Years of revolution in France. The French Revolution

• 1789–1791
  
• 1791–1793
  
• 1793–1799
  
• 1799–1814
  Napoleon's coup and establishment of the empire
• 1814–1848
  
• 1848–1851
  
• 1851–1870
  
• 1870–1875
  Revolution of 1870 and establishment of the Third Republic

In 1787, an economic recession began in France, which gradually turned into a crisis: production fell, the French market was flooded with cheaper English goods; to this were added crop failures and natural disasters, which led to the destruction of crops and vineyards. In addition, France spent a lot on unsuccessful wars and support of the American Revolution. There was not enough income (by 1788, expenses exceeded income by 20%), and the treasury took out loans, the interest on which was unaffordable for it. The only way to increase revenues to the treasury was to deprive the first and second estates of tax privileges Under the Ancien Regime, French society was divided into three classes: the first - the clergy, the second - the nobility and the third - everyone else. The first two classes had a number of privileges, including being exempt from having to pay taxes..

Government attempts to abolish the tax privileges of the first two estates failed, meeting resistance from the noble parliaments Parliaments- before the revolution, the highest courts of fourteen regions of France. Until the 15th century, only the Parisian Parliament existed, then the other thirteen appeared.(that is, the highest courts of the Old Order period). Then the government announced the convening of the Estates General Estates General- a body that included representatives of the three classes and was convened on the initiative of the king (as a rule, to resolve a political crisis). Each class sat separately and had one vote., which included representatives of all three classes. Unexpectedly for the crown, this caused a widespread public upsurge: hundreds of pamphlets were published, voters drew up orders to deputies: few people wanted a revolution, but everyone hoped for change. The impoverished nobility demanded financial support from the crown, while at the same time counting on restrictions on its power; the peasants protested against the rights of the lords and hoped to gain ownership of the land; Enlightenment ideas about equality of all before the law and equal access to positions became popular among townspeople (in January 1789, Abbot Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès’s widely known pamphlet “What is the Third Estate?” was published, containing the following passage: “1. What is the Third Estate ? - Everything. 2. What has it been so far politically? - Nothing. 3. What does it require? - To become something"). Drawing on the ideas of the Enlightenment, many believed that the nation, not the king, should have the highest power in a country, that absolute monarchy should be replaced by limited monarchy, and that traditional law should be replaced by a constitution—a collection of clearly written laws that apply to all citizens.

The French Revolution and the establishment of a constitutional monarchy

Bibliothèque nationale de France

Chronology

Start of work of the Estates General

Proclamation of the National Assembly

Storming of the Bastille

Adoption of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen

Adoption of the first French constitution

On May 5, 1789, a meeting of the Estates General opened in Versailles. According to tradition, each class had one vote when voting. Deputies from the third estate, who were twice as many as deputies from the first and second, demanded an individual vote, but the government did not agree to this. In addition, contrary to the expectations of the deputies, the authorities brought up only financial reforms for discussion. On June 17, deputies from the Third Estate declared themselves the National Assembly, that is, representatives of the entire French nation. On June 20, they vowed not to disperse until a constitution was drawn up. After some time, the National Assembly declared itself the Constituent Assembly, thus declaring its intention to establish a new political system in France.

Soon a rumor spread throughout Paris that the government was massing troops to Versailles and planning to disperse the Constituent Assembly. An uprising began in Paris; On July 14, hoping to seize weapons, the people stormed the Bastille. This symbolic event is considered the beginning of the revolution.

After this, the Constituent Assembly gradually turned into the highest power in the country: Louis XVI, who sought to avoid bloodshed at all costs, sooner or later approved any of his decrees. Thus, from August 5 to August 11, all peasants became personally free, and the privileges of the two classes and individual regions were abolished.

Overthrow of the absolute monarchy
On August 26, 1789, the Constituent Assembly approved the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen. On October 5, the crowd went to Versailles, where Louis XVI was, and demanded that the king and his family move to Paris and approve the Declaration. Louis was forced to agree - and the absolute monarchy ceased to exist in France. This was enshrined in the constitution adopted by the Constituent Assembly on September 3, 1791.

