Lexical means of creating subtext in E. Hemingway’s short prose

Iceberg theory concluding the point is that you don’t have to describe everything you know about what happened in the novel, the reader should see only a small part, just the tip of the iceberg, and from this tip understand everything that is hidden from the reader. This is one of the main letters. Hem's principles: reticence, understatement, withdrawal into subtext: inadequacy produces a much greater impression than the most similar ones. descriptions and explanations.

Artist The style of the novel “The Old Man and the Sea” is characterized by extraordinary restraint, turning into laconicism. Khem writes simply, but behind this simplicity lies complex content, a large world of thoughts and feelings, as if carried into the subtext. According to Hem., a writer must know well what he is writing about. In this case, he “can omit much of what he knows, and, if he writes truthfully, the reader will sense. everything omitted is as strong as if the writer had said it.” So Hem. substantiates the “iceberg theory”, req. from the writer the ability to choose. the most important, character. events, words and details. “The majesty of the iceberg’s movement is that it rises only one-eighth above the surface of the water. A writer who omits a lot out of ignorance simply leaves empty spaces.”

This is the ability to convey a wealth of feelings, tragic, social and psychological. rich content through an apparently ordinary fact is insignificant. the conversation is especially felt in Hemingway’s short stories “Cat in the Rain”, “White Elephants”, “A Canary as a Gift”.

In other works and in the novels “A Farewell to Arms!”, “To Have and to Have Not,” “For Whom the Bell Tolls,” Khem depicts his heroes in moments of the most difficult trials, in moments of the highest. physical stress and spirits. strength This leads to energetic development of the plot, to saturation with action, to the identification of the heroic in the characters of people.

Especially means. meaning. the load is borne in Hemingway's work by the dialogue of the action. persons Here each word serves not only as an expression of direct thought, but as a hint. and to another, hidden, secret meaning, which can only be achieved with care. selection and precise use of words. Enters the writer and internal monologue. This technique helped. reveal the true attitude of the heroes to the events. For example, Henry, at their first meetings, convinces Catherine that he loves her, and is immediately given his inner feelings. monologue: “I knew that I didn’t love Katherine Barkley, and not my own. love her. It was a game like bridge, but there were words instead of cards. Like in bridge, you had to pretend that you were playing for money or something else. Not a word was said about what the game was about. But I didn't care." It is characteristic that this monologue was a mistake: Henry acted. fell deeply in love with Katherine.

Composite novel "A Farewell to Arms!" excellent well-known fragmentation. The author does not go into detailed life history of the characters. They immediately ledge. before us as people acting, living. present. As for their past, it is mentioned only occasionally. or not mentioned at all. Also undefined. and their future. Characters often appear out of nowhere, and we don't know what their end will be.

In the novel of meetings. spare, but unusually relief landscape. sketches. They highlight the semantic direction of the book. This function, for example, is performed by a continuous painting. rains, accompanying the defeat at Caporetto, and the wild massacre after the defeat, and Henry’s flight to Switzerland. This landscape captures the drama of the events and creates a mood of fatigue and desperation.

17. Existentialism in literature (interpretation of the philosophy of Martin Heidegger and Karl Jaspers by French writers J.-P. Sartre and A. Camus).

European fiction after the Second World War was largely painted in existentialist colors. Outstanding French existentialist writers, Nobel Prize winners, Albert Camus (1913-1960) and Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980) pose problems of human existence, such as life, death, melancholy, anxiety, sadness, sadness, etc. in the story “The Stranger” (1942) by A. Camus, the theme of the absurdity of life is revealed in the stream of consciousness of the internally devastated hero. In the novel “The Plague” (1947), in an allusive form (from Lat. allusio - joke, hint) he conveys his concern about the continuing in the 20th century. the dangers of fascism, proves that the highest human courage is manifested in the fight against the meaninglessness of existence. In the philosophical book “The Myth of Sisyphus” (1942), Camus asserts the freedom of human moral choice. Under the influence of the ideas of E. Husserl and M. Heidegger, Sartre built a “phenomenological ontology”, which is based on the opposition of objectivity and subjectivity, freedom and necessity. The main themes of his artistic works are loneliness, the problem of life and death, the problem of chance and fate, fear and hope, the absurdity of life: parable plays “Flies” (1943), “The Devil and the Lord God” (1951), etc. Great influence on The outstanding German philosopher influenced world culture of the 20th century Martin Heidegger(1889-1976), who is one of the founders of German existentialism. He developed the doctrine of being (“fundamental ontology”), which is based on the opposition of true existence (existence) and the world of everyday life. In the work “Time and Being” (1927), Heidegger poses the “question of being” as the true form of human existence. In the famous “Letter on Humanism” (1947), Heidegger develops ideas about language as the “house of being.” Heidegger's legacy includes over 100 thousand handwritten pages of archives, which are to be published in 100 volumes. The bibliography of literature about Heidegger numbers tens of thousands of publications. Existentialism(from Late Latin exsistentia - existence), or philosophy of existence, in the intellectual culture of the 20th century fulfilled the same role that it played in the culture of the 18th - 19th centuries. classical German philosophy It defined the fundamental values ​​and theoretical horizon of the search for the foundations of being both in philosophy, literature and partly in music. As an independent philosophical movement, existentialism arose at the beginning of the 20th century in Russia, after the First World War in Germany, during the Second World War in France, and after the war in other countries. Its ideological origins are found in the teachings of Kierkegaard, the “philosophy of life” and phenomenology. Experts distinguish between religious existentialism (K. Jaspers, G. Marcel, N.A. Berdyaev, L. Shestov, M. Buber) and atheistic (M. Heidegger, J.-P. Sartre, A. Camus). The central concept - existence (human existence) manifests itself through care, fear, determination, conscience in “borderline situations” (struggle, suffering, death). By comprehending the essence of his existence, a person gains true freedom, which consists in choosing oneself and consciously accepting responsibility for everything that happens in the world. In the second half of the 20th century, European literature was not limited to one or two leading movements. It becomes more diverse in thematic and genre terms: realistic novel, psychological drama, romance, irony, detective story, fantasy, etc. It was at this time that mass culture, which will be discussed separately, actively declared itself, and the aesthetics of postmodernism was formed. Postmodernism, which fundamentally rejects any and all “isms”, be it rationalism or existentialism, puts forward stylistic pluralism, “open art”, which freely interacts with all old and new styles, as its main slogan.

18. The problem of moral choice in the works of Jean-Paul Sartre (“ Wall", "Roads of Freedom" - have an idea; parable play “Flies”, etc.).

The starting point of ontological reflections by J.-P. Sartre is the conviction of the existence of a world of things different from man and irreducible to his thought, with which, however, man is so inextricably linked that it should be defined as being in the world. As for consciousness, Sartre defines it as being for oneself. Consciousness is spontaneous, active, the world of things is inert. The world of things can be defined as being in itself. According to Sartre, no characteristic for itself can be a characteristic in itself. According to this logic, if consciousness is changeable and active, then things that are objects of consciousness (“phenomena”) must be inert and motionless; if consciousness is internally contradictory, then things must be pure positivity, absolute identity with themselves. About the world of things we can only say the following: existence exists. Being is in itself. Being is what it is. We cannot say anything about the development of the world, changing states. We only capture the present, frozen moment.

To the question of whether the existence of phenomena and the existence of consciousness was created by God, Sartre gives a negative answer. He denies the hypothesis of divine creation as a “prejudice of creationism,” which gives his existentialism an atheistic character. Sartre himself, however, emphasizes that his teaching is fundamentally different from all known forms of atheism, and the main difference is that for him the question of the existence or non-existence of God remains open. “Existentialism,” says Sartre, “is not the kind of atheism that spends all its energy trying to prove that God does not exist. On the contrary, he states that even if God existed, it would not change anything.” Considering the question of the possible relationship of God to phenomena (things), Sartre proceeds from the identification of the existence of phenomena with pure objectivity. It is precisely because of this opposition that God, even if he exists, not only cannot create phenomena, but is not able to have ideas about them.

