Haplogroups: description of ancient genera and famous representatives of haplogroups. Which people are the most ancient on earth? The most ancient haplogroups and their modern carriers

One of the most frequently asked questions is why not check for the Y-chromosomal haplogroup-haplotype a mummy in a tomb, or the ancient bones of the Scythian-Sarmatians, or the ancient Slavs, whose bones are kept in abundance in museum storerooms, and many mysteries of history would be solved simply in one touch. But it was not there. It remains to remember the now famous line from an early poem by L.N. Tolstoy - “It’s written purely on paper, but they forgot about the ravines and how to walk along them.”

Analyzing ancient DNA is a colossal task, accessible to only a few laboratories in the world. The fact is that DNA is an organic molecule, and like any organic matter, it is susceptible to microbial infection and subsequent decomposition. It helps that bone DNA is protected like armor by the surrounding bone, but there is a limit to everything, and after hundreds of years, and even more so millennia, the DNA is almost hopelessly turned to mush by microbes. In rare cases, the situation can be saved if the soil was relatively dry, the bones were accidentally "sealed" in a cave, in an oxygen-free environment (although this is not a problem for anaerobic microbes), or for some similar reason the DNA was at least partially preserved after hundreds and thousands of years, or even after tens of thousands of years.

A favorite object of paleogeneticists is fossil teeth, in which a microcore is made with a microdrill, DNA is extracted from it and analyzed. But this is easy to say - it is subject to analysis. There are two very difficult tasks there. One is to separate human DNA from DNA microorganisms in that same mess, the second is to be able to analyze largely decomposed DNA, which has turned from a huge molecule into short fragments. It’s like restoring the entire book, or at least individual chapters, from individual half-burnt pages of a book after a fire in the library.

Anyone who remembers the difficulties with which DNA analysis of the royal family was carried out will receive an additional idea of ​​the complexity of the task. But not even a hundred years have passed since the burial there. But the soil, humidity and other circumstances of the burial left almost no chance for successful DNA analysis. So we fumbled around with this analysis - we took samples to England, then to the USA, because such work is not done in Russia. And then questions remain, but that’s a different conversation.

Now, I think it is clear that “one touch will not work,” to put it mildly. Almost every such work becomes a sensation, each significantly advances science. Mitochondrial DNA analysis is much easier, although it has the same problems. And it’s easier because the size of the original mtDNA is thousands of times smaller than the Y chromosome. The size of the latter is 58 million nucleotide pairs, mtDNA is 16600, that is, more than three thousand times less. But the haplogroups-haplotypes of the Y chromosome provide much more information. This is what I will try to talk about, using the example of just a dozen transcripts of fossil DNA, that is, all that have been done in the world, and which led to the determination of haplogroups and (not for all) haplotypes of the human Y chromosome. And also a brief description of what this gave for a better understanding of our ancient history.

Here we also need to understand what exactly determined the choice of this dozen (more precisely, a dozen) fossil objects. All of these works have advanced science, so this factor is clear. But it's not just him. Modern science is often a show. And there is nothing bad in this word. If only because such research requires a lot of money, many millions of dollars, and this money must be obtained. To do this, it is necessary to interest investors, no matter who acts as an investor, including the state, and especially the state. The state never has enough money for research, so it is necessary to attract the attention of those on whom the receipt of money depends. That's why the show. There are always someone’s interests behind the choice of a research object - either it is the interest of the public and science in solving certain historical mysteries, or the ambitions of research leaders, or political interests, as in the analysis of the haplogroup-haplotype of the Egyptian pharaoh Tutankhamun, or personal connections with those who they know how to do research... Get to the point.