Having adopted the constitution, the Constituent Assembly dispersed. The laws were now approved by the Legislative Assembly. Executive power remained with the king, who became an official subject to the will of the people. Officials and priests were no longer appointed, but elected; The church's property was nationalized and sold off.

Symbols

"Freedom equality Brotherhood
". The formula “Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité,” which became the motto of the French Republic, first appeared on December 5, 1790, in an unspoken speech by Maximilian Robespierre, one of the most influential French revolutionaries, elected to the Estates General from the Third Estate in 1789.

Bastille. By July 14, the Bastille, the ancient royal prison, held only seven prisoners, so its assault was symbolic rather than pragmatic, although it was taken in the hope of finding weapons there. By decision of the municipality, the captured Bastille was destroyed to the ground.

Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. The Declaration of Human Rights stated that “men are born and are born free and equal in rights,” and declared that the human rights to liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression are natural and inalienable. In addition, it secured freedom of speech, press and religion and abolished classes and titles. It was included as a preamble in the first constitution (1791) and still forms the basis of French constitutional law, being a legally binding document.

Execution of the king and establishment of the republic

Wellcome Library

Chronology

Beginning of the war with Austria

Overthrow of Louis XVI

Start of the National Convention

Execution of Louis XVI

On August 27, 1791, in the Saxon castle of Pillnitz, the Prussian king Frederick William II and the Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II (brother of Louis XVI's wife Marie Antoinette), under pressure from aristocrats who emigrated from France, signed a document declaring their readiness to provide support to the king of France, including military support. . Girondins Girondins- a circle formed around deputies from the Gironde department, who advocated further reforms, but held relatively moderate views. In 1792, many of them opposed the execution of the king., supporters of the republic, took advantage of this to persuade the Legislative Assembly to war with Austria, which was declared on April 20, 1792. When French troops began to suffer defeats, the royal family was blamed.

Overthrow of the constitutional monarchy
On August 10, 1792, an uprising occurred, as a result of which Louis was overthrown and imprisoned on charges of betraying national interests. The Legislative Assembly resigned: now, in the absence of the king, it was necessary to write a new constitution. For these purposes, a new legislative body was assembled - the elected National Convention, which first of all proclaimed France a republic.

In December, a trial began that found the king guilty of malicious intent against the freedom of the nation and sentenced him to death.

Symbols

Marseillaise. March written by Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle (military engineer, part-time poet and composer) on April 25, 1792. In 1795, the La Marseillaise became the national anthem of France, losing this status under Napoleon and finally regaining it in 1879 under the Third Republic. By the second half of the 19th century it had become an international song of leftist resistance.

Jacobin dictatorship, Thermidorian coup and establishment of the Consulate

Alte Nationalgalerie, Berlin

Chronology

By decree of the Convention, the Extraordinary Criminal Tribunal was established, which in October will be renamed the Revolutionary Tribunal

Creation of the Committee of Public Safety

Expulsion of the Girondins from the Convention

Adoption of the Constitution of the Year I, or Montagnard Constitution

Decree on the introduction of a new calendar

Thermidorian coup

Execution of Robespierre and his supporters

Adoption of the Constitution of the III year. Formation of the Directory

Coup of the 18th Brumaire. Change of Directory by the Consulate

Despite the execution of the king, France continued to suffer setbacks in the war. Monarchist revolts broke out within the country. In March 1793, the Convention created the Revolutionary Tribunal, which was supposed to try “traitors, conspirators and counter-revolutionaries,” and after it the Committee of Public Safety, which was supposed to coordinate the country’s domestic and foreign policy.

Expulsion of the Girondins, Jacobin dictatorship

The Girondins gained great influence in the Committee of Public Safety. Many of them did not support the execution of the king and the introduction of emergency measures, some expressed outrage that Paris was imposing its will on the country. Montagnards who competed with them Montagnards- a relatively radical group that relied, in particular, on the urban poor. The name comes from the French word montagne - mountain: at meetings of the Legislative Assembly, members of this group usually took seats in the upper rows on the left side of the hall. They sent dissatisfied urban poor against the Girondins.