Sartre’s philosophical concept develops on the basis of the absolute opposition and mutual exclusion of the concepts: “objectivity” and “subjectivity”, “necessity” and “freedom”. Sartre sees the source of these contradictions not in the specific content of the forces of social existence, but in the general forms of this existence (material properties of objects, collective and socialized forms of existence and consciousness of people, industrialization, technical equipment of modern life, and so on). The freedom of the individual as a bearer of restless subjectivity can only be a “decompression of being”, the formation in it of a “crack”, “hole”, nothingness. Sartre understands the individual of modern society as an alienated being, elevating this specific state to the metaphysical status of human existence in general. In Sartre, alienated forms of human existence acquire the universal significance of cosmic horror, in which individuality is standardized and detached from historical independence, subordinated to mass, collective forms of life, organizations, the state, spontaneous economic forces, tied to them also by its slave consciousness, where the place of independent critical thinking is occupied by socially compulsory standards and illusions, the demands of public opinion, and where even the objective reason of science appears to be a force separated from man and hostile to him. A person alienated from himself, doomed to an inauthentic existence, is not in harmony with the things of nature - they are deaf to him, pressing on him with their viscous and solidly motionless presence, and among them only a society of “scum” can feel well settled, but a person feels “nausea”. In contrast to all general “objective” and mediated things and relationships that give rise to individual productive forces, Sartre affirms special, immediate, natural and integral human relationships, on the implementation of which the true content of humanity depends.

In Sartre’s mythologizing utopian thinking, the rejection of the reality of modern society and its culture still comes to the fore, expressing a strong stream of modern social criticism. To live in this society, according to Sartre, as a “self-satisfied consciousness” lives in it, is possible only by renouncing oneself, from personal authenticity, from “decisions” and “choices,” shifting the latter to someone else’s anonymous responsibility - to the state, the nation , race, family, other people. But this refusal is a responsible act of the individual, for a person has free will.

Man is declared by Sartre to be the bearer of absolute freedom. However, this thesis is accompanied by so many “clarifications” directed against anarchy that the result of Sartre’s reasoning is not freedom, but responsibility and guilt. He formulates the “paradox of freedom”: freedom exists only in a situation, and a situation exists only through freedom. Human reality encounters resistance and obstacles everywhere that it has created.

Free choice is the destiny of every person. Man, according to Sartre, is doomed to freedom. He chooses inevitably even when he does not want to choose. In behavioral and moral choice, according to Sartre, it is not the clear reflexive consciousness of a person that participates, but certain pre-reflective layers of his inner world. A person chooses not with his mind, but with the integrity of his “I”, and his choice is realized in action. In his work “Existentialism is Humanism,” Sartre gives the example of a young man who does not know whether to go to defend his homeland from the invaders or stay with his mother, for whom he is the only support. He oscillates between the values ​​of direct service to a loved one and military labor for a common cause, of which it is unknown whether this work will be beneficial. Sartre emphasizes that no written morality can provide an answer here. The same Christianity calls us to love our neighbor, but who is the “neighbor” in this case - the soldiers fighting for the liberation of their homeland, or the mother? Of course, a young man can turn to someone for advice. For example, to a priest. But he will receive an answer depending on which priest he goes to. If he goes to the priest who is fighting in the ranks of the Resistance, he will receive one answer, and if he goes to the collaborator priest, then a completely different one. So practically, when choosing an adviser, he still makes the choice himself.

Until we act, we don't know what we really are. Only behavior tells a person about his true qualities. Even the feelings that a person tries to refer to when making a choice are a product of the action that we perform. In this sense, Sartre ignores the problem of motives, the internal state of the soul. He considers it unimportant, sharing a pragmatic view of morality, according to which we judge a person by the consequences of his actions, and not by his intentions.

A person is completely free to choose, but he is fully responsible for his choice. Of course, he is responsible for it not to society, not to higher powers that do not exist, but only to himself. He must know that he will personally pay for every action he takes. The lowest people are those who believe that they were forced into this or that behavior. Sartre despises them.

Man’s ability to create himself and the world of other people, to choose the image of the future world is a consequence of the fundamental characteristic of human existence - his freedom. Man is freedom. Existentialists emphasize that a person is free completely regardless of the real possibilities of achieving his goals. Human freedom is preserved in any environment and is expressed in the ability to choose and make choices. This is not about choosing opportunities for action, but about expressing one’s attitude to a given situation. Thus, freedom in existentialism is, first of all, freedom of consciousness, freedom to choose the spiritual and moral position of the individual.

Sartre manages to prove the absence of fatal predetermination of human action, the ability of man to fight obstacles and overcome them through his actions. One can agree with Sartre when he says that it depends on the free decision of a person whether he will obey the prohibitions established by the German fascists in occupied Paris, or whether he will act contrary to them. However, the mortal danger associated with the last decision testifies that freedom does not itself impose obstacles to its action, but meets them as objectively given. Taking into account such factors refutes the thesis of absolute human freedom.

To some extent, this is realized by Sartre himself, which is reflected in the new “clarification”, and in fact, limitation of the concept of freedom: “The formula “to be free” does not mean “to achieve what you wanted,” but means “to be determined to want (to choose ) yourself." In other words, success is completely unimportant to freedom.” In light of the above, real goal-setting human activity presupposes three meanings of freedom:

1) it means the ability to independently choose the goals of action;

2) act to achieve goals;

3) achieve your goals;

4) revealing one’s will.

Ignoring at least one of these aspects leads to a serious limitation or even denial of freedom. The “clarification” of the concept of freedom introduced by Sartre, reducing it to the autonomy of choice, closes it within the framework of consciousness, changing reality only in one’s thoughts. Such freedom does not make any changes in the world around us and is not a real transcendence of the situation. But only this identification of freedom with the autonomy of choice allowed Sartre to argue that a person is always free, and that from the point of view of freedom, for him there is no difference between diametrically opposed situations, for example: remaining persistent or betraying a friend and beliefs. Sartre declared that even in prison a person does not lose freedom, that even torture does not deprive us of freedom.

Sartre understands the individual of modern society as an alienated being, elevating this specific state to the metaphysical status of human existence in general. In Sartre, alienated forms of human existence acquire the universal significance of cosmic horror, in which individuality is standardized and detached from historical independence, subordinated to mass, collective forms of life, organizations, the state, spontaneous economic forces, tied to them also by its slave consciousness, where the place of independent critical thinking is occupied by socially compulsory standards and illusions, the demands of public opinion, and where even the objective reason of science appears to be a force separated from man and hostile to him. A person alienated from himself, doomed to an inauthentic existence, is not in harmony with the things of nature - they are deaf to him, pressing on him with their viscous and solidly motionless presence, and among them only a society of “scum” can feel well settled, while man experiencing "nausea". In contrast to any general “objective” and mediated by things relations that give rise to individual productive forces, Sartre affirms special, immediate, natural and integral human relations, on the implementation of which the true content of humanity depends.

The world, according to Sartre, is a “universal not-that,” a complete absence of anything that corresponds to human expectations, images, and concepts. To be real means to be alien to consciousness, completely random, and, in the extreme, absurd. Consciousness, insofar as it tries to think about the world, is illusory from beginning to end. There is an insurmountable gap between the world and human consciousness.

Consciousness is a living contradiction, an overflow, “decompression of being,” emptiness. But this is an emptiness filled with colors and meanings. The way of existence of consciousness is neantization: the denial of any certainty from the outside, of any determination, it turns out that a person does not have a stable core, but there is a thirst for the fullness of existence.

Man is free to create his own essence, because, as we have already noted, he was initially given to himself only as existence. He is not complete like a thing, and he himself makes of himself what he is: honest or scoundrel, coward or hero. In our inner world, Sartre believes, we do not depend either on society, or on other people, or on moral and religious institutions, or even on our own past. This independence is the result of the consciousness's ability to deny everything and free itself from all external influence.

Consciousness is ecstatic, it strives beyond the limits of any existing state. Each act of choice occurs “in emptiness”, from scratch, as if we were not influenced by the education we received, nor by value systems, nor by the pressure of circumstances, nor by pain, nor by threats. Both every external and every internal result is subject to neantization. The past is dead, it does not define the present, which is always a choice.

Freedom is not some kind of being, it is the being of a person, i.e. his nothingness of being. If we first understood man as completeness, it would be absurd to look in him then for psychic moments or areas where he would be free. A person cannot be either free or a slave - he is completely and always free or he is not.

In any situation a person can say no. These words had a special resonance in France in the forties, since they were written during the fascist occupation, and Sartre actively participated in the Resistance movement.

