jews. These same commandments form the basis of Christian commandments.

Formation of the concepts of monotheism and God's chosenness in the Palestinian and post-exilic periods

The conquest of Palestine led to a change in the entire life of the ancient Jews - from nomadic to settled - and religion. At this time, statehood is being formalized. Mixing with the locals led to the veneration of local Vaal deities (community and city patrons). Yahweh was revered, but although Solomon in the 10th century. BC. and built a luxurious temple in Jerusalem; there was no centralization of the cult yet. Agricultural cults and holidays entered the life of the Jews: Mazzot (the spring holiday of unleavened bread, which merged with the cattle-breeding Passover), Shebbuot - Pentecost (the holiday of the wheat harvest), Sukkot (the holiday of Tabernacles in honor of the harvest of fruits, etc.).

The entire cult was concentrated in the hands of a separate and hereditary group of priests from the Levites. There were also wizards and fortune tellers (mentioned in the Bible). A special role was played by the Nazirites - people dedicated or dedicated to God. They observed strict rules of ritual purity: they limited themselves in food, did not drink wine, did not touch the body of the deceased, and did not cut their hair. They were considered saints, and they were credited with prophetic knowledge and extraordinary abilities. The rules of the Nazirite were set forth in the Book of Numbers of the Bible. Legendary figures, such as Samson, also appear there.

From the 8th century BC. Prophets appear among the Jews. Initially, these were fortunetellers with shamanic traits (they went into a frenzy and stripped naked). Over time, the prophets became spokespersons for popular discontent: they acted as denouncers of the sins of the people, advocated for the restoration of the cult of Yahweh, and preached the idea of ​​moral sin, and not ritual sin, as before (Isaiah 1:16-17). Some acted as political publicists and formed opposition to the official temple priesthood.

In 621 BC. King Josiah carried out a religious reform aimed at sharply centralizing the cult. The objects of worship of all other gods except Yahweh were removed from the Jerusalem Temple, by order of the king, all the priests-servants of these cults, as well as spellcasters, wizards, etc. were killed, and the Easter holiday was officially restored. With the help of religious centralization, the king sought to achieve political centralization.

However, in 586 BC. Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar captured Jerusalem and destroyed the Jerusalem Temple. The Jews were subjected to Babylonian captivity for half a century. This also had an impact on religion. The Jews borrowed Babylonian cosmology and mythology: cherubim - from winged bulls (kerubs), biblical characters Mordecai and Esther - from Marduk and Ishtar (the holiday of Purim in honor of salvation), the myth of the creation of the world had Babylonian features, the plot of the Fall was a distorted version of the Babylonian myth about the origin of death, the myth of the flood from the Babylonian myth of Utnapishtim, from Mazdaism - the image of the evil spirit Satan (originally the Jews believed that evil comes from God, as punishment).

In 538 BC. The Jews were returned from captivity by the Persian king Cyrus. The Jerusalem Temple was restored. However, after returning, acute internal contradictions began. The Jerusalem priesthood was used to curb the people. No cult centers were allowed, sacrifices to Yahweh could only be made in Jerusalem, and purification sacrifices were required at every turn. The priesthood was a strictly closed caste.

During this period, the main features of Judaism were formed: strict monotheism (for the first time in history!) and the centralization of the cult, the canonization of holy books took place. The tribal god Yahweh becomes the one god-creator of the world and almighty. The Bible is edited in the spirit of monotheism (the final edition was created by the 5th century BC). The concept of God's chosenness begins to play an important role, which becomes the basis of consolation instead of the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bretribution after death. Its essence is as follows: if Jews suffer, then they themselves are to blame, because they sin and violate the commandments of God, therefore God punishes them. But despite this, they remain the chosen people. Yahweh will forgive them anyway and exalt them above all the nations on earth. This promoted the separation of Jews from all other peoples, including a ban on marriage.

Thus, in the post-exilic period, 7 main elements of Judaism were formed:

The doctrine of God, the essence of the Universe and man.

The concept of God's chosenness.

Holy Bible.

A set of religious laws that also covers the area of ​​secular law.

Order of religious ritual.

System of religious institutions.

Code of Moral and Ethical Relations.

The period of diaspora and the formation of sects.

In the Hellenistic era (from the end of the 4th century BC), the period of dispersion (diaspora) of Jews throughout the ancient world began and the formation of a synagogue organization took place. A synagogue (from the Greek gathering, meeting) is not only a house of prayer, but also the center of public life, as well as the center of government for the Jewish community outside of Judea. The common treasury and property were kept in it, the synagogue was engaged in charity work, prayers and Holy Scripture were read in it, but sacrifices were not made in it, which were made only in the Jerusalem temple. The spread of Jews around the world contributed to overcoming national isolation and limitations. Admirers of Judaism appeared among non-Jews - proselytes.

The translation of the Bible into Greek - the Septuagint (III-II centuries BC) was of great importance. This contributed to the rapprochement of Hellenistic religious philosophy and Judaism and the emergence of syncretic religious-idealistic systems, one of which was created by Philo of Alexandria (10s of the 1st century BC - 40s of the 1st century AD) - Judeo-Hellenistic philosopher, theologian and exegete.

Philo, brought up in Hellenic culture, saw the truths of Greek philosophy behind the text of the Pentateuch. His philosophical system is theocentric. God is seen as a true being. He strictly distinguishes between the essence of God and his existence, and in this regard develops both negative (apophatic) and positive theology: every person can conclude that there is a Creator God from contemplation of the order of the natural world; but the knowledge of the divine essence lies beyond the limits of the human mind. In His essence, God is unknowable, unnameable, indefinable and inexpressible. According to Philo, the highest Deity is Jehovah of the Pentateuch of Moses - the absolutely transcendental “Existing God” to the world, above the Good, the One (or Monad). While remaining transcendent, God is connected to the cosmos as its creator and providential ruler. According to Philo, the two main names of Jehovah - “God” and “Lord” - indicate two corresponding powers: the first denotes his creative power, the second his power. The doctrine of the divine logos is intended to explain how God is connected with everything that is not himself. Together with Sophia (“the mother of all things”) and Justice, the transcendental God gives birth to the Son and his most perfect creation - the Logos-Word, which is the “tool” of God’s creative thought, the “place” where ideas are located. It is the Logos-Word that creates the spiritual and material world and man; thanks to its activity, ideas-logoi create the world. Man is created in the image and likeness of God, and this means that he is intelligent. The goal of earthly human life is considered by Philo, in accordance with the famous formula of Plato, as “likening to God,” and this “likening” means “knowledge of God.” However, it is impossible to fully know God, because then likening would turn out to be identification, which is impossible in the case of the creator and his creation. The goal achievable by a person in this life is to become wise. Philo personifies the highest ideal in the image of Moses. The path to the highest ethical ideal of a sage lies through the manifestation of natural (given from God) noble inclinations (“the virtue of Isaac”), education (“the virtue of Abraham”) and ascetic exercise (“the virtue of Jacob”). Philo's views had a huge influence on the formation of Christian philosophy, and above all on the exegetical method and theological views of the first Christian philosophers. judaism talmud religious

The deprivation of Judea of ​​political independence and the establishment of foreign power contributed to the emergence of faith in supernatural help for liberation from oppressors and faith in a Messiah-savior. With the teaching about the Messiah, the teaching about the coming age also appeared - eschatology, about future bliss, another world, where the righteous will receive their well-deserved reward. A vague belief in an afterlife and the resurrection of the dead appears. Under the influence of the study of the prophets, apocalypticism is created.