On May 31, 1793, a crowd gathered at the Convention demanding that the Girondins, who were accused of treason, be expelled from it. On June 2, the Girondins were placed under house arrest, and on October 31, many of them were guillotined by the verdict of the Revolutionary Tribunal.

The expulsion of the Girondins led to civil war. Despite the fact that France was at war with many European states at the same time, the constitution adopted in 1793 never came into force: until the onset of peace, the Convention introduced a “temporary revolutionary order of government.” Almost all power was now concentrated in his hands; The Convention sent commissioners with enormous powers to the localities. The Montagnards, who now had a huge advantage in the Convention, declared their opponents enemies of the people and sentenced them to guillotine. The Montagnards abolished all seigneurial duties and began to sell the lands of emigrants to peasants. In addition, they introduced a maximum to which prices for the most necessary goods, including bread, could rise; in order to avoid shortages, they had to forcefully take grain from the peasants.

By the end of 1793, most of the revolts were suppressed, and the situation at the front was turned around - the French army went on the offensive. Nevertheless, the number of victims of terror did not decrease. In September 1793, the Convention adopted the “Law on Suspects,” which ordered the detention of all people who were not accused of any crime, but who might have committed it. Since June 1794, interrogations of defendants and their right to lawyers, as well as mandatory interrogations of witnesses, were abolished at the Revolutionary Tribunal; for people found guilty by the tribunal, only one punishment was now provided - the death penalty.

Thermidorian coup 


In the spring of 1794, the Robespierrists began to talk about the need for a final wave of executions that would clear the Convention of opponents of the revolution. Almost all members of the Convention felt that their lives were under threat. On July 27, 1794 (or 9 Thermidor II according to the revolutionary calendar), the leader of the Montagnards, Maximilian Robespierre, and many of his supporters were arrested by members of the Convention, who feared for their lives. On July 28 they were executed.

After the coup, the terror quickly subsided, Jacobin Club Jacobin Club- a political club formed in 1789 and meeting in a Jacobin monastery. The official name is the Society of Friends of the Constitution. Many of its members were deputies of the Constituent and Legislative Assembly, and then the Convention; they played a big role in the ongoing policy of terror. was closed. The power of the Committee of Public Safety was reduced. Thermidorians Thermidorians- members of the Convention who supported the Thermidorian coup. A general amnesty was proclaimed, and many surviving Girondins returned to the Convention.

Directory

In August 1795, the Convention adopted a new constitution. In accordance with it, the legislative power was entrusted to the bicameral Legislative Corps, and the executive power to the Directory, which consisted of five directors, whom the Council of Elders (the upper house of the Legislative Corps) selected from a list submitted by the Council of Five Hundred (the lower house). Members of the Directory sought to stabilize the political and economic situation in France, but not very successfully: so, on September 4, 1797, the Directory, with the support of General Napoleon Bonaparte, extremely popular as a result of his military successes in Italy, declared martial law in Paris and annulled the results of the elections in The legislative body in many regions of France, since the royalists, who now constituted a fairly strong opposition, received a majority.

Coup of the 18th Brumaire

A new conspiracy has matured within the Directory itself. On November 9, 1799 (or 18 Brumaire of the VIII year of the Republic), two of the five directors, together with Bonaparte, carried out a coup, dispersing the Council of Five Hundred and the Council of Elders. The Directory was also deprived of power. Instead, a Consulate arose - a government consisting of three consuls. All three conspirators became them.

Symbols


Tricolor. In 1794, the tricolor became the official flag of France. To the white Bourbon color used on the flag before the Revolution, blue, the symbol of Paris, and red, the color of the National Guard, were added.

Republican calendar. On October 5, 1793, a new calendar was introduced into circulation, the first year of which was 1792. All the months in the calendar received new names: time had to start anew with the revolution. In 1806 the calendar was abolished.

Louvre Museum. Despite the fact that some parts of the Louvre were open to the public before the revolution, the palace became a full-fledged museum only in 1793.