19. The problem of moral choice in the works of Albert Camus (parable novel “The Plague”).

In the novel “The Plague” (1947), Albert Camus’s pessimism towards an absurd world is combined with moral optimism. The concept of man in this work by Camus is full of stoicism: the purpose of man is to suffer, fight and endure. The novel was created in 1941 - 1943 and was published in 1947 (beginning of the text: “Interesting events taken into account in the plot of this chronicle took place in 194 ... in Oran”). In the chronotope of the work, it is much more important to indicate the historical time: the forties of the 20th century - the time of the greatest tragedy of the time - the time of the Second World War. According to Camus himself, the “explicit content” of “The Plague” is the struggle of the European Resistance against Nazism.” “With the help of the plague, I want to convey the atmosphere of suffocation in which we toiled, the atmosphere of threat and exile in which we lived. However, I have extended the meaning of this image to being in general.” The plague is another manifestation of the absurdity of the world, a symbol of life. Therefore, the main thing in the novel is the interpretation of timeless philosophical problems of existence, with which its second, deep plan is connected. The philosophical meaning was realized in the form of a parable novel. The plot of the novel is a chronicle of the plague year in Oran. The author of this chronicle is the doctor Bernard Rieux, who, by virtue of his profession, finds himself at the center of events. The doctor wants to leave a memory of the injustice and violence committed against the plague-stricken. He proclaims: “People deserve admiration rather than contempt.” The narrator strives to recreate as fully as possible what he saw and heard, referring to documents, records, testimonies of Orans, trying to adhere to the tone of an impartial witness. The chronicle traces the origin and development of this epidemic depending on the seasons and the spread of the disease. Death awaits everyone without exception, and the most important thing for the author is the behavior of people in a “borderline situation.” The plague attacks unexpectedly, no one expected it. When rats die en masse in the city, no one takes these harbingers of a plague epidemic seriously. “How could they believe in a plague that immediately crossed out the future?.. They considered themselves free, but no one will be free as long as trouble exists.” Three narrative plans in the multi-level structure of the meanings of “The Plague” (according to Yu. Kovbasenko): 1. a realistic description of the struggle of the Oranians with a terrible disease (although historically there was no such epidemic in Oran, here the author enters the sphere of timeless generalization); 2. an allegorical depiction of the Resistance movement against the “brown plague”, against fascism and Nazism (Camus himself was also a participant in the Resistance Movement); 3. “artistic illustration” of important provisions of the philosophy of existentialism, first of all, the need for a person to morally choose his own path in a “borderline situation.” It is free choice, according to Camus, that creates personality. “To exist is to choose yourself.” The semantic diversity makes this work close to a myth, a parable, and at the same time it is a warning novel, which makes it a timeless, universal phenomenon. Literary critic D. Nalivaiko characterizes Camus’s novel “The Plague” as follows: “By its genre nature, this work of Camus is a parable novel, it belongs to a genre widespread in modern intellectual prose, and is characterized by universality and ambiguity of content. In addition, “The Plague” is one of the greatest phenomena in this genre, along with “The Trial” and “The Castle” by Kafka, “The Pit” by Platonov, “Lord of the Flies” by Golding, etc.” Using stylization as a chronicle genre, Albert Camus emphasizes the reader's attention on the objectivity of what is depicted, selecting special linguistic means for this - each word is distinguished by the amazing accuracy of its lexical meaning, even if it is used in a figurative sense; the story has almost no expressive-emotional coloring, the presentation of events and comments are very restrained, even somewhat detached, as in epic poems. The history of the fight against the plague is recorded almost in protocol. Camus, in addition to the point of view of the main narrator, also introduces a vision of the plague and its influence on Oran and the Oranians and other characters in the work (Tarrou’s diary, Father Panelu’s sermons, dialogues of the characters, a description of their thoughts and aspirations), due to which a multifaceted and truthful picture of the tragedy is formed. Dr. Rieux was one of the first to realize the criticality of the situation and understand what was happening in Oran. Numerous opinions of the narrator and his friends, scattered throughout the text of the novel, constantly remind us of the “double vision of things.” Already in the epigraph, Camus focused attention on the combination of a fictional plot about the blockade of plague-ridden Oran with the real historical situation in Europe, affected by the “brown plague” bacilli (the Hitler epidemic was metaphorically defined in this way, so the very title of the work was perceived as an allusion to the Nazi occupation). The theme of conclusion becomes one of the leading ones in the work. For example, the isolation of plague patients in hospitals and quarantine camps is associated with Gestapo prisons and concentration camps; the procedure for mass burial of the dead is associated with mass executions and burning of people in crematoria. Camus himself noted: “The proof of this is that the enemy, not directly named in the novel, was identified by everyone: in all countries of Europe. "The Plague is more than a chronicle of resistance." By “something bigger,” Camus probably meant an understanding of the Oran epidemic as a symbolic generalization of numerous catastrophes in recent history - from totalitarian regimes in the USSR, Italy, Spain, Hungary, up to modern political dictatorships, interethnic conflicts, local wars, etc. n. The entire history of mankind appears as a series of “collective disasters” that claimed millions of human lives, which is why the writer chose the image of a plague, a disease, a black companion of humanity. In the text of the novel, the plague grows into a symbol of metaphysical Evil, a terrible destructive force that threatens human life, and the author considers the problems of the work from the angle of the main existentialist issues - the search for spiritual support in an absurd world, a person’s experience of a “borderline situation”, moral choice and responsibility for it and etc. “Factographic” and “symbolic” projections are constantly superimposed on each other in the text, thanks to which Oran and the Orans turn into a micromodel of humanity in tragic historical events from the point of view of philosophy, ethics and aesthetics of existentialism. Turning to the image of the plague as a universal human catastrophe, Camus creates a collective portrait of the Oranians, detailing it with specific image-types, such as Rieux, Cottard, Panelu, Rambert, Grand, Tarrou and others. It is Dr. Rieux who is most open to solving existential questions. He finds himself in the very epicenter of the epidemic, but not only the Hippocratic Oath obliges him to selflessly fight the plague. He strives, first of all, to protect himself as a person, an honest person who simply does his job, his duty. Jean Tarrou is the closest associate and friend of the doctor Rieux. One of the most interesting and controversial images of the novel. A courageous lover of life, a man with an inner sense of freedom and human dignity, an extraordinary personality, “the best among the best,” Tarrou has been torn all his life by the contradiction between morality and politics. The son of an assistant prosecutor, at the age of 17 he realized that both government officials and fighters for the liberation of humanity (i.e., revolutionaries) are unwitting killers of people, “living people.” His life motto was the belief that one must always “take the side of the victims in order to somehow limit the scope of the disaster.” It was he who initiated the creation of sanitary squads in plague-plagued Oran. Despite the high morality of the hero, the author allows the plague to kill Tarra, and the main reason is that, firstly, death always takes the best (according to the old asthmatic), and secondly, he carried in his heart extreme fatigue from the fight, which sat in it itself. “Confessing” to Dr. Rieux, Tarrou said that since the age of 17 he had been “plagued,” infected with the contradictions of the world, which at all costs strives to kill a person and at the same time justify himself. Camus also refers to “plaguedness” as the state of an observer who can fight, but does not; and the state of society which demands the death sentence; and ignorance and lies, for evil is their consequence. Living in an illusion is also being “plagued” when death is sown around. Even if you unwittingly contribute to someone's death, according to Camus, you are "plagued." The heroes of the novel are faced with a problem: how to live in an absurd world where evil reigns; how to fulfill the Christian commandment “Thou shalt not kill!” if innocent children die without guilt: how to “not be anyone’s enemy”, “is it possible to become a saint without God”, is it possible to profit from the grief and death of others, how to preserve a person within oneself. Camus's heroes make their choices differently. The path of journalist Raymond Rambert, a Parisian and “stranger” in Oran, is not an easy one. At first he tries to convince himself that the affairs of the Oranians do not concern him, that his main purpose is to love a woman, without whom he cannot imagine his life. In search of ways to leave the plague-ridden Oran, Rambert comes to the sanitary squad, but, having the opportunity to smuggle out of the city, Rambert deliberately remains with the fighters against the plague. The value of his own individual happiness pales against the background of the Oran tragedy. Having passed the test of the plague, he realized that against the backdrop of general grief he could not be happy as before. The plague also predetermined the ideological shifts of Father Panelu. First, he explains the plague as a “scourge of God,” as God’s punishment to people for their sins. His first sermon is full of irreconcilable Christian anger, he speaks from a high pulpit, for a moment feeling like he is in the place of God. His words frighten people and sow fear in their souls. Father Panelu calls on you to humbly accept trouble, not relying on medicine or doctors, but to completely trust in the will of God. However, the idea of ​​punishment in the worldview of Father Panelu gives a crack when he, accepting hundreds of deaths with cold stability, being one of the most active members of the sanitary squad, witnesses the death of an innocent boy, the son of investigator Otho. Father Panlu asks God to save this child, but the child dies. And then the father doubts the justice and omnipotence of God. His second speech is more merciful and humane; he almost reached the point of heresy, characterizing the scale of the evil brought by the plague. But at the same time, he cannot renounce his faith. The author gives Father Panel to the plague because he did not reach an agreement with himself in understanding the unity of love for the Lord and for an individual living person. He chose God and died with a crucifix in his hands, courageously enduring suffering. An interesting example is the protest against the epidemic of absurdity and evil in the soul of a “little man,” a minor employee of the mayor’s office, Joseph Gran. For Camus, it embodied two very important themes - creativity and love, although both acquire an absurd character. The wife left the poor loser many years ago, the only phrase of his novel about the Amazon of the Bois de Boulogne is simply “his work” for him, his salvation, and not a real work of art. However, in the sanitary squad he became the “administrative heart”, keeping terrible statistics on the plague. One can consider these dry and strict notes to be the true masterpiece of Gran, who found the strength to provide such powerful resistance to the plague, overcoming the disease and surviving, despite the fact that by all indicators it was he who should have died, and not the strong men Tarrou and Panelu. It is important that Camus’s heroes make their choices consciously. The idea of ​​moral choice is the core of each of the characters in the novel. The writer is less interested in biographical facts and character traits of his heroes. Camus's main focus is on their existential credo. According to logic, according to the laws of existence, man is completely unable to defeat the plague and evil. In the end, Dr. Rieux's arguments about the immortality of the plague bacillus are more of a warning, a call to be vigilant, to never forget that danger is always nearby. And no matter how omnipotent the plague, the world’s Evil, is, the struggle of Rie and his friends does not look empty, and this shows the inexhaustible humanism of Albert Camus, which brought his best existential novel into the ranks of relevant works of our time. The “tragic humanism” of the rebellion of Camus’s heroes lies in the fact that, even realizing the limitations of their capabilities in the fight against evil, they do not lay down their arms. According to researcher S. Velikovsky, “The Plague” is, first of all, a book about those who resist, and not about those who surrender, a book about the meaning of existence, which is found among the chaos of life.