We will show places according to the distribution map of haplogroups in order, so to speak, to visualize the picture geographically. We will show the bad map (above) only because there are no better ones. They're all bad. This map is new, 2012-2013, but that doesn't make it good. Firstly, all such maps are a tribute to clarity at the expense of truth. They are sweeping, rude, and often simply untrue. They give a picture not even in the first, but in the zeroth approximation. Yes, in general, the authors of these cards are not particularly worth criticizing - the pianist plays as best he can, although his ears are withering. Let's do this - I will roughly explain what is missing in this map and what is especially incorrect, and along the way I will introduce explanations as necessary.

To begin with, haplogroup R1a is not at all confined to that large red area. This area should extend south to the bottom edge of the map and even lower. It is not clear why Volgograd, Rostov-on-Don, Krasnodar, Ciscaucasia, Caucasus, Turkey, and down to Baghdad were deprived of this haplogroup, since in Iraq R1a is an average of 9%. Likewise, the entire Balkans were deprived of R1a, which is simply amazing. As well as the territories of Russia to the east of the red area. They offended the Bashkirs, Kyrgyz, Tajiks, Iranians, Indians, and so on. The Swedes and Norwegians were also offended. They offended the Shetland Islands in the west, where R1a averages at least 20%.

As for haplogroup R1b in Russia, it was given only to the Bashkirs, although the content of this haplogroup in Russia is on average no less than 5%. Haplogroup I1 was not shown at all in Russia and the southern Baltic states. Haplogroup I2a was placed only in Croatia, although it is up to 30-40% in Slovenia, Serbia, and generally throughout the former Yugoslavia. Moreover, there is a lot of it throughout Eastern Europe, this is the Eastern European haplogroup, and not just the Croatian one. Haplogroup J2 is a complete disgrace; it should cover territories from the Eastern Caucasus down throughout Turkey, Iran, and the Middle East.

In general, the map is unimportant. Again, population geneticists show a lack of qualifications, but I have already waved my hand as much as possible. The author of this map is population geneticist O. Balanovsky. The one who gave the foundation of Rus' to the Swedes, and so on. I've already discussed this.

R1a, Germany, 4600 years ago

The first significant discovery of fossil haplotypes was made in Germany, during excavations at Eulau (Haak et al., 2008). The burial was dated back to 4,600 years ago and contained the bones of a group of adults and children, a large family, killed with stone axes in a surprise attack. The haplogroup for all men and boys is R1a. I must make a small digression - in the same 2008, based on mutations in modern haplotypes in Germany, I calculated that their common ancestor lived between 4825 and 4500 years ago, and published these data in August 2008. In November, Haack's paper was published dating fossil haplotypes R1a to 4,600 years ago. Actually, the countdown of the new science of DNA genealogy began in the summer of 2008.

Haak and his colleagues identified not only the haplogroup, but also about a dozen haplotypes. “About” - because not everything was completely defined, some with gaps. Since it turned out to be a family, everyone’s haplogroups turned out to be similar to each other. Like these ones:

13/14 25 16 11 11 14 10 12/13 30 14/15 14 19 13 15/16 11 23 (ancient R1a)

They turned out to be very similar to the calculated haplotype of the common ancestor of haplogroup R1a among ethnic Russians:

13 25 16 11 11 14 10 13 30 15 14 20 12 16 11 23 (ethnic Russians R1a)

Double numbers in fossil haplotypes are those where they could not be accurately determined; variations are possible. Only two alleles (as these numbers are called) in fossil haplotypes clearly differ from the calculated ones, and they are highlighted in color. In other words, these proto-German haplotypes are slightly different from the proto-Russian ones, which, in general, is not surprising. Moreover, this fossil haplotype belonged to one specific family, in which mutations are always possible. But it is clear that these haplotypes belong to close relatives. Two mutations between the haplotypes mean that the common ancestor of the “proto-Russian” and “proto-German” haplotypes lived about 575 years before them, that is, about 5200 years ago. This is determined quite simply - the mutation rate constant for the given haplotypes is equal to 0.044 mutations per haplotype per conditional generation of 25 years. Therefore, we find that their common ancestor lived 2/2/0.044 = 23 generations, that is, 23x25 = 575 years before them. This places their common ancestor at 5175 years ago, which is consistent with the "age" of the common ancestor of the R1a genus on the Russian Plain determined independently.