Napoleon Bonaparte's coup and establishment of the empire

Wikimedia Commons

Chronology

Adoption of the VIII Constitution, which established the dictatorship of the first consul

Adoption of the Constitution of the X year, which made the powers of the first consul lifelong

Adoption of the XII Constitution, proclamation of Napoleon as Emperor

On December 25, 1799, a new constitution was adopted (Constitution VIII), created with the participation of Napoleon Bonaparte. A government came to power consisting of three consuls, named directly in the constitution, and elected for ten years (as a one-time exception, the third consul was then appointed for five years). Napoleon Bonaparte was named the first of the three consuls. Almost all real power was concentrated in his hands: only he had the right to propose new laws, appoint members of the State Council, ambassadors, ministers, senior military leaders and department prefects. The principles of separation of powers and popular sovereignty were effectively abolished.

In 1802, the Council of State put to a referendum the question of whether Bonaparte should be made consul for life. As a result, the consulate became lifelong, and the first consul received the right to appoint a successor.

In February 1804, a monarchist conspiracy was uncovered, the purpose of which was to assassinate Napoleon. After this, proposals began to arise to make Napoleon’s power hereditary in order to prevent this from happening in the future.

Establishment of the Empire
On May 18, 1804, the XII Constitution was adopted, approved by referendum. Administration of the republic was now transferred to the “Emperor of the French,” who was declared to be Napoleon Bonaparte. In December, the emperor was crowned by the Pope.

In 1804, the Civil Code, written with the participation of Napoleon, was adopted - a set of laws that regulated the life of French citizens. The Code asserted, in particular, the equality of all before the law, the inviolability of land property and secular marriage. Napoleon managed to normalize the French economy and finances: through constant recruitment into the army, both in the countryside and in the city, he managed to cope with the surplus of labor, which led to an increase in income. He cracked down harshly on the opposition and limited freedom of speech. The role of propaganda glorifying the invincibility of French weapons and the greatness of France became enormous.

Symbols

Eagle. In 1804, Napoleon introduced a new imperial coat of arms, which featured an eagle, a symbol of the Roman Empire that was present on the coats of arms of other great powers.

Bee. This symbol, dating back to the Merovingians, became Napoleon's personal emblem and replaced the lily flower in heraldic ornaments.

Napoleondor. Under Napoleon, a coin called Napoleon d’or (literally “golden Napoleon”) was circulated: it depicted Bonaparte’s profile.

Legion of Honor. An order established by Bonaparte on May 19, 1802, following the example of knightly orders. Belonging to the order testified to the official recognition of special services to France.

Bourbon Restoration and July Monarchy

Musée du Louvre

Chronology

Napoleon's invasion of Russia

Capture of Moscow

Battle of Leipzig ("Battle of the Nations")

Napoleon's abdication and the proclamation of Louis XVIII as king

Promulgation of the 1814 Charter

Napoleon's escape from Elba

Capture of Paris

Battle of Waterloo

Napoleon's abdication

Accession to the throne of Charles X

Signing of the July Ordinances

Mass unrest

Abdication of Charles X

The Duke of Orleans' oath of allegiance to the new Charter. From that day on he became King of the French Louis Philippe I

As a result of the Napoleonic Wars, the French Empire became the most powerful European power with a stable government system and finances in order. In 1806, Napoleon banned all European countries under his control from trading with England - as a result of the Industrial Revolution, England was crowding out French goods from markets. The so-called Continental Blockade damaged the English economy, but by 1811 the resulting economic crisis affected all of Europe, including France. The failures of French troops in the Iberian Peninsula began to destroy the image of the invincible French army. Finally, in October 1812, the French had to begin a retreat from Moscow, which they occupied in September.

Bourbon Restoration
On October 16-19, 1813, the Battle of Leipzig took place, in which Napoleon's army was defeated. In April 1814, Napoleon abdicated the throne and went into exile on the island of Elba, and Louis XVIII, the brother of the executed Louis XVI, ascended the throne.

Power returned to the Bourbon dynasty, but Louis XVIII was forced to grant the people a constitution - the so-called Charter of 1814, according to which each new law had to be approved by the two houses of parliament. A constitutional monarchy was re-established in France, but not all citizens and not even all adult men had the right to vote, but only those who had a certain level of income.