The problem of moral choice

Life - Plague - Death

Everyone faces a problem: fight or give up?

The inhabitants of Oran are waiting, filled with fear, waiting for death or a miracle

Those who have not forgotten how to think make a choice

Cottard - chooses between love for himself, for money and between the opportunity to be with people in difficult trials; carries a criminal element within itself, approves of the plague as a means of its safety and profit.

The problem of freedom in the “absurd” world in fiction (the story “Stranger” (“Stranger”), the play “Caligula”, the parable novel “ Plague ") and philosophical and journalistic (essays "The Myth of Sisyphus", "The Rebel Man") works of Albert Camus.

According to Camus, absurdity arises from the contradiction between the purposeful nature of human activity and the sense of zero significance of its final result.

"Stranger"" - these are the notes of an ill-fated murderer awaiting execution after trial. In the person of the main character, we first of all see a “stranger”, an “outsider” person. And all because he refuses to “play the game of others.” He prefers to say whatever he thinks, even if it goes against his interests. He avoids disguise, and now society feels threatened. Meursault refuses to live like everyone else, i.e. live “according to fashion catalogues”. The clash of a “just a person” with a society that forcibly “catalogues” everyone, places everyone within the framework of “rules”, established norms, generally accepted views, becomes open and irreconcilable in the second part of the novel. Meursault went beyond this framework - he is tried and condemned. And he is not being tried for killing a person... society is surprised that the “defendant” does not even try to justify himself, he does not behave “according to the rules,” i.e. not according to the rules that were previously the same for everyone... Meursault happily drinks coffee at his mother’s funeral, moreover, he didn’t even know exactly when she died; “Mom died today. Or maybe yesterday - I don’t know.” The day after the funeral, he spends time with a woman. For people accustomed to uniformity, such behavior is immoral and is placed above human life. But Meursault belongs to another world - the world of nature. His actions are controlled by the sun. It illuminates Meursault’s actions, as a result of which it is no longer possible to reduce his behavior to social motivations. Murder in "P" is another "unmotivated crime." Here Meursault stands on a par with Raskolnikov. The difference between He seems to be the hero of an absurd world in which there is no God, no meaning, there is only one truth - the truth of death.

Camus' major philosophical work "The Myth of Sisyphus" (1942) opens with the words: “There is only one truly serious philosophical problem - suicide. To make a judgment about whether life is worth laboring to live or not is to answer the basic question of philosophy. Everything else - whether the world has three dimensions, whether the mind has nine or twelve categories - comes later. This is already a game, but first you need to answer.” The problem of suicide, Camus believes, is a problem of all life, where a person answers the question - is life simply a biological given, or is it the actual human values ​​that give it meaning that are realized. According to legend, the vengeful gods doomed Sisyphus to perpetual execution. He had to roll a piece of rock up the mountain, but, barely reaching the top, the block broke off, and he had to start all over again. Descending to the foot of the mountain, Sisyphus, as Camus portrays him, was aware of the injustice of the lot that befell him, and the very clarity of his mind was his victory. But human tragedy for Camus lies in the absence of any meaningfulness: “I don’t know if there is a meaning in the world that surpasses my understanding. But I know that I do not know this meaning and that it is not given to me to know it.” In his reflections, Sisyphus comes to a disappointing conclusion: there is no happiness and truth either on earth or above, everything is meaningless, which means “nothing is forbidden” and “the hierarchy of values ​​is meaningless”, she has nothing to rely on. Any choice, therefore, is justified, as long as it is clearly understood. The world itself is not absurd, it is simply unreasonable, has nothing to do with our desires and search for meaning. A person who asks about the meaning of all things and his own life is not absurd either. The absurd is the relationship between them, the split, the abyss between the aspirations of man and the silence of the world.

Roman autocrat "Caligula"from the tragedy of the same name, he discovers painful truths about human life. Caligula, as he is portrayed in this play, is not at all a villain from the cradle. A well-bred and gentle by nature young man was turned into a bloody madman by the burning pain of the loss of his beloved, when he suddenly realized in horror near her lifeless body: life, sooner or later cut short by death, is arranged absurdly and unfairly. Caligula wants to enlighten the whole people. And for this, he commits a monstrous act of acting: as if competing in arbitrariness with fate, he mocks them with terrible sophistication in order to drive into their heads the truth that there is no trace of her on earth. Everyone is free to behave as they please. Caligula teaches lessons about freedom, interpreted as self-will and permissiveness. Exhausted under the burden of irrefutable mortal logic, he himself exposes his chest to the daggers of the conspirators, who nevertheless dared to rebel. Trying to find the truth in his challenge to the universal disorder, he uses the opportunity he has to pile up corpses and, in the end, throw his own corpse into the general pile. Camus forces us to get into the shoes of his tyrant, to understand his actions caused by the despair and cruelty of this world.

Novel "The Plague" written in 1947. “The Plague” is an allegory of the Second World War and the French Resistance. “What exactly is the plague? – asks one of Dr. Rie’s regular clients on the last pages of the novel. - Same life - and that’s it. “With the help of the plague, I want to convey the atmosphere of suffocation from which we suffered, the atmosphere of danger and exile in which we lived then. At the same time, I want to extend this interpretation to existence as a whole,” Camus admitted. “...And every time absurdity follows from comparison. Consequently, I have the right to say that feeling is born not from a simple consideration of a single fact and not from a separate impression, but is carved out by comparing the current state of affairs with a certain kind of reality, action - with a world that surpasses it. At its core, absurdity is discord. It is not reducible to any of the elements of comparison. It arises from their collision.” Having modeled the situation of a human tragedy, Camus tried to show the way to overcome the tragedy. “...The Plague is, first of all, a book about those who resist, and not about those who surrender, a book about the meaning of existence, found in the midst of the meaninglessness of existence.”

"Rebel Man". “Starting from the philosophy of the absurd,” says Camus, “we have come to the conclusion that the “first and only evidence” that is given in the experience of the absurd is rebellion.”

“A rebellious man” is “a person who says “no,” but while denying, he does not renounce; he is a person who, with his very first action, says “yes.” The main content of the book is an analysis of those forms of rebellion that in the 19th and 20th centuries. developed into revolutions with devastating consequences. Camus approaches the “historical revolt" not as a historian or as a philosopher of history. He is most interested in what mindsets and ideas pushed (and are pushing) people to regicide, revolutionary unrest, terror, wars , the mass extermination of foreigners and fellow tribesmen. The chapter “Choosive Killers” anatomizes the history and ideology of Russian terrorism in the 19th and 20th centuries. Marxism is also analyzed, including its perception on Russian soil. “Rebellion and revolution" - this remains a core topic for Camus throughout his analysis. The connection between the overthrow of principles, the revolutionary upheaval of foundations and the destruction of people seems to the author of “Rebel Man” to be undeniable. “A revolution in the field of principles kills God in the person of his viceroy. Revolution of the 20th century It kills what remains divine in the principles themselves, and thus sanctifies historical nihilism.” Brilliantly debunking the rebellious, revolutionary, nihilistic consciousness and action, Camus tried to convince his reader that “true rebellion” and “new revolutionaryism”, free from destructive consequences, are possible. And yet, faith in a person who has taken upon himself “the risks and difficulties of freedom,” or rather, faith in millions of individuals, “whose creations and works daily deny the boundaries and previous mirages of history.”