This is how fossil haplotypes confirm the calculations and conclusions of DNA genealogy, but provide the basis for archeology.

R1a, Abakan-Minusinsk, Southern Siberia, 3800-3400 and 2800-1900 years ago

Another significant discovery is the identification of R1a in the Khakass-Minusinsk basin, many thousands of kilometers from Germany and generally from the Russian Plain, with a burial dating to 3800-3400 years ago (Keyser et al., 2009), that is, only a thousand years later from R1a in Germany. During this time, the Aryans crossed this entire distance, about 3600 years ago they went to India and Iran, more precisely, to Hindustan and the Iranian plateau, and, as we see, they were already not far from Altai and the northern border of Mongolia, in today's terms. This -
Andronovo archaeological culture. Yes, why do we think that they were Aryans in Khakassia? The same ones, or brothers of those who, as Aryans, moved to India? Let's figure it out.

The inset shows (numbered) the locations of archaeological sites from which bone materials were taken for DNA determination. It can be seen that this is the distant Trans-Urals - several thousand kilometers east of the Urals, north of the Mongolian border, in the Altai region. From Keyser et al. (2009).

Here are the fossil haplotypes of haplogroup R1a (3800-3400 years ago):
13 25 16 11 11 14 10 14 11 32 15 14 20 12 16 11 23 (ancient R1a)

In the same work, excavations were carried out dating back to 2800-1900 years ago, in the burials of the Tagar culture, in the same territory, and again only haplotypes of the R1a group were discovered. Although a thousand to two thousand years have passed, the haplotypes have remained almost the same:

13 24/25 16 11 11 14 10 13/14 11 31 15 14 20 12/13 16 11 23 (ancient R1a)

There are a couple of options, the alleles have begun to diverge slightly, but even then not for everyone. And this despite a rather large time distance. This is the reliability of haplotypes - they change slightly over time. If they have changed in several markers, then millennia have passed. And since there is not much difference, we will continue to consider the most ancient haplotypes, they are more interesting in the context of our story. By the way, it should also be noted that one haplotype out of ten identified turned out to be from haplogroup C(xC3), which means haplogroup C, but not subclade C3. This is not very interesting - the assignment is unclear, and the haplotype is clearly local and does not reflect any migrations. We'll come back to it later. Its haplotype, of course, is completely different compared to those given above; almost all alleles are different:

14 22 15 9 12 13 11 14 12 30 16 14 19 11 15 10 22
So let's not consider it for now.

We look above at the haplotype from Germany and at the haplotypes of ethnic Russians, for comparison with the Andronovo haplotypes from the Minusinsk Basin. Blue indicates a marker that was not determined in ancient haplotypes in Germany, but in Russians it is the same - 11. The difference with the haplotype of the common ancestor of ethnic Russians is only in the pair 14-32 in fossil haplotypes, and 13-30 in the ancestors of ethnic Russians. In fact, there are two mutations between them, since according to the rules, the detailed reasons for which I will not explain here, these are pairs 14-18 and 13-17. The numbers 32 and 30 are the sums of the first two, this is how data is usually represented. Well, why are they Aryans, where does this come from? After all, the authors of the article did not say a word about this. And here's where it comes from. The pair 14-32 is typical for the Aryans of India, Iran, the Middle East (UAE, Bahrain, Saudi Arabia), that is, where the Aryans reached, the estimated dating of common ancestors is the same 3500-4000 years. Here are examples of modern haplotypes of their direct descendants:

13 25 16 11 11 14 12 12 10 14 11 32 - India (Brahmin)
13 25 15 11 11 14 12 12 10 14 11 32 — India
13 25 15 10 11 14 12 13 10 14 11 32 — Iran
13 25 16 11 11 13 12 12 11 14 11 32 — UAE