In the II-I centuries. BC. movements and sects appeared in Judaism, the main of which were the Sadducees, Pharisees and Essenes.

The Sadducees included members of the priestly families, as well as the military and agricultural aristocracy. The founder of this trend was Zadok, the high priest during the reign of Solomon. From the end of the 2nd century. BC. The Sadducees were the support of the ruling dynasty. They scrupulously adhered to the temple cult, strictly followed religious tradition, observed rituals, but only on the basis of written tradition, rejecting oral teaching. Any attempts at a new interpretation of the “Law” were considered as a protest and an encroachment on their monopoly rights. They sought to concentrate spiritual and temporal power. In their philosophical and theological teachings, the Sadducees rejected the predestination of destinies, denied the afterlife and resurrection of the dead, the existence of angels and evil spirits, and taught that in the next century there would be neither eternal bliss nor eternal torment for righteous and wicked people. The Biblical Encyclopedia says about the Sadducees: “The teachings of these materialistic skeptics were not particularly widespread.” After the destruction of the Jerusalem Temple in 70, the Sadducees left the historical arena.

The sect of the Pharisees (from Hebrew “to excommunicate”, “to separate”) arose after the Babylonian captivity. According to one version, the Pharisees in the 2nd century. BC separated from the Hasidim (“pious”), who adhered to national isolation and the requirements of the law. The sect consisted mainly of the middle strata of the population, but, above all, “scientific sages” (professional lawyers). Their total number was quite significant: for example, at the turn of the old and new eras, 6 thousand Pharisees refused to take the oath to the Roman Emperor Augustus. The Pharisees were considered authoritative interpreters of the laws and, unlike the Sadducees, applied their interpretation to new historical conditions. In this regard, they developed a harmonious system of hermeneutics (a method of extracting secret meaning from a text) and logical techniques of deduction and syllogism (a conclusion consisting of two premise judgments, from which a third judgment follows - a conclusion). With the help of these techniques, new laws were derived from the Pentateuch or old ones were modified in relation to new conditions. The Pharisees recognized divine predestination, believed in the immortality of the soul, in angels and spirits, in the resurrection of the dead and in reward after death. They actively participated in political life, and during the period of Roman rule, most of them formed the “peace with Rome” party. Therefore, the word “Pharisee” over time became associated with demagoguery, hypocrisy, and hypocrisy. The Pharisees reached their peak after the destruction of the Jerusalem Temple and operated in synagogues in the Diaspora. They created the first and main part of the Talmud.

The Essenes or Essenes (from Aramais.hasaya - “pious”) existed from the second half of the 2nd century. BC. They mainly lived in communities in the area of ​​the western coast of the Dead Sea. They had special principles of social organization: they rejected private property, slavery, and trade. They practiced collective life and common property (not only the cash register was common, but even clothing). They refused to marry and have sex, believing that this would destroy their community, although some recognized marriage as a means of continuing the human race. Admission to community membership occurred only after a special test. The Essenes believed in one god, in the immortality of the soul, but also in the transmigration of souls after death. They considered their main task to be the preservation and elevation of purity of morals and piety. Therefore, they were very religious and led a strict moral life.

There were other, less common sects. Thus, therapists (from the Greek “healing”) considered themselves healers in the service of God, treated the sick, despised sensual pleasures, and preached pacifism. The Zealots (from Greek “zealots”) had similarities in religious views with the Pharisees, but differed from them in their political program - they were characterized by patriotism and an anti-Roman orientation. The Zealots elevated their love for freedom to the level of religious dogma: God is the only ruler of the world, therefore one should not pay taxes to the Roman emperor. The Sicarii (“daggermen”) were a religious-terrorist group that physically destroyed the Romans and pro-Roman Jews.

During the Hellenistic period, the prerequisites for Christianity were formed, which emerged from Judaism and Hellenistic-Roman culture at the beginning of the 1st century AD.

Judaism after the emergence of Christianity.

In 70 AD. after the anti-Roman uprising, the Jerusalem Temple was destroyed, and in 133 Jerusalem was destroyed, and the last remnants of Jewish statehood were destroyed. The Jews were finally expelled from Palestine and settled throughout the Mediterranean. The synagogue becomes the basis of Jewish life. The Talmud is compiled, containing religious, legal, and social regulations. The Talmud becomes the basis of the entire life of Jewish communities - not only religious, but also legal and social. Due to the absence of a state and secular authority, the main role is played by community leaders - talmid-hachams, and later rabbis. They were turned to in all cases of life, hence the appearance in Judaism of petty religious prescriptions, the preservation of isolation and isolation of Jews. Rabbis were categorical judges in both the religious and secular affairs of the Jews, who united around the synagogues (synagogue community organization - kahal).

During the Talmudic period, two trends emerged in the development of Judaism - conservative and modernizing. The emergence of new sects was associated with them in the Middle Ages. Thus, the Karaite sect rejected the Talmud and demanded a return to the pure teachings of Moses. Attempts at a rational interpretation of Judaism arose under the influence of Islam. Thus, Moses Maimonides (1135-1204), relying on the teachings of Aristotle and the Muslim rationalists of the Mu'tazilites, tried to interpret the Bible rationally or allegorically. He put forward 13 basic principles of Judaism, trying to free it from petty concerns.

The mystical teaching - Kabbalah (in Heb. Acceptance or tradition) became widespread. The main work Zohar (radiance) appeared in the 13th century. The basis of this doctrine is pantheism: God is an infinite, indefinite being, devoid of any attributes. One can approach God only through the mysterious meaning of names, the letters that make up the names, and the numbers that make up the letters. In this regard, in the practice of Kabbalah, a large place is occupied by the combination of numbers and magical formulas. Supporters of this teaching believe that there is no evil in the world, and evil is the outer shell of good, that is, God. Kabbalists believed in the transmigration of souls: the soul of a sinner is reborn in another body, human or animal, and this continues until the soul is cleansed of sins. After purification, the soul ascends and passes into the realm of pure spirits. Kabbalists cast out unclean spirits from the sick.

In modern times, another movement is spreading - Hasidism (Hasid - pious). Founder Israel Besht. He taught that ritual rules and regulations of rabbis are not needed, but one must strive for direct communication with God, which can be achieved in ecstasy of prayer. Such communication can only be achieved by righteous tzaddikim - keepers of divine secrets.

A rationalist movement also emerged, aimed at weakening religious legislation - the Haskalah. One of the widespread trends in the twentieth century. became Zionism - political Judaism aimed at restoring the Jewish state in Palestine (founder Theodor Herzl).

Judaism is one of the oldest religions in the world and the oldest of the so-called Abrahamic religions, which, in addition to it, includes Christianity and Islam. The history of Judaism is inextricably linked with the Jewish people and extends back centuries, at least three thousand years. This religion is also considered the oldest of all those that proclaimed the worship of one God - a monotheistic cult instead of worship of pantheons of different gods.