Achieving brevity and expressiveness, Hemingway, already at the very beginning of his creative career, developed a technique that he himself called the iceberg principle: “If a writer knows well what he is writing about, he can omit much of what he knows, and if he writes truthfully, the reader will feel everything omitted as strongly as if the writer had said it.”

Hemingway compared his works to icebergs: “They are seven-eighths submerged in water, and only one-eighth of them is visible.” This is how the system of hints and omissions works in Hemingway’s works.

After all, from observing the details, Hemingway’s famous iceberg principle was born.

One of the components of this principle is the transmission of secret experiences through body language. With the help of the body - the visible part of the iceberg that is a person - one can get an idea of ​​the inner world - the invisible, “underwater” part.

“Hemingway’s text is “physical” and “material.” The gestures, postures and body movements of his characters are meticulously recorded. Body language is very eloquent - with Hemingway it is more frank and much more expressive than words.” So, there are two constant components of the work: the text is visible, one-eighth of it is written, and the subtext is the majority of the story that does not really exist on paper, not written, seven-eighth of it. The subtext includes enormous life experience, knowledge, and reflections of the writer, and a special organization of prose is required in order to create a unified system of writer - hero - reader and thereby “realize” the subtext.

On the surface of the iceberg there is an old man and the sea, their duel. Hidden in the invisible underwater part of the iceberg are the author’s thoughts about the most important problems of life: man and nature, man and society, man and the Universe.

Hemingway's hero is alone against a hostile world.

Being among people, the hero is infinitely lonely, and the world around him is inexorably hostile.

In an ordinary conversation between an old man and a boy, the author shows the “solution” to his plan. His story is the fruit of a mature generalization. “Man was not created to suffer defeat,” the author explains his thought to us. “Man can be destroyed, but he cannot be defeated.”

Thus, the famous critic I. Kashkin emphasizes that in the story, more than in other works of Hemingway, “the sharp line between the simple person to whom the writer is attracted and his lyrical hero is erased.” Also, according to Kashkin, the image of the old man “loses in integrity, but it becomes richer and more diverse.” The old man is not alone, he has someone to pass on his skills to, and in this sense, “the book is open to the future”: “A generation passes, and a generation comes, but not only the earth, but also the human cause remains forever, not only in its own creations of art, but also as skill passed from hand to hand, from generation to generation." In general, according to Kashkin, although the book talks about old age on the very threshold of extinction, no one dies here. Victory (moral) was not achieved at the cost of life.

Ernest Hemingway created an original, innovative style. Among these artistic means, a detailed description of nature plays a significant role. Achieving expressiveness, Hemingway developed a technique - the “iceberg principle”, which also gives his prose laconicism. Therefore, it is possible to detect significance in the simplest episode.

As I promised earlier, I’m talking about the Iceberg principle and technology.

The principle is implemented, as a rule, in automated systems, but can also be applied in “live” systems - from manual accounting of work in progress in small industries to non-project scrum, incl. German

The principle is simple - you need to know and see the duration of states over time. Mainly negative states.

The simplest example of a negative state is a task set and not completed at the moment, usually already overdue.

When the task is completed, closed or cancelled, the state will change - the Iceberg principle will not be needed, retrospective analysis is more suitable here.

The problem is a simple example, because it is separate, usually created by a colleague or supervisor, and the technology of setting, or the method of setting, usually allows you to see the duration of the condition.

For example, if a task is set via email, SMS, or electronic document management system, then the duration of the state is either displayed automatically (“task is 2 days overdue”) or easily calculated (as the difference between today and the due date).

Although, this information is not enough for a complete and quick understanding of the status - it is interesting to see both the overdue time and the execution time assigned during installation. It is clear that a delay of 1 day has a different meaning for a task set the day before yesterday and one set a month ago.

It’s a completely different matter if the task relates to current operational activities, is posed once, and sounds like “to do” and not “to do.”

For example, an accountant must monitor the appearance of negative balances in the balance sheet and eliminate them within the required period.
Or the supplier must monitor the shortage list and order missing items from suppliers.

You have the opportunity to check a person’s work at any time using the same tools.

You go to the shortage sheet and see that some items are missing, and make sure that they are not on order.

You may have a question - how long has this condition lasted? Simply put, how long are these items in short supply?

It is clear that you don’t have to ask such a question - just correct the situation. But then you will have to check the work of your subordinates and correct the situation quite often.

I'm talking about a situation where you don't want to deal with the day-to-day manual management of operations.

So, we need to know the duration of the state. For this you need Iceberg - a tool that will automatically record the beginning and end of a negative state, with the necessary analytics.

In the example given, it will record that a position in such and such quantity appeared in the deficit statement at such and such a moment.

If this information is stored in the system, it can be used by both the performer and the manager - and it will be good for both.

The performer does not need to monitor the status - the system will notify when his intervention is required.

The manager does not need to monitor the condition - the system will report immediately, or after the standard deadline, that there is a negative condition.

Iceberg is especially good coupled with the technology of automatic task setting (I’ll tell you about it another time).

The technical complexity of implementing Iceberg depends on the platform on which your information system runs. I tried it on 1C - it’s not difficult there.

So, Iceberg is when you know the duration of the condition. And you can react, manage and analyze based on duration.

Irshnikova Antonina

The iceberg principle in the interpretation of symbols and motifs in the story - Ernest Hemingway’s parable “The Old Man and the Sea” (direction: motive analysis of a work of art) (Work theme)

The work was completed by: __Antonina Irshnikova, 11 “A” class

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The iceberg principle in the interpretation of symbols and motifs

in the story - parable by Ernest Hemingway

"The Old Man and the Sea"

(direction: motive analysis of a work of art)

(Work theme)

The work was completed by: __Antonina Irshnikova, 11 “A” class

Scientific director:Murzinenko Elena Sergeevna,

teacher of Russian language and literature

2016-17

Introduction

Main part

1 Iceberg principle

2 Symbolism and motives

conclusions

Introduction

In Ernest Hemingway's story "The Old Man and the Sea" one can find the symbolic meaning of individual images. The “Iceberg Principle”, which was stated by Ernest Hemingway himself, allows this to be done, he wrote: “If a writer knows well what he is writing about, he can omit much of what he knows, and, if he writes truthfully, the reader will feel everything omitted as strongly as if the writer had said it.”

Hemingway compared his works to icebergs: “They are seven-eighths submerged in water, and only one-eighth of them is visible.” This is how the system of hints and omissions works in Hemingway’s works. He wrote: “I tried to give a real old man and a real boy, a real sea and real fish and real sharks. And, if I managed to do this well enough and truthfully, they, of course, can be interpreted in different ways” (11).

Many literary critics note the two-dimensional nature of the writer, such as S. Sanderson (3), who spoke of the works “as an allegory of life’s struggle; Yu.Ya. Lyadsky wrote: “Hemingway’s nature is a whole philosophy” (4), T. Denisova continued: “Behind the surface lies the deep, generalized truth of life” (5). Such innovation of the writer was noted and awarded two highest awards; for the story “The Old Man and the Sea,” Ernest Hemingway received the Pulitzer Prize, the most prestigious symbol of literary recognition in the United States. The same work influenced the award of the Nobel Prize in Literature to the writer in 1954.

The purpose of our work is to explore and analyze the symbolism and main motives to identify the idea of ​​the work “The Old Man and the Sea”, through the iceberg principle to reveal the subtext that the author intended.

Subject of research: symbolism and motives

Relevance and novelty consist in adding semantic content to the narrative of the work.

Research objectives:

Analyze the iceberg principle;

Learn terminology;

Conduct an analysis of symbolism and motives.

Research methods: analysis of a work of art.