13 25 15 10 11 14 12 12 10 14 11 32 — Arab (country not specified)
13 25 15 11 11 14 12 12 10 14 11 32 — Bahrain
13 24 15 10 11 14 12 12 10 14 11 32 — Saudi Arabia

13 25 16 11 11 14 Х Х 10 14 11 32 - fossil haplotype

So, all the above haplotypes of India, Iran, and the Middle East were analyzed very deeply; these people, the owners of the haplotypes, did not spare money. All of them have a chain of characteristic mutations, SNPs (from the abbreviation SNP), which is built like this: R1a-Z94-L657. Here - not only the general genus R1a, but also more specific tribes. Z94 (old name L342.2) are steppe tribes of haplogroup R1a, which are traditionally, but definitely narrowly, called Aryans in archeology. Again, their language is traditionally considered Aryan in linguistics. Although linguists and archaeologists do not explain how their Aryan language, reflected in the form of toponyms and hydronyms (which, however, are part of toponyms), ended up throughout the Russian Plain, including the Russian North, if the Aryans were only in the southern steppes. They also do not explain how the traditional Aryan sign - the swastika - ended up again throughout the Russian Plain, and how it turned out that Vologda lacemakers have been weaving it into their products for centuries, if not millennia.

They also do not explain how the “steppe” Aryan sign ended up in the Balkans, in the ancient Adriatic (in the picture). Or are the Balkans the southern Russian and Ukrainian steppes? In short, linguists and archaeologists really narrow down the Aryan area, the times of their origin and migrations. For linguists, these are only “Iranians” and “Indo-Aryans,” and DNA genealogy expands these concepts.

The entire R1a haplogroup is an Aryan haplogroup; in Europe, the “steppe Aryans” are only a fragment of the life and migrations of an ancient people who arrived in Europe, the Balkans at least 8 thousand years ago, but rather 9-10 thousand years ago, and from there, after spreading throughout Europe, he moved to the Russian Plain, about which the Aryans had wonderful memories as “Ariana Vaeja”, “Aryan space”.

It seems that the Z94 tribe first arrived from the Balkans to the Dniester-Don region, and then moved further east along the southern, steppe and forest-steppe route - it was not convenient for them to move in chariots through the forests. Then, very soon, one of the Aryans got the L657 snip mutation, the descendants survived and multiplied, and now we see the same snip, the mark of the steppe Aryans, in the Middle East, and in India, and in the Minusinsk Basin in Southern Siberia .

This is how fossil haplotypes advance our knowledge. But not on their own, but certainly in conjunction with extensive data from DNA genealogy and other disciplines.

R1a, Tarim Basin, northwestern China, 4000-3800 years ago

The map below shows a general view of the Tarim Basin and the Taklamakan Desert, where the “Tarim Mummies” were found. All 7 people tested showed haplogroup R1a, haplotypes were not determined (or not reported).

The article (Li, Mair, etc.) argues mainly “in terms of concepts,” as is customary in population genetics. For example, since they are Caucasians, they must certainly be migrants from Europe. If they are dressed in fabrics similar to Scottish plaid, they are certainly from Scotland. The authors, apparently, did not suspect that Southern Siberia was the main region for the appearance of “Caucasian” (according to anthropological characteristics) people and the birthplace of haplogroup R1a approximately 20 thousand years ago. The fact that the type of ancient fabrics could have been brought, on the contrary, by ancient migrants to Europe, also does not occur to them, the authors. Popgeneticists do not like alternative hypotheses under uncertain conditions; they snatch one, and it becomes the only one. Nothing could be further from science.