The emergence of faith in Yahweh: a religious tradition

The exact time when Judaism arose has not been established. The adherents of this religion themselves attribute its appearance to approximately the 12-13th centuries. BC e., when on Mount Sinai the leader of the Jews, Moses, who led the Jewish tribes from Egyptian slavery, received Revelation from the Almighty, and a Covenant was concluded between the people and God. This is how the Torah appeared - in the broadest sense of the word, written and oral instruction in the laws, commandments and requirements of the Lord in relation to his fans. A detailed description of these events is reflected in the book of Genesis, the authorship of which is also attributed to Moses by Orthodox Jews and which forms part of the written Torah.

A scientific view of the origins of Judaism

However, not all scientists are ready to support the above version. Firstly, because the very Jewish interpretation of the history of man’s relationship with God includes a long tradition of honoring the God of Israel before Moses, starting with the forefather Abraham, who, according to various estimates, lived in the period from the 21st century. to the 18th century BC e. Thus, the origins of the Jewish cult are lost in time. Secondly, it is difficult to say when the pre-Jewish religion became Judaism proper. A number of researchers attribute the emergence of Judaism to much later times, right up to the era of the second Temple (mid-first millennium BC). According to their conclusions, the religion of Yahweh, the god professed by the Jews, was not monotheism from the very beginning. Its origins lie in the tribal cult called Yahwism, which is characterized as a special form of polytheism - monolatry. With such a system of views, the existence of many gods is recognized, but veneration is given to only one - one’s divine patron based on the fact of birth and territorial settlement. Only later did this cult transform into a monotheistic doctrine, and thus Judaism appeared - the religion that we know today.

History of Yahwism

As already mentioned, God Yahweh is the national God of the Jews. Their entire culture and religious traditions are built around it. But in order to understand what Judaism is, let us briefly touch on its sacred history. According to Jewish belief, Yahweh is the only true God who created the entire world, including the solar system, the earth, all its flora, fauna and, finally, the first pair of people - Adam and Eve. At the same time, the first commandment for man was given - not to touch the fruits of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. But people violated the divine command and were expelled from paradise for this. Further history is characterized by the oblivion of the true God by the descendants of Adam and Eve and the emergence of paganism - gross idolatry, according to the Jews. However, from time to time the Almighty made himself felt, seeing the righteous in the corrupt human community. Such was, for example, Noah - the man from whom people again settled on the earth after the Flood. But Noah’s descendants quickly forgot the Lord, starting to worship other gods. This continued until God called Abraham, a resident of Ur of the Chaldeans, with whom he entered into a Covenant, promising to make him the father of many nations. Abraham had a son Isaac and a grandson Jacob, who are traditionally revered as patriarchs - the ancestors of the Jewish people. The last one - Jacob - had twelve sons. By God's providence it happened that eleven of them were sold into slavery by the twelfth, Joseph. But God helped him, and over time Joseph became the second person in Egypt after Pharaoh. The family reunion took place during a time of terrible famine, and therefore all the Jews, at the invitation of Pharaoh and Joseph, went to live in Egypt. When the royal patron died, another pharaoh began to brutalize Abraham's descendants, forcing them to do hard work and killing newborn boys. This slavery continued for four hundred years until God finally called Moses to free his people. Moses led the Jews out of Egypt, and at the command of the Lord, forty years later they entered the Promised Land - modern Palestine. There, waging bloody wars with idolaters, the Jews established their state and even received a king from the Lord - first Saul, and then David, whose son Solomon built the great shrine of Judaism - the temple of Yahweh. The latter was destroyed in 586 by the Babylonians, and then rebuilt by order of Tire the Great (in 516). The second temple lasted until 70 AD. e., when it was burned during the Jewish War by the troops of Titus. Since that time it has not been restored, and worship has ceased. It is important to note that in Judaism there are not many temples - this building can only be one and only in one place - on the temple mount in Jerusalem. Therefore, for almost two thousand years, Judaism has existed in a unique form - in the form of a rabbinic organization led by learned laymen.

Judaism: Basic Ideas and Concepts

As already mentioned, the Jewish faith recognizes only one and only God - Yahweh. In fact, the true meaning of his name was lost after the destruction of the temple by Titus, so "Yahweh" is simply an attempt at reconstruction. And she did not gain popularity in Jewish circles. The fact is that in Judaism there is a ban on pronouncing and writing the sacred four-letter name of God - the Tetragrammaton. Therefore, from ancient times it was replaced in conversation (and even in Holy Scripture) with the word “Lord.”

Another important feature is that Judaism is the religion of strictly one nation - the Jews. Therefore, it is a rather closed religious system, which is not so easy to get into. Of course, in history there are examples of the adoption of Judaism by representatives of other nations and even entire tribes and states, but in general, Jews are skeptical about such practices, insisting that the Sinai covenant applies only to the descendants of Abraham - the chosen Jewish people.

Jews believe in the coming of the Moshiach - an outstanding messenger of God, who will return Israel to its former glory, spread the teachings of the Torah throughout the world and even restore the temple. In addition, Judaism has a belief in the resurrection of the dead and the Last Judgment. In order to righteously serve God and know him, the people of Israel were given the Tanakh by the Almighty - the sacred canon of books, starting with the Torah and ending with the revelations of the prophets. The Tanakh is known in Christian circles as the Old Testament. Of course, Jews categorically disagree with this assessment of their Scripture.

According to the teachings of the Jews, God cannot be depicted, therefore in this religion there are no sacred images - icons, statues, etc. Artistic art is not at all what Judaism is famous for. We can also briefly mention the mystical teachings of Judaism - Kabbalah. This, if we rely not on legends, but on scientific data, is a very late product of Jewish thought, but no less outstanding. Kabbalah views creation as a series of divine emanations and manifestations of a number-letter code. Kabbalistic theories, among other things, even recognize the fact of transmigration of souls, which distinguishes this tradition from a number of other monotheistic, and especially Abrahamic, religions.

Commandments in Judaism

The commandments of Judaism are widely known in world culture. They are closely connected with the name of Moses. This is truly the true ethical treasure that Judaism brought to the world. The main ideas of these commandments come down to religious purity - worship of the one God and love for him and to a socially righteous life - honoring parents, social justice and integrity. However, in Judaism there is a much more expanded list of commandments, called mitzvot in Hebrew. There are 613 such mitzvot. This is believed to correspond to the number of parts of the human body. This list of commandments is divided into two: prohibitive commandments, numbering 365, and imperative commandments, of which there are only 248. The generally accepted list of mitzvot in Judaism belongs to the famous Maimonides, an outstanding Jewish thinker.

Traditions

The centuries-old development of this religion has also shaped the traditions of Judaism, which are strictly observed. Firstly, this applies to holidays. Among the Jews, they are timed to coincide with certain days of the calendar or lunar cycle and are designed to preserve the people’s memory of certain events. The most important holiday of all is Passover. The command to observe it was given, according to the Torah, by God himself during the exodus from Egypt. That is why Passover is timed to coincide with the liberation of the Jews from Egyptian captivity and the passage through the Red Sea into the desert, from where the people were later able to reach the Promised Land. Also known is the holiday of Sukkot, another important event that Judaism celebrates. Briefly, this holiday can be described as a remembrance of the Jews’ journey through the desert after the exodus. This journey lasted 40 years instead of the initially promised 40 days - as punishment for the sin of the golden calf. Sukkot lasts seven days. At this time, Jews are required to leave their homes and live in huts, which is what the word “Sukkot” means. Jews also have many other important dates that are celebrated with celebrations, special prayers and rituals.