Main part

1. The iceberg principle in the interpretation of symbols and motifs

Before analyzing and exploring the purpose of the work, it is necessary to disclose the terminology, namely:

The iceberg principle is an artistic device in which most of what the author wants to say is hidden “underwater.” The writer makes extensive use of hints and subtext, counting on the reader's conjecture. (12)

Text: old man and sea, duel

The most important problems of life: man and

Nature, man and society, man and

Faith, Man and the Universe

Subtext – unspoken directly in the text, but as if arising from individual remarks and details, the author’s attitude towards the characters, their relationships, and plot situations; an implicit meaning that may not coincide with the direct meaning of the text.

On the surface of the iceberg there is an old man and the sea, their duel. Hidden in the invisible underwater part of the iceberg are the author’s thoughts about the most important problems of life: man and nature, man and society, man and the Universe.

The symbols and motifs of the work allow you to express the subtext.

Symbol - an object or action that serves as a conventional sign of a concept, something abstract; an artistic image that embodies an idea. The meaning of the symbol is implied, so its perception depends on the readers. The symbol has many meanings.

Motive – repeated many times and varying to thin. image in the work (word, detail, characteristic). The motif unites and organizes the narrative, increases the semantic and compositional load.

2 Interpretation of symbols and motifs in the story “The Old Man and the Sea”

Ernest Hemingway in his work tells about an old fisherman who caught a large fish that dragged the boat for a long time. But on the way home, the fish was eaten by sharks. And the fisherman returned only with the skeleton of a big fish. The phrase stated in the work: “A person can be destroyed, but he cannot be defeated,” only shows that the fisherman managed after a three-day persistent struggle with the fish, but at the same time he arrives only with a skeleton from it. It turns out that this is a winner, but who has nothing. What then is the victory? Is it only victory over the fish? The interpretation of symbols, working with subtext, and accessing the second level of the work will help us uncover these questions.

The listed images can be considered in their literal meaning, but at the same time they are also endowed with a symbolic meaning.

The work is called “The Old Man and the Sea.” The main character has a name - Santiago, but the author says “old man”, which means this image turns into a generalized concept and can refer to any living person, and he is not talking about a man, but about an old man who has lived a long life. The "old man" then symbolizes human experience. But throughout the story, we see how the main character makes a fatal mistake: he goes “deep into the sea” to get his catch, which caused the loss of the fish. Then what is experience? And we learn, thanks to other images of the work, that he acquires this experience.

The symbol of the sea is not only a body of water, it is life itself, and the place where and how a person behaves, in what relationship he has with the world around him, what place he defines for himself in it. And here the second plan of the story begins to reveal itself, which we will call parable.

Parable - a work containing teaching in an allegorical form, akin to a fable. However, the meaning of the parable is more significant: it illustrates an important idea, concerning problems of morality and human laws. The parable does not offer morality in a ready-made form, but sets us up to search for it.

The old man put himself above everyone else, this can be seen in the following episode: “You have been following turtles to the Mosquito Coast for so many years, but your eyes are fine. “I am an extraordinary old man.”

The hero says and feels “extraordinary”; he considered himself the best fisherman: “He looked into the dark depths of the sea, where his fishing lines went. He always had them go straighter into the water than other fishermen.” And in his youth he was given the nickname “Champion” for a fight with a black man, where he emerged victorious after a day-long arm competition. But what does this attitude to life give? Where does this lead old man Santiago? The following symbol helps to reveal this attitude - a big fish. This was the old man's dream, a stroke of luck that he achieved. But in the end the fish turns into a skeleton. And again the parable sound in the story. The hero asks himself a question, and then answers it himself: “Perhaps it was a sin to kill the fish. I think it’s a sin, even though I killed her in order not to die of hunger and to feed a lot more people.” But he further argues: “You did not kill the fish only to sell it to others and support your life. You killed her out of PRIDE.” Santiago is used to always winning in everything, but this attitude has led to the fact that the hero begins to understand that he has done something wrong: “I’m sorry that I went so far out to sea, I ruined both of us.” “Skeleton” takes on a new meaning in this context - it is a symbol of a dream distorted by our vices, retribution for pride: “Maybe I’ll be lucky and I’ll get at least the front part of it home. I must finally get lucky. No,” he said to himself. “You violated your own luck when you went so deep into the sea.”

Sharks are menacing, voracious creatures that symbolize obstacles on a person’s path to a goal. But then again, what is the sea without sharks? Where there is sea, there are sharks. This means that in every person’s life there will be obstacles, but they make a person stronger and wiser. So what happens to the hero? What wisdom does he gain? And he acquires the very opposite of the concept of pride, he acquires humility.

And then the words: “A person can be destroyed, but he cannot be defeated” take on a new meaning. The name Santiago is symbolic: Santa is translated as a saint, Iago-ego as a man - so in addition to the path to the sea, the parable also reveals the path to holiness. The struggle at sea takes place for 3 days and three nights, the hero comes to prayer in despair, he begins to ask God for help, and this is no longer pride. Wikipedia explains this word as follows: Humility is a moral quality that characterizes a person’s attitude towards himself. This is modesty of spirit, lack of pride, meekness. The main virtue of a true Christian is a volitional decision. It is acquired by those who patiently and persistently work on themselves, defeating their ego every day, often limiting their desires, drowning out ambitions. This is not so easy for a proud person who is accustomed to relying on himself and his own strength for everything. As we can read in the Bible: “God resists the proud, but gives grace to the humble; Pride will come, and shame will come, but with the humble comes wisdom.” (Prov. 11:2).

Most likely, Hemingway wanted to talk about this path, and it disappeared into the iceberg. This story is not only about the catch of fish, it is a story-parable about “the catch and the meaning of life.” So who is this old man?

An old man is not a state of age, it is the relationship of old people with life. No wonder his image is so attractive to the boy Manolin. The parable raises the question of happiness: “Happiness comes to a person in every form, do you recognize it?” The symbol of happiness in the work is a boy who is always nearby. And as a result, the main character undergoes a reassessment of values, at the end of the story he argues: “The boy is the one who doesn’t let you die.”

The boy is a symbol of hope, faith in the future.

And then the words: “A person can be destroyed, but he cannot be defeated” take on a new meaning. The hero has defeated himself; he no longer considers himself such an extraordinary old man. And to understand, the author introduces the following figure - the figure of a tourist. Who, in response to the waiter’s unfinished answer, understands that the skeleton of the fish was the skeleton of a shark. The old man and the tourist are symbols of two life positions. There are people who try to understand life in depth, and there are those who live superficially, without trying to understand and think.

It is not for nothing that the next symbol is lions, as a symbol of humility: “He dreamed only of distant countries and lion cubs coming ashore. Like kittens, they frolicked in the twilight darkness, and he loved them just as he loved the boy (.) - no struggle with nature and killing, gaining complete union with nature.

conclusions

The goal of the course work was to explore symbolism, motives, heroes and analyze the iceberg principle.

The purpose of this work was revealed using the following tasks:

Learn terminology;

Conduct an analysis of symbolism and motives;

Consider the heroes of the work;

Analyze the iceberg principle.

By solving these research problems, we revealed the purpose of the course work more extensively and specifically.

The story is a parable, in which the author’s philosophy and worldview are extremely clearly and concentratedly expressed: faith in man, his purpose and the strength of his spirit, affirms the need for the brotherhood of people and others. The plot of the story is limited to a few days and one particular case: the old Cuban fisherman Santiago, whose loneliness is brightened only by conversations with the boy Manolin, at the cost of incredible effort, manages to catch a huge fish, but upon returning, his prey is devoured by sharks, and he is left with nothing.

The story of friendship between a small village boy and an old fisherman. Santiago, a strong and proud man who cannot come to terms with the inexorable passage of time, which takes away his physical strength. After all, for many weeks he has been returning from the sea without a catch.

In one of his interviews, Hemingway compared a writer to a well: “And there are as many different writers as there are different wells. The most important thing is that there is always good water in the well, and it is better to draw it sparingly, rather than pumping the well dry and waiting for it to fill up again. Every writer must create something of lasting value and devote all his time to it, even if he spends several hours a day at his desk.” (16)

I would like to paraphrase Hemingway and note that the story “The Old Man and the Sea” has become such an inexhaustible “well”

The hero is an individual person; he grows up to be a symbol of a person resisting harsh fate.

The fisherman Santiago defeated the fish, and with it old age and heartache. He won because he thought not about his failure and not about himself, but about this fish that he was hurting, about the stars and lions that he saw when the cabin boy sailed on a sailboat to the shores of Africa; about your difficult life. He won because he saw the meaning of life in struggle, knew how to endure suffering and not lose hope.

It can be argued that a person who sees his life’s calling in his work has become a hero. Old man Santiago says about himself that he was born into the world in order to fish.