One Hundred Days of Napoleon

Taking advantage of the fact that Louis XVIII did not have popular support, Napoleon fled from Elba on February 26, 1815 and landed in France on March 1. A significant part of the army joined him, and in less than a month Napoleon occupied Paris without a fight. Attempts to negotiate peace with European countries failed, and he had to go to war again. On June 18, the French army was defeated by Anglo-Prussian troops at the Battle of Waterloo, on June 22, Napoleon again abdicated the throne, and on July 15, he surrendered to the British and went into exile on the island of St. Helena. Power returned to Louis XVIII.

July Revolution

In 1824, Louis XVIII died and his brother Charles X ascended the throne. The new monarch took a more conservative course. In the summer of 1829, while the Chambers of Deputies were not working, Charles appointed the extremely unpopular Prince Jules Auguste Armand Marie Polignac as Minister of Foreign Affairs. On July 25, 1830, the king signed ordinances (decrees that had the force of state laws) - on the temporary abolition of freedom of the press, the dissolution of the Chamber of Deputies, raising the electoral qualification (now only landowners could vote) and calling new elections to the lower house. Many newspapers were closed.

Charles X's ordinances caused widespread outrage. On July 27, riots began in Paris, and on July 29, the revolution ended, the main urban centers were occupied by the rebels. On August 2, Charles X abdicated the throne and left for England.

The new king of France was the Duke of Orleans, Louis Philippe, a representative of the younger branch of the Bourbons, who had a relatively liberal reputation. During his coronation, he swore allegiance to the Charter of 1830 drawn up by the deputies, and became not “King by the grace of God,” like his predecessors, but “King of the French.” The new constitution lowered not only the property but also the age limit for voters, deprived the king of legislative power, banned censorship and returned the tricolor flag.

Symbols

Lilies. After the overthrow of Napoleon, the coat of arms with an eagle was replaced by a coat of arms with three lilies, which symbolized royal power already in the Middle Ages.

"Freedom Leading the People". The famous painting by Eugene Delacroix, in the center of which Marianne (symbolizing the French Republic since 1792) with the French tricolor in her hand as the personification of the struggle for freedom, was inspired by the July Revolution of 1830.

Revolution of 1848 and establishment of the Second Republic

Musée du Petit-Palais, Paris

Chronology

Beginning of riots

Resignation of the Guizot government

Approval of a new constitution establishing a republican form of government

General presidential election, victory of Louis Bonaparte

By the end of the 1840s, the policies of Louis Philippe and his Prime Minister François Guizot, supporters of gradual and cautious development and opponents of universal suffrage, ceased to suit many: some demanded the expansion of suffrage, others demanded the return of the republic and the introduction of suffrage for all. There were poor harvests in 1846 and 1847. Hunger began. Since rallies were prohibited, in 1847 political banquets gained popularity, at which monarchical power was actively criticized and toasts were proclaimed to the republic. Political banquets were also banned in February.

Revolution of 1848
The ban on political banquets caused widespread unrest. On February 23, Prime Minister François Guizot resigned. A huge crowd awaited his exit from the Foreign Office. One of the soldiers guarding the ministry fired, most likely by mistake, and this started a bloody clash. After this, the Parisians built barricades and moved towards the royal palace. The king abdicated the throne and fled to England. A republic was proclaimed in France and universal suffrage was introduced for men over 21 years of age. Parliament (returning to the name "National Assembly") became unicameral again.

On December 10-11, 1848, the first general presidential elections were held, in which Napoleon's nephew, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, unexpectedly won, receiving about 75% of the votes. In the elections to the Legislative Assembly, Republicans won only 70 seats.

Symbols


Barricades. Barricades were erected on the streets of Paris during every revolution, but it was during the revolution of 1848 that almost all of Paris was barricaded. Parisian omnibuses launched in the late 1820s were also used as material for barricades.

Coup of 1851 and Second Empire

Chronology

Dissolution of the National Assembly

Promulgation of the new constitution. Changes made to its text on December 25 of the same year created the Second Empire

Proclamation of Napoleon III as Emperor of the French

The Republicans no longer enjoyed the confidence of either the president, parliament, or the people. In 1852, Louis Napoleon's presidential term was coming to an end. According to the constitution of 1848, he could be elected again only after the expiration of the next four-year term. In 1850 and 1851, supporters of Louis Napoleon several times demanded a revision of this article of the constitution, but the Legislative Assembly was against it.