In addition to holidays, there are fasts and days of mourning in Judaism. An example of such a day is Yom Kippur - the day of atonement, prefiguring the Last Judgment.

There are also a huge number of other traditions in Judaism: wearing sidelocks, circumcision of male children on the eighth day of birth, a special kind of attitude towards marriage, etc. For believers, these are important customs that Judaism imposes on them. The basic ideas of these traditions are consistent either directly with the Torah or with the Talmud, the second most authoritative book after the Torah. They are often quite difficult for non-Jews to understand and comprehend in the modern world. However, it is they who shape the culture of Judaism today, based not on temple worship, but on the synagogue principle. A synagogue, by the way, is a meeting of the Jewish community on a Sabbath or holiday for prayer and reading the Torah. The same word also refers to the building where believers gather.

Saturday in Judaism

As already mentioned, one day per week is allocated for synagogue worship - Saturday. This day is generally a sacred time for Jews, and believers are especially zealous in observing its statutes. One of the ten basic commandments of Judaism prescribes keeping and honoring this day. Breaking the Sabbath is considered a serious offense and requires atonement. Therefore, not a single devout Jew will work or generally do anything that is forbidden to do on this day. The sanctity of this day is associated with the fact that, having created the world in six days, the Almighty rested on the seventh and prescribed this to all his admirers. The seventh day is Saturday.

Judaism and Christianity

Since Christianity is a religion that claims to be the successor of Judaism through the fulfillment of the prophecies of the Tanakh about the Moshiach on Jesus Christ, the relations of Jews with Christians have always been ambiguous. These two traditions especially moved away from each other after the Jewish conclave imposed a herem, that is, a curse, on Christians in the 1st century. The next two thousand years were a time of enmity, mutual hatred, and often persecution. For example, Archbishop Cyril of Alexandria expelled a huge Jewish diaspora from the city in the 5th century. The history of Europe is replete with such relapses. Today, in the era of the heyday of ecumenism, the ice has gradually begun to melt, and dialogue between representatives of the two religions is beginning to improve. Although among broad layers of believers on both sides there is still distrust and alienation. Judaism is difficult for Christians to understand. The basic ideas of the Christian church are such that the Jews are charged with the sin of the crucifixion of Christ. Since ancient times, the Church has represented Jews as Christ-killers. It is difficult for Jews to find a way to dialogue with Christians because for them, Christians clearly represent heretics and followers of the false messiah. In addition, centuries of oppression taught the Jews not to trust Christians.

Judaism today

Modern Judaism is a fairly large (about 15 million) religion. It is characteristic that at its head there is no single leader or institution that would have sufficient authority for all Jews. Judaism is spread almost everywhere in the world and consists of several denominations that differ from each other in the degree of religious conservatism and the peculiarities of their doctrine. The strongest core is represented by representatives of Orthodox Jewry. The Hasidim are quite close to them - very conservative Jews with an emphasis on mystical teaching. Following are several Reform and Progressive Jewish organizations. And on the very periphery there are communities of Messianic Jews who, like Christians, recognize the authenticity of the messianic calling of Jesus Christ. They themselves consider themselves Jews and, to one degree or another, observe the main Jewish traditions. However, traditional communities deny them the right to be called Jews. Therefore, Judaism and Christianity are forced to divide these groups in half.

Spread of Judaism

The influence of Judaism is strongest in Israel, where about half of all the world's Jews live. Another approximately forty percent comes from North American countries - the USA and Canada. The rest are settled in other regions of the planet.

Judaism (from other Heb. I'm losing weight- inhabitants of ancient Judea). National religion of the Jews. A characteristic feature of Judaism, which distinguishes it from the national religions of other peoples, is monotheism- faith in One God. On the basis of Judaism, two world religions arose: Christianity and Islam.

The ideas of the ancient Jews about the One God developed over a long historical period (19th - 2nd centuries BC), which was called biblical and included the era patriarchs(forefathers) of the Jewish people. As legend tells, the very first Jew was the patriarch Abraham, who entered into a sacred union with God - a covenant ( brit). Abraham made a promise that he and his descendants would remain faithful to God and fulfill the commandments as proof of this ( mitzvot) - norms of behavior that distinguish a person who worships the true God. For this, God promised Abraham to protect and multiply his descendants, from which a whole nation would emerge. This people will receive from God the possession of Israel - the land on which they will create their own state. The descendants of Abraham formed a union of 12 tribes (tribal groups), related by blood, which descended from the 12 sons of Jacob (Israel), son of Isaac and grandson of Abraham: Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, Gad, Asher, Joseph, Benjamin , Dan and Naphtali.

But before receiving the land promised by God (the Promised Land), the descendants of Abraham ended up in Egypt (about 1700 BC), where they were enslaved for 400 years. The prophet Moses brought them out of this slavery ( Moshe). The exodus of God's chosen people was accompanied by numerous miracles, which God performed as proof of his power. This was followed by a 40-year wandering in the desert, during which all former slaves had to die so that only free people would enter the land of Israel. During this wandering through the desert, the central event of Judaism and its entire history takes place: God calls Moses to Mount Sinai and through him gives the entire Jewish people the Ten Commandments and Toru- The law written in five books and called the Pentateuch of Moses. The Sinai Revelation, received by Moses, marks the beginning of the existence of the Jews as a single people, and Judaism - the religion that this people professes. God of the Jews, named after Yahweh(The Being, from whose being everything flows), had neither images nor temples. The main object of worship of the Jews was the Ark of the Covenant - a casket in which two stone slabs (tablets) with the Ten Commandments carved on them were kept. The Ark of the Covenant was considered the earthly residence of God, invisibly present throughout the world.

In the 11th century BC e. Jews create the state of Israel, the capital of which is the city of Jerusalem (Yerushalayim). In 958 BC. e. King Solomon builds a Temple in Jerusalem on Mount Zion in honor of the One God, where the Ark of the Covenant was placed. A new beginning has begun in the history of Judaism, temple period, which lasted about 1500 years. During this period, the Jerusalem Temple became the main spiritual center of Judaism and the only place where religious rites were performed.

The exclusive right to perform temple services, the main element of which were sacrifices, belonged to Aaronids- descendants of Aaron, brother of Moses, who formed the highest category of priesthood - kohanim(priests). They were served Leviim(Levites) - people from the clan of Levi. The servants of the Jerusalem Temple constituted a special category of Jewish society. Their descendants still perform special ritual functions and observe additional prohibitions: for example, kohanim should not be under the same roof with a dead body, marry a widow or divorcee, etc.

During the same period, writing is completed Tanakh- The Holy Scriptures of Judaism (the Christian tradition fully included the Tanakh in the section of the Bible called the Old Testament).

In 587 BC. e. Israel was captured by the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II, who destroyed the Temple of Jerusalem and forcibly resettled most of the Jews to Babylonia. The prophet Ezekiel becomes the spiritual leader and mentor of the settlers. He developed the idea of ​​​​the revival of Israel, but as a theocratic state, the center of which would be the new Jerusalem Temple. The creator of this new state should be Messiah- descendant of King David. Under the Persian Achaemenid dynasty, the Jews were able to return to Jerusalem, which received the status of a self-governing city (VI-V centuries BC). The second Jerusalem Temple was built, but the leaders of the new religious community, Ezra and Nehemiah, refused to accept into it the Israelis who had not been in Babylonian captivity, as well as those who remained in Palestine, because they believed that they had ceased to be Jews, having mixed with peoples who worshiped other gods. The rejected part of the Israelis created their own special community Samaritans, preserved in Palestine to this day. Since the time of Ezra, the idea of ​​the Jewish people being chosen by God has acquired special significance in the teachings of Judaism.