The whole story of how the old man manages to catch a huge fish, how he wages a long, exhausting fight with it, how he defeats it, but, in turn, is defeated in the fight against the sharks that eat his prey, is written with the greatest knowledge of the dangerous and the difficult profession of a fisherman.

The sea appears in the story as a living creature. “Other fishermen, younger ones, talked about the sea as about space, as about a rival, sometimes even as an enemy. The old man constantly thought about the sea as about a woman who gives great favors or denies them, and even if she allows herself rash or unkind deeds - what can you do, such is her nature.”

There is true greatness in old man Santiago - he feels equal to the powerful forces of nature.

Finally, he makes a decision - to go far, far out to sea for prey and not return without a catch. This is the only way an old fisherman can regain his confidence and self-respect. Early in the morning, saying goodbye to his little friend, to his native shore, which he sees, perhaps for the last time, and dissolves in the darkness of the sea waters. And yet luck comes to the fisherman. A giant fish is caught in his gear. Their duel continues for two and a half days at sea, the fish does not give up and pulls Santiago further and further into the sea. But the old fisherman convinced himself that perseverance and fortitude were what would bring him victory.

His fight with the fish takes on a symbolic meaning, becoming a symbol of human labor, human efforts in general. The old man talks to her as to an equal being. Santiago is so organically fused with nature that even the stars seem to him to be living beings.

The courage of an old man as a symbol is extremely natural. The old man knows that courage and perseverance are indispensable qualities of people in his profession, he proves this to himself thousands of times. He has to prove it over and over again.

The main motive in the story “The Old Man and the Sea” is tragic - the Old Man, in essence, is defeated in an unequal battle with sharks and loses his prey, which he got at such a high price - but there is no feeling of hopelessness and doom left. The tragedy of the story is at the same time optimistic. The old man says words that embody the main idea of ​​the story - “Man was not created to suffer defeat. A man can be destroyed, but he cannot be defeated.” Now this is not a question of the professional honor of an athlete, but a problem of Human dignity.

Old man Santiago, choosing the path of greatest resistance in everything, tested himself “for strength”, sometimes risking his life not for the sake of thrills, but because a meaningful risk, as he believed, befits a real man.

“The dialogue at the end of the story testifies not so much to the defeat of the old man, but to the boy’s devotion to him, about his boundless faith in the invincibility of the old fisherman.” (17)

Santiago harpoons the fish's heart. He also, after heroic efforts, is ultimately deprived of the fruits of his labor.

At the end of the work, a new motive appears, lighter and more cheerful, interrupting the theme of courageous suffering, which ends in the deeply lyrical dream of an old man...

The theme of life is complex and multifaceted, it is a severe test, in which there are ups and downs, triumphs and downfalls.

The work “The Old Man and the Sea” can be interpreted as the eternal drama of man’s coexistence with the world around him, which is both native and hostile to him; the loss of heavenly faith does not prevent the old man from believing in the earthly world.

old man sea hemingway santiago

List of used literature

1. Hemingway E. About life and art. Thoughts and aphorisms //Don, 1964. No. 7. p. 185

2. Gilenson B. Ernest Hemingway. Book for high school students // M., Education, 1991, p. 171-172, 177

3. Finkelstein I. Hemingway, his life and books // M., Questions of Literature, 1962, No. 12. p. 221

4. Mythological Dictionary, ed. Meletinsky E.M. //M., “Soviet Encyclopedia”, 1991.

5. Denisova T. Secret of the Iceberg // M., Literary studies, 1980, No. 5. p. 202-207

6. Kashkin I. Content - form - content // Questions of literature, 1964, No. 1. p. 131

7. Literary dictionary-reference book // Edited by R.T. Gromyak, Yu.I. Kovalin, V.I. Teremka, K., Academy, 2006, p. 621-622, p. 752.

8. Startsev A. From Whitman to Hemingway. // M., Soviet writer, 1981, p. 307

9. Finkelstein I. In search of poetic truth // M., Questions of Literature, 1965, No. 4. p. 165

10. Ernest Hemingway on literary craft // M., Foreign Literature, 1962, No. 1. p. 214, p. 213

11. Hemingway E. Selected works in 2 volumes // M., 1959, vol. 2., p. 652

12. Shutko R. Ernest Hemingway. The Old Man and the Sea. Manual for 11th grade // Kharkov, Ranok, 2002

13. Bunina S. Ernest Hemingway. Life and creativity // Kharkov, Ranok, 2002, p. 43

14. Hemingway E. Fiesta (The Sun Also Rises). A Farewell to Arms! The Old Man and the Sea. Stories. // M., 1988, p. 83.

15. Kashkin I. Rereading Hemingway // M., Foreign Literature, 1956, No. 4, p. 201

16. Ernest Hemingway on literary craftsmanship // M., Foreign Literature, 1962, No. 12. With. 213

17. Bunina S. Ernest Hemingway. Life and art. // Kharkov, Ranok, 2002, p. 56

18. Gribanov B. Ernest Hemingway: life and creativity. Afterword // Hemingway E. Selected.-- M.: Education, 1984.-- 304 pp.-- P. 282-298.

19. Belova T.V. Nabokov and E. Hemingway (Features of poetics and worldview) // M. Bulletin of Moscow University. No. 2 1999. p. 55-61

20. See: Finkelstein I. Hemingway, his life and books // M., Questions of Literature, 1962. No. 12, p.221

21. Kashkin I. Ernst Hemingway. Critical-biographical essay. // M., Fiction, 1966, p. 296

22 Gribanov B. Ernst Hemingway. Hero and time. // M., Fiction, 1980, p. 254

23 Lidsky Yu. The works of Ernest Hemingway. // K., Scientific thought, 1973, p. 432

24 Anastasyev N. The works of Ernest Hemingway. // M., Education, 1981, p. 111

25 Nikolyukin A. Speech upon receiving the Nobel Prize. US writers about literature // M., 1982, In 2 vols., T. 2., p. 93