Of course, the Tarim R1a could have arrived from Europe 4000 years ago or earlier, but this must be shown, and not discussed “in terms of concepts”. In the absence of haplotypes, this is almost hopeless. Why the authors did not show or identify the haplotypes remains a mystery. It would immediately become clear whether they were Europeans or not. The authors suggest that the discovered people are anthropologically similar to the inhabitants of the Afanasyevskaya archaeological culture (5500-4500 years ago), which then further shifts the discovered R1a carriers into antiquity. Therefore, the alternative remains unresolved - either these are ancient, autochthonous R1a, whose ancestors were never in Europe, or these are the descendants of migrants who, it turns out, left Europe no later than 6 thousand years ago and crossed Eurasia much earlier than the “classical” Aryan haplogroup R1a-Z94.

In principle, this is not excluded, moreover, there are some considerations for this, but science is not yet ready to accept the idea of ​​​​two different, separate migrations of the Aryans across all of Eurasia with a difference of one and a half to two thousand years, that is, with the arrival in Altai 5500 and 3500 years ago. Although this may change the idea of ​​who the creators of the civilization of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro were five thousand years ago, and how the Aryan swastika ended up there in those days. Let’s stop here, because traditionalist historians are probably going crazy and climbing the wall, although they themselves cannot explain who the creators of this ancient Indian civilization were. Unfortunately, in modern historical and linguistic sciences, too often it is more important not to get an answer to a question, but to brand those who receive the answer as “a step away from the general line.” From the “mainstream”, so to speak.

R1a, northern and northeastern Mongolia

The fossil haplotypes discovered there are not very ancient, 2300-2000 years ago, the border of our era. A paper ten years ago, one of the first in this direction, determined haplotypes for 27 fossil skeletal remains (Keyser et al., 2003). However, haplogroups were not determined for them, and the haplotypes themselves had many gaps, and this work remained generally unclaimed. The authors were more interested in who is buried in which grave, who is the father and who are the brothers, and for this you do not need to know the haplogroup.

Although, if you look closely at this pile of numbers, you can see a series of six identical haplotypes, clearly of haplogroup R1a:

13 24 15 10 12 15 Х Х Х Х 11 29 – 22 23 (ancient R1a, 2300 years ago)

If these same markers (and the markers are indicated in the article) are compared with the corresponding markers of the ancestral haplotype of the Russian Plain (aka the ancestral haplotype of ethnic Russians), we get the following:

13 25 16 11 11 14 Х Х Х Х 11 30 – 19 23 (ethnic Russians R1a)

This is a completely distant haplotype; it is shared with the Mongolian by 9 mutations on 10 markers, which corresponds (mutation rate constant of 0.018 per haplotype per conventional generation of 25 years) to a time distance between them of approximately 23 thousand years, and places their common ancestor at 15 thousand years back. This is an autochthonous carrier of haplogroup R1a; he and his ancestors have never been to Europe. This again confirms that the homeland of haplogroup R1a is Central Asia, which includes Altai and northern Mongolia. But if they determined that this was R1a, they would certainly conclude, “based on concepts,” that this is a European haplotype that came from Europe. Population genetics.

The next paper on ancient Mongolian haplotypes was published seven years later (Kim et al., 2010). The authors analyzed three fossil skeletal remains dating back 2000 years ago, one turned out to be female, the other two had male Y-chromosomal haplogroups C3 and R1a. Interestingly, the latter had the maternal haplogroup (mtDNA) U2e1, that is, most likely, he actually arrived from the Russian Plain, where mtDNA haplogroup U is the oldest. Although it could well be that the mother is a descendant of a woman from the Russian Ranina, and the carrier of haplogroup R1a himself is an autochthon. Although the authors, naturally, announced that since R1a, it came from Europe. These population geneticists are so predictable it's sad.

The craniology of the R1a carrier is typical of the ancient “Aryans”. This is what his skull looks like:

This is a typical mesocephalic, cranial index 0.77. The cranial index is the ratio of the width of the skull to its length, from the bridge of the nose to the crown, according to the article - 142 and 185 mm, respectively. According to anthropology, it is a typical “Russian” and “Slavic” variant, although there are variations in the fossil skulls of the ancient Slavs, because the origin is different. Slavs of haplogroup R1a are usually mesocephalic (0.75-0.80) and brachycephalic (0.80 and above), typical “round-headed Russian boys.”