The period of the history of Judaism from the 2nd century. BC e. to the 6th century n. e. got the name Talmudic. It is characterized by a thorough systematization and ritualization of the Jewish cult, which from a temple ritual turned into a system of numerous regulations, often scrupulous and minute - down to the details of appearance, hairstyle and clothing - which a righteous Jew had to follow in his daily life.

In the 1st century BC e. Roman rule is established over Israel. At this time, a number of movements and sects emerged in Judaism, of which the direction became the most authoritative let's break it(Pharisees) - supporters of the democratization of teaching and the introduction of customary law into it, the so-called Oral Torah. At the beginning of the 1st century. n. e. how one of the Jewish sects arises and Christianity, which quite quickly opposed itself to Judaism, separated from it and formed into an independent religion.

In 67-73 n. e. the famous Jewish War broke out against the rule of Rome, during which the Temple of Jerusalem was again destroyed (70), and after the Bar Kochba uprising (132-135) the Jews were expelled from Israel and settled throughout the Roman Empire and in countries Asia, where they formed a large diaspora. Over time, various ethnic groups of Jews were formed in the Diaspora, with their own linguistic, everyday and ritual characteristics. The most significant ethnic community in the Jewish people is Ashkenazim- European Jews, whose ethnocultural center arose in medieval Germany in the 9th-12th centuries. (Ashkenaz is the name of Germany in medieval Jewish literature) and established itself in most countries of Europe, the USA, Latin America and South Africa. Among the Ashkenazim, the spoken Hebrew language arose - Yiddish, formed on the basis of a mixed German-Slavic lexical and grammatical base and Hebrew writing. Another significant ethnic group of Jews emerged in medieval Spain during the period of Arab rule. She got the name Sephardi(Sephard was the Hebrew name for Spain in the Middle Ages). After the expulsion of the Sephardim from Spain in 1492, they settled in the countries of the Middle East, Turkey and the Balkans, where they preserved the everyday life that had developed in Spain, as well as the language ladino, formed on the basis of Old Spanish. Later, all Jews in Asian countries began to be called Sephardim, as opposed to European Jews. Other distinctive ethno-confessional communities arose in the East: Falashas in Ethiopia, black Jews in India, Iseloni in China, Iranian Jews.

With the formation of the Diaspora, a new stage in the history of Judaism begins, called rabbinic. The most important innovation of the Diaspora was the replacement of temple worship, which could only be performed in Jerusalem, with prayer meetings in synagogues under the guidance of teachers of religious law - rabbis(from other Hebrew rabbi- my teacher). The rabbi, as a recognized expert in religious tradition, is the spiritual mentor of the community ( kegilla), sits on a religious court and teaches at a religious school. Rabbis are trained in yeshivas- theological schools that operate at the largest synagogues. In Orthodox Judaism, only men can be rabbis, but non-Orthodox denominations have recently recognized the right to rabbi status for women. The Kehillah becomes the only form of organization of the Jewish community. The rabbis developed a system of religious and customary law ( halakha), which began to regulate the life of all Jewish communities.

During this period, the books of the Holy Scriptures were systematized and the so-called Masoretic Codex Tanakh. It consists of 39 books, divided into three sections: Torah(Teaching)- books Bereshit(In the beginning, Christian name Genesis), Shemot(Names, Christian Exodus), Vayikra(And he called, Christ Levite), Bemidbar(In the desert, Christian Numbers) and Devarim(Words, Christ. Deuteronomy); Neviim(Prophets)- books Ye'oshua(Christ. Joshua), Shofetim(Judges) Shmuel 1 And 2 (Christ. 1 and 2 Kings, or the prophet Samuel), Melachim 1 And 2 (Christ. 3 and 4 Kings), Yeshaya(Prophet Isaiah) Yirmeya"(prophet Jeremiah) Yehezkel(Prophet Ezekiel) and Terey-Asar(books of the 12 so-called minor prophets); And Ketuvim(Scriptures) books Te illim(Praises, Christian Psalms), Mishley(Proverbs, Christ. Proverbs of Solomon), Iyov(Job), Megillot(Scrolls); consists of 5 separate books: Shir-ashirim(Song of Songs) Ruth(Ruth) Eiha(Lamentations), Ko"elet(Ecclesiastes), Esther(Esther)], Daniel(Prophet Daniel) Ezra(Ezra), Nehemiah(Christ. Nehemiah, or 2 Esdras) and Divrei "ayamim 1 And 2 (Christ. 1 and 2 Chronicles, or Chronicles).

At the beginning of the 3rd century. a set of rules and oral traditions is compiled - Mishnah(Interpretation), or Shas(Six orders), to which in the III - V centuries. Commentaries were added to the sacred texts - Gemara. Mishnah and Gemara make up Talmud- the second holy book of Judaism. The Talmud has two editions, called the Jerusalem and Babylonian Talmud.

At the beginning of the 8th century. Judaism spread among part of the Turkic tribes that were part of the Khazar Kaganate. Their descendants are Karaites, formed a separate branch of Judaism. The peculiarity of Karaite Judaism is that it recognizes only the books of the Tanakh and rejects the Talmud.

In the 12th century. the outstanding Jewish thinker and rabbi Moses Maimonides, or Rambam (1135 - 1204), systematized the basic dogma of Judaism and outlined it in an extensive treatise Mishneh Torah(Interpretation of the Torah), which became an encyclopedic guide to the Torah and Talmud. In the 16th century Rabbi Yosef Karo (1488-1575) completed the systematization of the instructions of the Talmud. The code he compiled Shulchan Aruch(The Set Table) became a practical guide to Talmudic law accepted by Orthodox Judaism.

After the expulsion of the Jewish people from Israel, mystical schools, known under the general name Kabbalah(Heritage). One of the most influential centers of this teaching was formed in the 16th century. in the Galilean city of Safed under the leadership of Rabbi Isaac Luria, or Ari (1536-1572). Kabbalists sought to comprehend the hidden meaning of the Torah and other books of Holy Scripture, which, as they believed, contained a symbolic description of God and all Divine processes. Kabbalists developed the doctrine of sefirot- ten hypostases of the hidden God, each of which is endowed with special qualities, and all together they are in constant dynamic interaction and control the material world. The main work of the Kabbalists is Zohar(Shine), is revered by them on a par with the Torah and Talmud. The teachings of Kabbalah had a great influence on the formation of other mystical movements in Judaism, and above all on Hasidism(from other Hebrew hasid- pious), which arose in the 18th century. and became widespread among the Jews of Volhynia, Podolia and Galicia. Hasidism rejected the authority of rabbis and revered tzaddikim- righteous people who, according to Hasidim, are in constant communication with God and gifted with supernatural power, which allowed them to manifest everything that exists of their own free will. Gradually, Hasidism found a compromise with the rabbinate and was recognized as Orthodox Judaism.