Coup of 1851
On December 2, 1851, President Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, supported by the army, dissolved the National Assembly and arrested its opposition members. The unrest that began in Paris and in the provinces was harshly suppressed.

Under the leadership of Louis Napoleon, a new constitution was prepared, extending presidential powers for ten years. In addition, a bicameral parliament was returned, with members of its upper house appointed by the president for life.

Rebuilding the Empire
On November 7, 1852, the Senate appointed by Louis Napoleon proposed the restoration of the empire. As a result of a referendum, this decision was approved, and on December 2, 1852, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte became Emperor Napoleon III.

Until the 1860s, the powers of Parliament were reduced and freedom of the press was limited, but from the 1860s the course changed. In order to strengthen his authority, Napoleon started new wars. He planned to reverse the decisions of the Congress of Vienna and rebuild all of Europe, giving each nation its own state.

Proclamation of the Republic
On September 4, France was again proclaimed a republic. A provisional government was chosen, headed by Adolphe Thiers.

On September 19, the Germans began the siege of Paris. There was famine in the city and the situation worsened. In February 1871, elections to the National Assembly were held, in which the monarchists received a majority. Adolphe Thiers became the head of government. On February 26, the government was forced to sign a preliminary peace treaty, which was followed by a German parade on the Champs-Elysees, which many townspeople perceived as treason.

In March, the government, which had no funds, refused to pay the salaries of the National Guard and tried to disarm it.

Paris Commune

On March 18, 1871, an uprising broke out in Paris, as a result of which a group of radical left politicians came to power. On March 26, they held elections for the Paris Commune, the council of the city of Paris. The government led by Thiers fled to Versailles. But the power of the commune did not last long: on May 21, government troops went on the offensive. By May 28, the uprising was brutally suppressed—the week of fighting between the troops and the Communards was called “Bloody Week.”

After the fall of the commune, the position of the monarchists again strengthened, but since they all supported different dynasties, in the end the republic was preserved. In 1875, Constitutional laws were adopted that established the post of President and Parliament, elected on the basis of universal male suffrage. The Third Republic lasted until 1940.

Since then, the form of government in France has remained republican, with executive power passing from one president to another through elections.

Symbols

Red flag. The traditional republican flag was the French tricolor, but members of the commune, among whom there were many socialists, preferred a single color red. The attributes of the Paris Commune - one of the key events for the formation of communist ideology - were also adopted by Russian revolutionaries.

Vendôme Column. One of the important symbolic gestures of the Paris Commune was the demolition of the Vendôme Column, erected in honor of Napoleon's victory at Austerlitz. In 1875, the column was installed again.

Sacré-Coeur. The neo-Byzantine style basilica was founded in 1875 in memory of the victims of the Franco-Prussian War and became one of the important symbols of the Third Republic.

The editors thank Dmitry Bovykin for his assistance in working on the material. 

§ 40. French Revolution of the late 18th century.

Causes and beginning of the revolution.

In 1789, the Great French Revolution began. She had deep reasons. The third estate (citizens and peasants) in France was politically powerless, although it made up the majority of the country's population. In the pre-revolutionary period, the situation of the peasants worsened. Many of them were forced to leave their homes and go to the city. 1788 was a lean year. A wave of popular uprisings swept the provinces. At the same time, an acute financial crisis broke out in the country. King Louis XVI was forced to agree to a union of the Estates General, which had not met for 150 years. Representatives of the three classes gathered at Versailles. Deputies from the nobility and clergy sought to limit the Estates General to the functions of an advisory body. Deputies of the Third Estate insisted on expanding the rights of the Estates General, seeking their transformation into the highest legislative body.

On June 17, 1789, the meeting of deputies of the third estate proclaimed itself National Assembly. On July 9, the National Assembly declared itself Constituent Assembly - the highest representative and legislative body of the French people. The assembly was supposed to develop basic laws.