And don’t be scared, don’t remember the Nazis, craniometry is a standard anthropometric procedure. But putting someone in a camp for the shape of a skull is a different matter. Unfortunately, illiterate but suspicious people often confuse one with the other. For them, the word Aryan means fascists. He measured the skull - again a fascist. All that remains is to remember about the brain without convolutions. This is, of course, a progressive, a man of the future. Bitter joke... We've sorted out the fossil haplogroups R1a. Let's move on to fossil haplogroups G.

Haplogroup G2a, archaeological culture of Linear Band Ware, 6015-6260 years ago

Excavations took place in Derenburg, Germany. The resulting article is lengthy (Haak et al., 2010), 16 pages, plus appendices, 17 authors, but behind the abundance of talk the essence of what was actually found is lost. And this is what was found: during excavations of the burial of a culture of linear-ribbon ceramics with dates of 6015-6257 years ago, with an error of plus or minus 30-40 years, 26 remains were recovered, mitochondrial DNA was determined for 22, and Y-chromosomal haplogroups were determined for three , and only for one the definition was specific - haplogroup G2a3 (mtDNA haplogroup W). For the other two, the definition of the Y-DNA haplogroup was more evasive - F*(xG,H,I,J,K).

13 mtDNA turned out to belong to the currently relatively common haplogroups H, HV, V, K, T, J; the haplogroups of another five mtDNAs (W, N1a) are relatively rare, and four mtDNAs belong to currently unknown haplogroups (T2, U5a1a). Everything else is conversations with assumptions, stretches and thereby drawing lines through two points, or even through one, in any direction.

But the authors didn’t write the most important thing; apparently, they simply didn’t know. The fact is that if you collect carriers of haplogroup G2a in Europe, with tested haplotypes, and there are many of them, many hundreds, then the common ancestor of them all lived only 4000 years ago, and not in Europe, but in the Caucasus, Iran, and the Middle East. In Europe, dating a common ancestor of 5000-6000 years ago is observed only for a small number of haplotypes, in the Pyrenees. There are none in Central Europe. In the Caucasus there is an abundance of haplotypes of haplogroup G2a, especially in the western Caucasus, among the Abkhazians, Circassians, Shapsugs, Ossetians, but the time of the common ancestor is no deeper than 4500-4750 years ago. These are fugitives from Europe in those days.

Why at those times? But because 4800-4500 years ago, Erbins, carriers of haplogroup R1b, arrived in Europe. They took Europe literally in pincers, entering there from the Pyrenees (Bell-Beaker culture, 4800 years ago), also from the Apennines and the islands of the Mediterranean Sea (4500 years ago), and from the Black Sea, Pontic steppes (4500 years ago). They treated the local residents, to put it mildly, unfriendly. As a result, almost all haplogroups of Old Europe disappeared, some were able to escape - haplogroup R1a to the Russian Plain, G2a - through Asia Minor to Mesopotamia and further to the Caucasus, E1b - to the Balkans and North Africa, I1 - to Scandinavia and the British Isles, I2a1b – to Eastern Europe and the British Isles.

All of them went through the “population bottleneck” and were reborn again, from miraculously surviving fugitives, at different times, from 4000 to 2300 years ago, that is, the latter took at least two thousand years to come to its senses. This is the “Dinaric subclade” of haplogroup I2a1b in Eastern Europe, which apparently hid in the mountains of the Eastern Carpathians, and from there spread to the north, to the Baltic, and to all the countries of Eastern Europe, from Poland to Greece, Ukraine, Belarus, Russia. The largest number of them settled in the Balkans, and knowing that blessed land, you can understand them. As a result, in the countries of the former Yugoslavia their share in the total male population reaches 40%. That’s why they called that subclade of haplogroup I2 Dinaric, after the Dinaric Alps in the Adriatic.