The beginning of life's journey. Ernest Hemingway (1899-1961) - an American writer who renewed the traditions of realistic literature - was born in the town of Oak Park near Chicago in the family of a doctor. While studying at school, he often ran away from home, worked as a day laborer on a farm, as a waiter, and as a boxing trainer. After graduating from school, he became a reporter for the Kansas Star newspaper (in Kansas City). In April 1917, the United States entered the First World War. Hemingway is eager to go to the front, but due to an eye injury received in boxing lessons, he is not accepted into the army. In May 1918, he managed to become a nurse in a Red Cross convoy in Italy. He finds himself in a battle zone with Austrian troops and is seriously injured. Doctors found 237 wounds on his body. After several months in a hospital in Milan, he goes to the front again. After the war ended, Hemingway worked first as a local and then as a European correspondent for the Toronto Daily Star. In the 1920s he lived in Paris. This period of his life is wonderfully described by Hemingway in the book “A Holiday That Is Always With You” (published posthumously, in 1964). Here he met major American writers - Gertrude Stein, Sherwood Anderson, who influenced his first steps in literature. "In our time". In 1925, a book of Hemingway’s short stories “In Our Time” was published in Paris. Here his first lyrical hero appears - Nick Adams. The author depicts the activity through the prism of Adams’s consciousness, but the hero does not understand it, so everything is marked by fragility, instability, and loss of integrity. The hero's consciousness reflects the post-war world, shocked by the disaster. The book includes 15 chapter-short stories. In the short stories, the reader is presented with episodes from the life or observations of Nick Adams - fragments in which conflicts are hidden from view. But before the short stories there are short texts that contrast with the seeming calm of the short stories. These are journalistic reports, descriptions of bullfights, front-line reports. Conflicts here are extremely aggravated, threatening death, life is filled to the limit, politics, blood, screams of the crowd - a whole whirlpool of passions. The miniatures and short stories are not connected by plot, which creates multiple meanings when comparing them. Iceberg principle. The book gives rise to the famous Heming-Eye style. It is based on the “iceberg principle”, formulated by Hemingway as follows: “If a writer knows well what he is writing about, he can omit much of what he knows, and if he writes truthfully, the reader will feel everything he omitted as strongly as if only the writer had said so. The majesty of the iceberg’s movement is that it rises only one-eighth above the surface of the water.” Hemingway dramatically increased the importance of subtext, in which he surpassed the realists of previous generations. He achieves this by deliberately depleting the text and creating a wide field of reader associations. The impoverishment of the text is a whole system of means: the description is compressed to the limit; the description language is dry (only facts without open author’s assessment); Adjectives are hardly used at all; the time and place of action are indicated by one or two details; the plot is reduced to one, albeit insignificant, episode; there is no direct depiction of the characters’ inner world; Most, sometimes the main part of the text is made up of insignificant, everyday dialogue. But behind this poverty of text, an extreme richness of subtext is revealed, achieved by the hidden significance of images that develop into realistic symbols; unexpectedness and strength of contrasts that provide food for many associations; repetitions of plot moves, motives, phrases; omission about the main thing. “The Sun Also Rises” (“Fiesta”). Subsequently, Hemingway moved away from the extremes of this style; text began to occupy an increasing place in his works. He achieved high skill in the novel “The Sun Also Rises” (in the English edition “Fiesta”, 1926). This is a novel about the "lost generation". It was thanks to Fiesta that this term became generally accepted. The novel opens with epigraphs, one of which: ““You are all a lost generation.” Gertrude Stein (in conversation)." We are talking about a generation of people whose destinies were broken by the First World War. Having returned from the front, young people cannot find a place for themselves in a changed world. The central character of the novel, Jake Barnes, is a new lyrical (or, as some researchers define it, “modified”) hero. He moves from work to work, slightly changing his appearance and biography. Jake Barnes is endowed by the author with “moral sterility of consciousness” and therefore can critically evaluate the “lost generation”, belonging to it and at the same time not merging with it. At the center of the novel “The Sun Also Rises” is a moral issue, the theme of the courage of a person who finds himself in difficult life circumstances. The story is told from the perspective of an American journalist living in Paris. The severe wound Jake Barnes received in the war eliminates the possibility of sexual life. Love for the burning life of Brett Ashley brings only suffering. But in addition to the physical, there is also a spiritual trauma inherent in his friends, girlfriends, and the entire “lost generation.” Hence the countless episodes of visiting all kinds of bistros, cafes, restaurants, where the characters every time drink a glass of alcohol. Sometimes the characters manage to forget themselves, as in the climactic scene of the “fiesta” - a holiday in Spain, when you can disappear into the jubilant crowd. However, then again spiritual desolation reminds itself. Jake can overcome it only by finding a way out in writing. Hemingway's "code". In the novel “The Sun Also Rises,” the so-called Hemingway “code” (or “canon”) took shape for the first time - a system of behavior of the heroes, which includes: 1) alienation, loneliness, and if the hero is overcome by love, then it only intensifies his suffering ; 2) fear of this loneliness, fear of being left alone with oneself (hence the craving for crowds, for entertainment, for restaurants); 3) a special ability to revel in the fullness of life, celebration, revelry, to burn through life without regard to the consequences; 4) a special view of the world: a preference for everything concrete, simple over the abstract, complex, in which the hero always hears some kind of catch, deception. "A Farewell to Arms!" Having described the return from the war in the book “In Our Time,” and the post-war period in the novel “The Sun Also Rises,” Hemingway complemented the picture of the life of the “lost generation” by depicting the fate of a soldier in the war in the novel “A Farewell to Arms!” (1929). The “modified hero” here is an American, Italian army lieutenant Frederick Henry. Using his example, the author shows how people of the “lost generation” appear, how their psyche and worldview are formed. Frederick Henry, succumbing to patriotic fervor, found himself at war. His observations make him convinced not only that it is terrible, but also that it is unjustified and anti-people. The shooting of retreating soldiers by young officers after the defeat of the Italian regiments at Caporetto, the anti-war statements of the priest, ambulance drivers - these and other facts, observations, events convince Lieutenant Henry that it is necessary to conclude a “separate peace”, and he does so, deserting with front. Henry's disappointment becomes global: he loses faith not only in military propaganda, but also in all ideals in general, in too lofty words such as “feat”, “valor”, “sacred”, which he considers unreliable, moreover, offensive “ next to specific village names, road numbers, river names, regimental numbers and dates.” In this disappointment, Henry reaches extreme forms: “I was not created to think. I was created to eat." The only thing that can resist total disappointment is love. That is why the plot knot connecting Lieutenant Henry and the English nurse Catherine Barrely is so important in the novel. Henry rises from soulless flirtation to true love, which saves him from cynicism and a sense of hopelessness, even despite the death of Catherine in childbirth. Hemingway continues to defend the position of courageous stoicism here. Psychologism. Hemingway develops new nuances and possibilities of realistic psychologism. Unlike the classical psychologism of his great predecessors, he does not proceed from modeling the hero’s inner world, but from the use of personal emotional experience. At the same time, the description of the feeling is not of a direct nature; in fact, there should not be a description; the feeling must be evoked in the reader with the help of associations. In one of his letters from the 1930s, Hemingway gave the following advice to the young writer: “Find out what caused this feeling in you, what action made you feel excited. Then put it all on paper so that it is clearly visible - as a result, the reader will also be able to see it and feel the same thing that you felt.” Works of the 1930s - 1940s. In the 1930s, Hemingway was already world famous. But a protracted crisis is coming. Among the works of this time are the book “The Green Hills of Africa” (1935), the collection of short stories “The Winner Gets Nothing” (1933), and the novel “To Have and Have Not” (1937). The writer again achieves outstanding artistic results in the long story “The Snows of Kilimanjaro” (1936). In contrast to the works of the 1920s, the author’s position is more clearly expressed here, and the surface of the “iceberg” is enlarged. Hemingway began to trust the word and its immediate impact more. During the Spanish period (1937-1940), Hemingway experienced a new rise. In Spain, engulfed in civil war, he writes war reports, essays (“Madrid Drivers”, “American Fighter”), the anti-fascist play “The Fifth Column” (1938), and together with the Dutch film director J. Ivens creates the documentary film “Spanish Land”. "For whom the Bell Tolls". The novel For Whom the Bell Tolls (1940) is especially significant. Changes are taking place in the novel structure: the epic beginning is expanding, the heroes are presented in their connection with history and the people, changing the stoic position of an observer to the position of an active figure, although tragic circumstances force them not only to maintain, but also to strengthen their stoicism, to develop a somewhat defamiliar, ironic view to what is happening - a kind of shell that protects their feelings. Hemingway begins to resort to modeling reality, creating a kind of “microworld” that reflects the general course of things. "The Old Man and the Sea". In the post-war period, a decline was noticeable in the writer’s work. He lives mainly in Cuba, working on the books “Islands in the Ocean”, “Across the River, in the Shade of the Trees”, “A Holiday That Is Always with You”, published after his death (Hemingway shot himself in 1961). Among his later works, the story “The Old Man and the Sea” (1950-1951, published 1952) stands out, which became the writer’s most famous work, awarded the Pulitzer Prize (1952) and the Nobel Prize in Literature (1954). The original idea arose during a fishing trip to Cuba in the 1930s. Judging by the fact that the Cuban, who became the prototype of old man Santiago, died in 2002 at the age of 102, Hemingway “aged” his hero. This is quite consistent with the principle of world modeling that the writer used. Man (old man Santiago) appears in the story alone with nature, the Universe: around the sea, above the sky, below the abyss, the earth somewhere far beyond the horizon. His rival is a huge fish, his friends are flying fish, his enemies are sharks. The old man defeated the fish, but he did not have enough strength to defeat the sharks, which tore apart the fish he caught and left only a skeleton of it, which later surprised tourists so much. The old man maintains a stoic attitude that allows him to withstand both struggle and defeat. Modeling allowed the writer to extremely concentrate artistic information on a huge scale (similar to what M. Sholokhov did a few years later in “The Fate of Man”). The iceberg principle helped solve this problem. But unlike the seemingly insignificant dialogues that formed the tip of the “iceberg” in the early works, in “The Old Man and the Sea” the visible part is organized by a system of symbols. Among them there are biblical symbols, for example, fishing as an association with the words of Christ addressed to the fisherman, who later became the Apostle Peter: “Follow me, I will make you a fisher of the souls of men.” However, the main symbols are subjective in nature, they exist only in the perception of the old man: the 85th day is considered lucky for fishing, although last time the 87th day was lucky; addressing the sea in the feminine gender 1a tag, although other fishermen call it in the masculine gender el tag, etc. In The Old Man and the Sea, Hemingway returns to the figure of the stoic loner of his early works. But in the story, the image of the boy Manolo plays an important role: at the beginning of the work the old man needs the boy, at the end the old man needs the boy. This is how Hemingway modeled human connections and raised the topic of passing on the life experience of generations. Hemingway's work enriched the literature of the 20th century. a number of outstanding artistic discoveries, demonstrated new, unexplored possibilities for realistically depicting reality, and had a huge impact on readers. Hemingway's books gave rise to a certain way of behavior, made masculinity and stoicism attractive even in the most unfavorable circumstances. He inspired imitation not so much in literature as in life, which made him a cult writer.