The king and supporters of absolutism did not want to put up with these decisions. Troops were gathered in Paris and Versailles. This caused a wave of indignation in Paris. On July 14, 1789, Parisians captured the royal prison, the Bastille, a symbol of absolutism. In provincial cities, old government bodies were abolished and elected municipalities were created. A wave of peasant pogroms of castles, arson of estates, and division of landowners' lands swept across France. The Constituent Assembly in August adopted a decree on the complete destruction of the feudal regime. Personal duties of peasants and church tithes were abolished. Other feudal obligations were subject to ransom.

Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen.

On August 26, 1789, the most important document of the revolution was adopted - the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. It consisted of 17 articles. The first of them said that people are born free and remain so throughout their lives; they are also equal in rights. This thesis was a challenge to the absolutist idea of ​​the divine origin of the king's power. The Declaration proclaimed freedom of personality, conscience, speech, the right to resist oppression, and the sacred right of private property.

Decisions of the Constituent Assembly.

The situation in Paris continued to remain tense, and people's discontent grew. On October 5-6, 1789, huge crowds of Parisians marched on Versailles. They forced the king and the Constituent Assembly to move to Paris.

The Constituent Assembly, at the proposal of Talleyrand, a former bishop, declared church lands to be national property and put them on sale. This measure was supposed to undermine the power of the church and at the same time help resolve the financial crisis in the country. The Constituent Assembly abolished all the old class divisions.

In June 1791, King Louis XVI tried to flee abroad, but was detained. The king's flight was considered treason. The idea of ​​monarchism was dealt a serious blow. However, moderate deputies hastened to complete work on creating a constitution that established constitutional monarchy.

The beginning of revolutionary wars,

On the basis of the Constitution of 1791, a Legislative Assembly was elected, which began its work on October 1, 1791. It was dominated by supporters of a constitutional monarchy. The opposition to them was Girondins. They stood for the republic. There was also a group in the Legislative Assembly far left headed by M. Robespierre.

In 1792, the economic situation in the country deteriorated sharply. In Paris and some other cities, major protests took place due to need and hunger. The aristocrats who fled the country created a center of counter-revolutionary emigration in Germany. The governments of European powers were preparing armed intervention against France. On April 20, 1792, Louis XVI and the Legislative Assembly declared war on Austria. The military operations began unsuccessfully for France. Defeats by Austria and Prussia sparked a popular movement. Thousands of volunteers flocked to Paris. The news of the interventionists' intention to restore the king's rights sparked an uprising on August 10, 1792. Louis

XVI was overthrown.

Proclamationrepublics.

On August 20, 1792, the National convention. For the first time, he was elected by universal suffrage, in which only men participated. On September 21, the Convention proclaimed a republic. Before this, a wave of reprisals against suspected sympathizers of the old regime swept across France.

By the spring of 1793, the question of land again arose. In some areas, unauthorized seizure of land by peasants began. The Convention, by a special decree, authorized the sale of lands of emigrants and royal lands in small plots.

The issue of punishing Louis XVI was also decided at the Convention and outside it. Opinions on this issue were sharply divided: the majority of Girondins were against the execution of the king, but Jacobins(supporters of radical measures united within the Jacobin Club) and some of the Girondins were in favor of execution. On January 21, 1793, Louis XVI was executed. In October of the same year he was executed

the queen.

Jacobin dictatorship.

In the most difficult time for the country and in June 1793, the Jacobins came to power. A decree was adopted that finally returned all communal lands to the peasants, and a decree abolishing all feudal duties and taxes.

In two weeks, the Jacobins approved a new Constitution, which was based on the principles of freedom, equality and popular sovereignty. The highest legislative power belonged to the Legislative Assembly, elected for a term of 1 year. The highest executive power was exercised by the Executive Council

of 24 people.

The political situation in the country in the summer of 1793 continued to deteriorate. Interventionist armies were advancing, posing a threat to Paris. On July 13, the Jacobin Jean Paul Marat, popular among Parisians, was killed. Products became more expensive and became unavailable to

poor people, the supply of food to the cities was reduced, there was not enough bread and basic food. Back in April)