This is the story with the fossil haplotypes of haplogroup G2a3, whose carriers lived in Europe six thousand years ago or more, but about 4500 years ago they suffered a tragedy. So far only DNA genealogy has been able to reveal it. This is, of course, not in the cited article.

Haplogroups G2a and I2a in southern France, 5000 years ago

22 male haplotypes from an ancient local necropolis were analyzed, three complete and the remaining incomplete haplotypes were identified. Of these, two haplotypes belonged to haplogroup I2a1, and twenty to haplogroup G2a (Lacan et al., 2011).

The first two are as follows (one haplotype is complete, the second coincided with it based on rare identified fragments):

13 23 16 10 12 X X X 12 13 11 28 16 15 22 12 14 10 22 (fossils I2a1, France)

And here is the ancestral haplotype for several modern branches that passed the bottleneck of the European haplogroup I2a1 population, with an age of 2000-3000 years (for different branches), and with a reconstructed ancestral haplotype 5600 years ago (this is no longer in the cited article):

13 23 16 10 12 12 11 13 11 13 11 28 17 15 21 11 14 10 22 (ancestral I2a1, Europe)

Differences in alleles are noted. Four mutations of difference (with a mutation rate constant of 0.042 mutations per haplotype per generation) between these two haplotypes separates them by 2625 years, and places their common ancestor 6600 years ago, which is generally somewhat older than the date that was reconstructed, but it is tolerable , considering that it was a reconstruction. We see again that carriers of haplogroup I2a lived in Old Europe 5-7 thousand years ago, but their descendants survived and began to multiply only 2000-3000 years ago. The same story repeated itself with the daughter subclade I2a1b (Dinaric subclade) mentioned in the previous section. Its “updated” age is 2300 years. So the carriers of haplotypes I2a in the south of France had only a few centuries left to live a quiet life. Annushka has already spilled the oil. The carriers of haplogroup R1b will land in the Pyrenees 200 years later after a long campaign from Central Asia, and move north into continental Europe, like the Bell Beaker culture, and within a thousand years will spread throughout Europe. In addition, as described above, Atlantic warming and associated droughts will soon occur.

The same tragic note can be applied to the carriers of haplogroup G2a, whose remains were found by archaeologists in the same necropolis, in ten times larger quantities. Their most common haplotypes

14 23 15 10 13 15 X X 11 12 11 30 18 16 20 11 14 10 21 (fossils G2a-P15, France)

They, too, almost disappeared from Europe in the next few centuries (this is not in the cited article, like what follows, either). Those that reached the Caucasus moved on to the next subclade. In the south of France there were G2a-P15, their daughter branches, mainly G2a1c2a-P303, reached the Caucasus, and now up to two-thirds and three-quarters live there among the Abkhazians, Circassians, Shapsugs, Ossetians - both Digorians and Ironians. Their updated ancestral haplotype is, respectively:

14 23 15 10 13 14 X X 11 12 11 30 17 16 20 12 16 10 21 (ancestral G2a-P303, Caucasus)

Its estimated age is 3100 years. A difference of five mutations (corresponding to 3350 years between them) places the common ancestor of the ancient "French" and Caucasian haplotypes at (3100+5000+3350)/2 = 5725 years ago. Also quite an acceptable value.

Interestingly, none of the ancient DNA samples examined in the south of France contained a mutation responsible for the digestibility of lactose in milk. In other words, none of them could drink fresh milk without severe discomfort. It seems that this gene (more precisely, a mutation in the gene leading to lactose tolerance) was brought to Europe by Erbins, carriers of the R1b haplogroup, several centuries later.

Haplogroups G2a and E1b in northeastern Spain, 7000 years ago

Of the six people in the burial, five turned out to be G2a, one - E1b-V13. It is interesting to compare the haplotypes of the “Spanish” G2a with the “French” ones, after two thousand years, which are given in the previous section.