At the end of the 18th century. under the influence of the ideas of the French Revolution, a movement for the emancipation of Jews arose - askala(enlightenment), which leads to the crisis of Orthodox Judaism and the emergence reformist direction, who sought to adapt Judaism to the norms of the European way of life. However, the fear of assimilation with the non-Jewish population already in the middle of the 19th century. also intensified the traditional orthodox movement, which opposed reformism. Currently, the majority of Jews in Europe and the United States are adherents of Reform Judaism, while Orthodox Judaism predominates in Israel.

A peculiarity of the teachings of Judaism is that it is based on two contradictory ideas: national chosenness and universalism. It was the doctrine of God's chosenness of the Jewish people that became the main obstacle to the spread of Judaism among other peoples not ethnically related to Jews, although the adoption of Judaism by individuals, ethnic groups and even entire nations took place in history.

The universal nature of the teachings of Judaism is manifested primarily in the idea of ​​the unity, universality and omnipotence of God, the creator and source of all things. God is incorporeal and has no visible image, although man was created by God in his image and likeness. The idea of ​​the One God is expressed in the Jewish creed, the Shema, with which the services begin: Hear Israel! The Lord is our God, the Lord is one! . In Judaism, a custom has developed not to use the name of God in everyday speech, replacing it with the word Adonai (Lord, Lord). Reinforcing this rule, the keepers of the sacred texts added vowel marks to the consonant letters of the word Yahweh for the word Adonai. From this connection arose the widespread transcription of Jehovah - a distorted form of the name Yahweh.

Having created man, God gave him free will and choice, but commanded him to fulfill mitzvot(commandments) embodying goodness and correct behavior. The first covenant made by God with the forefather of mankind, Noah, includes the so-called Seven Commandments of the sons of Noah. They establish prohibitions against idolatry, blasphemy, bloodshed, theft, incest, eating meat cut from a living animal, and the command to live according to the laws. According to Judaism, the acceptance of the Torah by the Jewish people was accompanied by the imposition on Jews of special 613 commandments, the observance of which is not obligatory for other peoples. Most of them define norms of everyday behavior, food rules, economic regulations, rules of ritual cleanliness, hygienic standards, and prohibitions on combining incompatible entities (flax and wool; two different draft animals in one harness, etc.). Special regulations apply to religious practices and observance of holidays.

Among mitzvot the so-called Ten Commandments(Greek Decalogue), containing universal ethical standards of human behavior: monotheism, the prohibition on the image of God, on pronouncing His name in vain (in vain), observing the sanctity of the day of rest on the seventh day (Saturday), honoring parents, the prohibition of murder, adultery, theft, false witness and selfish lust . Deviation from fulfilling the commandments, as a consequence of the principle of free will, is considered as a sin, which entails retribution not only in the other world, but also in earthly life. Thus, ethical and social justice contained in the commandments becomes the central tenet of the entire dogma of Judaism.

Ideas about the immortality of the soul, about the afterlife and the future resurrection of the dead are not directly reflected in the Torah and have a later origin in Judaism.

The constant disasters and persecutions that befell the Jewish people in exile, as well as the exile itself, are considered by Judaism as an integral part of retribution for deviations from the correct fulfillment of the commandments and as a burden of chosenness. The people's deliverance from suffering will come after liberation, which will bring Messiah(Old Heb. Mashiach- God's Anointed) - king-savior. The Messiah will appear in the form of a humble teacher from the line of King David and with his coming the kingdom of God will be established on earth - Heavenly Jerusalem, where all the Jews scattered throughout the world will be miraculously transported. The dead will rise and peace and brotherhood of man will prevail everywhere. The doctrine of Jerusalem as a lost glory and homeland has not only a mystical, but also an earthly character in Judaism. Belief in the eventual return to the promised land ( Aliya), which manifests itself in daily prayer and in the Easter wish Next year - in Jerusalem! , became the ideological basis Zionism- national-political movement for the restoration of the Jewish state in the historical homeland of the Jewish people - Palestine. The founder of Zionism was a Jewish publicist from Austria, Theodor Herzel (1860-1904), author of the book The Jewish State. The result of the active work of Zionist organizations was the creation of the State of Israel in 1948, the return of a large number of Jews from Europe and the United States to it, and the associated revival of religious life both in Israel itself and in the Diaspora.

The Jewish calendar is based on a lunar-solar calendar with a 19-year cycle, within which 12 years consist of 12 months and 7 years (leap years) - of 13 months. The months of the year have Assyro-Babylonian names and are in the following order: Tishrei(September October), heshvan(October November), Kislev(November December), Tevet(December - January), shevat(January February), adar(in a leap year - Adar I and Adar II) (February-March), Nissan(March, April), Iyar(April May), sivan(May June), Tammuz(June July), aw(July August), Elul(Aug. Sept).

The weekly holiday is Shabbat(Saturday) - a day of rest, the onset of which is marked by the lighting of candles, a special blessing and a festive meal after the rising of the first three stars every Friday evening. On Shabbat, all work (including lighting a fire), movement of vehicles and other disturbances of peace are prohibited. Saturday is usually dedicated to prayer and reading the Torah.

The most important holidays after Shabbat are Yom Kippur(Judgment Day), accompanied by strict fasting and special penitential prayers and rituals, and Rosh Hashanah(New Year), celebrated respectively on the 10th and 1st days of the month of Tishrei.

The most important holidays in the tradition of Judaism are considered to be the so-called three pilgrimage holidays, during which - before the destruction of the Jerusalem Temple - everyone was obliged to make a pilgrimage to Jerusalem to make a sacrifice in the Temple. The first one is Passover(Passover, other Hebrew Exodus), the celebration of which begins on the 14th day of the month Nisan and lasts 7 days. This holiday is dedicated to the memory of the exodus of the Jews from Egypt and the acquisition of freedom, as well as the onset of spring and the beginning of the ripening of the first sheaf. The main ritual establishment of the Jewish Passover is seven days of eating matzahs- special unleavened bread as a reminder of Egyptian slavery. During the seven days of the holiday, it is not only strictly forbidden to eat, but even keep in the house any products containing yeast. On the first and second evenings of Easter a special meal is held - seder, during which every adult Jew must drink four glasses of wine. 50 days after Easter, the harvest of the first sheaf takes place, which is celebrated with the holiday Shavuot(Pentecost) on the 6th day of the month of Sivan. This day is also dedicated to the giving of the Torah to Moses on Mount Sinai. Third pilgrimage festival Sukkot(Tabernacles), celebrated from the 15th to the 22nd day of the month of Tishrei and is dedicated to the memory of the 40-year wandering of the Jews in the desert, as well as the harvest of the autumn harvest. On Sukkot, special huts (tabernacles) with an open roof are built, in which people live and eat all days of the holiday.

Major holidays are also Hanukkah And Purim. Hanukkah (Feast of Consecration) is celebrated from the 25th day of the month of Kislev for 8 days. It was erected in memory of the liberation of Jerusalem by the Maccabees from Seleucid rule in 164 BC. e. and is dedicated to the renovation of the Temple, desecrated during the Maccabean Wars. During the eight days of Hanukkah, eight candles placed in a special lamp are lit - Hanukkiah. Purim (Feast of Lots) is celebrated on the 14th and 15th days of the month of Adar and is dedicated to the legendary events described in the book of Esther (Esther). It says that during the reign of the Persian king Artaxerxes I (465-424 BC), under whose rule the Jews were then, the royal minister Haman wanted to exterminate the Jewish people, but his plan was frustrated thanks to the cunning of one from the royal wives of the Jewish woman Esther and the wisdom of her educator Mordecai. As a result, the Jews were saved, and the villain Haman was executed. The holidays of Hanukkah and Purim are celebrated with special joy: on the days of the holidays, everyone gives each other gifts, games, dances, folk festivals and children's matinees are organized.

In addition to holidays, Judaism also has fasts that are dedicated to sorrowful events in Jewish history. The Jewish fast involves complete abstinence from food and drink for the entire day until sunset. The most important posts are: Tisha B'Av(9th day of the month of Ava) - in memory of the destruction of the first and second Temples; Tzom Gedalya(3rd day of the month of Tishrei) - commemorates the assassination of Gedaliah, the last Jewish ruler of Judah in 186 BC. e.; Asara be-Tevet(10th day of the month Tevet) - in memory of the destruction of Jerusalem by the Babylonians in 586 BC. e.; And Shiva-asar be-Tammuz- in memory of the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans in 70 AD. e.

Among the rituals of the life cycle, the most important and most sacred is circumcision (britmila)- surgery to excise the foreskin in boys on the eighth day after birth. According to tradition, this ritual was established back in the time of Abraham and symbolizes the union of God and Israel, being a sign of belonging to the people of God. Upon reaching the age of 13, when religious adulthood begins, boys undergo a ritual Bar Mitzvah (Son of the Commandment): On the first Saturday after their 13th birthday, they are called to read the Torah for the first time during a prayer meeting in the synagogue. From this moment on, a Jewish boy must fulfill all religious duties and is responsible for his sins. In the 19th century a custom arose to celebrate the religious coming of age of girls upon reaching the age of 12 (Bat Mitzvah - Daughter of the Commandment). Often both of these rituals coincide with the holiday of Shavuot. During the Talmudic period, the canon of Jewish marriage was also formed. It includes an engagement ceremony ( kiddushin), conclusion of a marriage contract ( ketubba) and the marriage ceremony, which is performed by a rabbi in the presence of two witnesses.

The system of food prohibitions is very important in Judaism ( kashrut): It is completely prohibited to eat the meat of pigs, equids (horses, donkeys), animals without hooves (rabbits, hare), birds of prey, and fish without scales. Clean ( kosher) is considered to be the meat of ruminant artiodactyls (sheep, goats, cows) and birds slaughtered by a carver ( shoikhet) according to a special rule, and the blood must be completely removed from the meat. There is also a ban on the simultaneous consumption of meat and dairy foods, cereals and legumes, and even mixing them in the same container.

The center of religious and social life in Judaism is synagogue. The status of a synagogue is determined by the presence of a special icon case for storing Torah scrolls, which is located in the wall facing Jerusalem. In the center of the hall is installed bima- an elevated place with a table for reading the Torah. The characteristic attributes of the decoration of the synagogue are the seven-branched candlestick ( menorah), replica lamp of the Jerusalem Temple; ark - a casket with a Torah scroll with images of a lion and an eagle; tablets - stone tablets with the initial words of the Ten Commandments; and the Star of David (Mogendovid) - a six-pointed star composed of two equilateral triangles (according to legend, it was inscribed on the shield of King David). Since God, according to the doctrine of Judaism, does not have a figurative form, any images of God, as well as images of people, are prohibited in Judaism.

Worship in the synagogue includes individual and communal prayers, Torah reading and chants performed by a choir under the direction of a cantor. Sermons are preached on Saturdays and during holidays. In Orthodox synagogues, the seats for women are separated by a partition or placed in the upper gallery. In reformed synagogues, men and women often sit together. Synagogues usually have a special room for ritual ablutions - mikveh.

Judaism has three obligatory daily services: shacharit(morning), minha(daytime) and maariv(evening). They are performed both publicly - in the synagogue, and individually - at home. To perform public prayer it is necessary minyan- the presence of at least ten men who have reached religious adulthood. On Saturdays and holidays a special prayer is read in memory of the temple sacrifice - musaf. Prayer occupies a central place in synagogue worship Shmoneh Esre(18 blessings). An important part of worship services is also kaddish- a memorial prayer that is read for the deceased during a year of mourning and on the anniversary of the death of a son for his deceased parents. During morning services on Monday, Thursday and Saturday, a Torah scroll is read. Men wear special attire during prayer: tales- a white rectangular blanket with a special pattern and tassels at the corners, a round hat ( bale), as well as an irregularly shaped prayer belt worn under outer clothing so that its corner peeks out. At the time of morning prayer on weekdays, a tefillin (phylactery) - a box with the text of a prayer enclosed in it - is fastened to the head of the believer above the forehead and to the right hand with a strap. Men are required to wear hats while in the synagogue, and the most religious Jews never take them off.

Every person born of a Jewish mother or who professes Judaism in accordance with religious law is considered a Jew.

Currently, followers of Judaism are settled all over the world and almost all of them are Jewish by ethnicity. According to various statistics, the total number of Jews in the world ranges from 13 to 14 million people; of these, 4.6 million people live in Israel and more than 1 million people in the territory of the former USSR. Organized communities of followers of Judaism exist in more than 80 countries around the world. Missionary work among the non-Jewish population is not practiced in Judaism, but the entry of non-Jewish people into the Jewish community is allowed, although it is quite difficult. Non-Jews converting to Judaism gerim) after undergoing the conversion rite, they are considered Jews; they are even forbidden to be reminded of their non-Jewish origin. In addition, there are a number of ethnic groups that profess Judaism, but at the same time are aware, to one degree or another, of their difference from the Jews. They are the Samaritans and Karaites, as well as groups of Judaizers in Africa (Ethiopia, Zambia, Liberia), India, China, Burma, the USA and other countries. In Russia at the end of the 18th century. Among the peasants of the central provinces, the Judaizing sects of Subbotniks and Gers arose, a few followers of which have survived to this day.

Basic principles of the Jewish religion

According to Orthodox Judaism, a Jew is a person who was born of a Jewish mother and has not changed his religion or has undergone an Orthodox conversion and observes all religious institutions.

In a religious concept that does not coincide with the everyday, universal one, a Jew is not an ethnic concept, but a worldview. For a true Jew, the concepts of national and religious coincide; they must be identical and inseparable.

The basic principles of the Jewish religion were laid down by the great 12th-century Jewish sage Rabbi Moshe ben Maimon, known to Jews as the Rambam and to Europeans as Maimonides. These principles are recognized as canonical in classical (Orthodox) Judaism.

First principle. God is one, he is one of a kind. God created man in his own image and likeness (the concept of “god-man”) - the consequence of which is God’s love for man, God’s desire to help man and confidence in the final victory of Good.

The Jews imagine the one living God, who at Sinai gave Moses the Torah - the Law. This is the most important commandment: to believe in the omnipresent God, the God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, and not only in this world. God is one for everyone, including, of course, pagans. He is alone, and there are no other gods. Belief in the almighty God Yahweh forms the basis of Judaism as a religion. In Judaism, for the first time in the history of religions, monotheism was proclaimed as a consistent principle. God, according to the teachings of Judaism, existed before He created everything that exists and will always exist. He is eternal. He is the essence of everything in the world, He is the first and the last, alpha and omega. He, and only He, is the Creator, who revealed Himself to the people through Moses, the prophets and His Word. He created the Earth and everything on and outside of it. God is Spirit, Thought and Word. God is one and he is real. To better understand this, every Jew should recite the Shemu prayer daily: “Hear, O Israel. The Lord is our God, the Lord is one.”

Second principle. God is perfect. God is the absolute Mind, he is omnipotent. God is the source of goodness, love and justice.

Judaism is unique not only because it pioneered monotheism. This religion for the first time gives an image of God as a person. God as a person presupposes the presence of a volitional principle in the world. The creation of the world is an act of manifestation of the will of God. The world was created by him because he wanted to create this world.

God is not only an absolute eternal essence, but also an unlimited will. His actions flow from His desire. God's purely spiritual essence distinguishes him from every other entity in the world and makes him the supreme authority. The gods of other beliefs are subject to certain higher powers. God is not subject to any other power and does not depend on anything other than Himself. There is no power in the world greater than Him. God is the absolute ruler of the entire world.

Third principle. The Torah is the holy book for all Jews. The authority of the Torah is infallible and indestructible.

The inspiration of the Old Testament is a dogma for the Jewish religion. The first five books that make up the Torah are sacred, for they were given by God himself. The Torah is not only Law, it is science. The Torah is the supreme authority of Judaism, the highest authority for the Israelis. As a science, the Torah contains its main feature - knowledge, and to know means to do. The Torah is not only the Law, it is God’s revelation of Himself. The Law also includes the Ten Commandments, which express the essence of the norms prescribed by God in the relations of people with each other and with God. But not only this: the Law also includes rules relating to religious and social life, down to the detailed development of issues of hygiene and everyday behavior. The law shows what God expects of people.

Fourth principle. Life is a constant dialogue between God and man. Everything that an individual or an entire nation does is assessed by God, and then the Almighty rewards it according to its deserts, most often during life.

The Jewish God created the world and man in it and wants the man he created to behave in this world in one way and not another, which emphasizes the presence of the will of God. The personality of God allows a person to build his relationship with God at the interpersonal level, at the “I-thou” level. A person can enter into direct dialogue with God, talk to him without intermediaries.

According to the Torah, there is a personal relationship between God and man. Man turns directly to God, and God enters into dialogue directly with man. When addressing God, a person uses expressions that give God human traits, since a person does not know any other way of expression. This phenomenon, called anthropomorphism, defines a two-way relationship between God and man and characterizes their relationship as a personal relationship. A person’s request addressed to God in fear or admiration, a person’s prayer, his cry can break through to God only in human language.

The relationship between man and God is central to the Torah. Monotheistic Judaism is based not on thinking about God, but on striving for Him, and this reveals an entirely new approach to the concept of God. Faith in the One God in the Torah is built on the highest degree of human devotion to God; it requires complete dedication from a person. Man cannot turn to other gods.

God established not only natural law, but also moral laws. God gives the opportunity to live and be righteous. God watches over man, He is all-good, holy, just. He is the master of history. Divine power spreads throughout the world, it is in all manifestations of life. God is a helper and friend to people, the father of all humanity. He is the liberator of people and nations; he is a savior who helps people get rid of ignorance, sins and vices: pride, selfishness, hatred and lust.

Fifth principle. Man is priceless because he is the creation of God. Every life is unique. The purpose of man is to serve God - constant comprehensive spiritual improvement.

Even in the first chapters, the Torah gives two contradictory descriptions of man, reflecting his dual nature and the internal contradiction contained in him. The first chapter of Genesis says: “And the Lord created man in his own image, in the image of God he created him, male and female—he created them.” The second chapter tells the opposite: “And the Lord God formed man from the dust of the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, and man became a living being.”

Thus, the basis of the concept of man in Judaism is the characteristic of him as a psychophysical creation. He is both the dust of the earth and the image of God. The first emphasizes the physical, biological essence of man. Man appears here as a part of living nature, a “living soul,” a material object subject to the laws of physics and biology. At the same time, man is endowed with something that is not part of nature, something standing above nature, opposing it; there is a particle of God in him. The Torah does not explain exactly how man is like God, but only affirms an important anthropological and sociological concept: man is like God. Being a part of nature, man at the same time stands, as it were, outside it. This reflects the duality of man - the dust of the earth and the likeness of God.

A person is influenced by his own biological essence. Unlike Christianity, Judaism does not see anything wrong with the fact that man is created from the dust of the earth, that he has a body with its physical needs. This is human nature. The fact that man is a physical, material creature only confirms that he is not God. At the same time, man is created in the image of God. This determines his spiritual potential, and this is his value.

Sixth principle. Equality of all people. All people are equal before God. Every person is a son of God, the road to improvement in the direction of unity with God is open to all people, all people are given the means to achieve this destiny - free will and divine help.

God does not divide people by social level, wealth, skin color or language they speak. The main thing in a person is his spiritual beginning, and in this all people are equal.

Seventh principle. God's chosenness of the Jewish people. God gave the Jews a special mission - to convey divine truths to humanity and through this help humanity to draw closer to God. To accomplish this task, God made a Covenant with the Jewish people and gave them commandments. The Divine Covenant cannot be canceled. On the one hand, the Covenant gives the full support of God, and on the other hand, it imposes a very high level of responsibility on the Jewish people.

The idea of ​​chosenness has traditionally been interpreted by Jews in two ways: on the one hand, it was God who chose the Israelites, and the other idea is that the Israelites chose God. Although this choice was collective, it was made freely. The decisive significance of the concept of chosenness is that it creates obligations exclusively for the Jews, and non-Jews received other covenants and other obligations from God.

Eighth principle. An invitation to all people and nations (non-Jews) to accept the necessary minimum of moral obligations imposed by the Torah on all humanity.

While Jews are obligated to observe all 613 mitzvot derived from the Pentateuch, a non-Jew who is considered a participant in God's covenant with Noah is obligated to observe only the seven laws of the sons of Noah. At the same time, Judaism fundamentally does not engage in missionary work, that is, it does not strive for proselytism (in Hebrew - giyur). However, anyone can accept Judaism after undergoing special initiation.

Ninth principle. The principle of complete dominance of the spiritual principle over matter. But at the same time, it is necessary to remember the value of the material world as well. God is the unconditional Lord of matter, as its creator, and he gave man dominion over the material world in order to fulfill his ideal purpose through the material body and in the material world.

In Judaism, everything that exists has its own spiritual beginning, and the goal of every person is to comprehend and recognize this spirituality. For example, it is believed that by reading the Torah or repeating a prayer, a person calls upon this beginning.

Tenth principle. Faith in the coming of the Messiah (Mosheach) - the savior.

Mashiach is a king, a direct descendant of King David, and, according to tradition, should be anointed as king by the prophet Elijah (Eliyahu), who was taken to heaven alive. When he comes, he will reward all the righteous according to their deserts.

The Jews are still awaiting the coming of Mosheach. The Torah teaches that the Messiah will bring political liberation to the Jews, gather all Jews in the lands of Israel and establish the correct world order throughout the land. Then perhaps all people will become Jews.

Eleventh principle. The principle of resurrection from the dead at the end of days (eschatology). The belief that at a certain time the dead will be brought back to life in the flesh and will live again on earth.

According to Judaism, the dead will be resurrected in their own bodies and begin to live on earth in eternal good. But this only applies to the righteous. There is still some debate about what will happen to the others. Some theologians believe that they will go to a place similar to Christian hell. Others believe that they will simply remain in oblivion.