13 23 15 10 14 14 X X 11 12 11 29 18 16 22 12 15 10 21 (fossils G2a-P15, Spain)

They differ by seven mutations, which places their common ancestor in Europe about 8,500 years ago. The main point of the calculations is that the seven mutations between the two fossil haplotypes shown occur on average over two thousand years, so it is unlikely that the French haplotypes are direct descendants of the Spanish ones. It is more likely that both of them are descendants of a more ancient ancestor who lived one and a half thousand years before the Spanish burial. But in any case, carriers of haplogroup G2a are ancient inhabitants of Europe. Again we have to repeat that now there are relatively few of them there, mostly those who returned to Europe recently, already in our era, mainly from Turkey, Iran, and the Caucasus. There is also a fairly large population of Ashkenazi Jews, but this haplogroup came to them only 650 years ago.

A single haplotype of haplogroup E1b, subgroup V-13, again shows that the fate of its descendants in Europe after 2-3 thousand years was unenviable; almost all of them died. Let me remind you that between 4800 and 4500 years ago the Erbins, carriers of haplogroup R1b, entered Europe and completely changed Old Europe. It is possible that their invasion was accompanied by sudden climate changes and droughts. True, it is somewhat strange that everyone died, but the Erbins survived. There is some kind of mystery here. Maybe because only the Erbins in that ancient Europe could drink fresh milk, which gave them a powerful incentive to survive in difficult conditions? More on this below.

Currently, approximately 60% of the total population are carriers of haplogroup R1b in Europe. 5000 years ago there was none, figuratively speaking. Figuratively - because maybe someone wandered in by accident, or was captured and brought, but I’m talking about more general patterns. If we now collect all the available haplotypes of the E1b-V13 group throughout Europe and around, they form a symmetrical DNA family tree, which indicates that they all descended from one common ancestor (there are other criteria for verifying this, I will not give them now) . Let me give you an example of their haplotype tree to make it clear what DNA genealogy works with.

All 193 67-marker haplotypes contain 2857 mutations, which shows that the common ancestor of all lived 3525 ± 360 years ago. I dwell on this in such detail to show the gap in time between the dating of the fossil haplotype of group V-13, and the dating of the common ancestor of modern carriers of the same group. The gap is almost four thousand years. In fact, the rupture most likely began approximately 4,500 years ago and continued for a thousand years. This was the time of survival of the DNA genealogical line E1b-V13 until survival finally took place.

Now let's check how the fossil haplotype compares with modern V-13s. The fossil has the form
13 24 13 10 16 19 11 13 11 31 16 14 20 10 22 (fossil E1b-V13, Spain)

The ancestral haplotype to which the tree shown below converges, in 67-marker format, looks like
13 24 13 10 16 18 11 12 12 13 11 30 — 15 9 9 11 11 26 14 20 32 14 16 17 17 — 9 11 19 21 17 12 17 20 31 34 11 10 — 10 8 15 15 8 11 10 8 12 10 0 23 24 18 11 12 12 17 7 12 22 18 12 13 12 14 11 11 11 11 (ancestral haplotype E1b-V13, 3525 years ago)

Tree of 67-marker haplotypes of haplogroup E1b-V13.
Constructed from 193 haplotypes collected throughout Europe.
In the markers shown for the fossil haplotype, it is reduced to this:

13 24 13 10 16 18 12 13 11 30 15 14 20 10 22 (ancestral haplotype E1b-V13, 3525 years ago)

Four mutations between the haplotypes (marked) separate them by 2625 years, and place their common ancestor at (2625+3525+7000)/2 = 6575±700 years ago, which corresponds to the dating of the fossil haplotype within the error of calculations. Thus, a direct descendant of the “Spanish” haplotype survived through the population bottleneck, and he took the baton of the genus, which has now formed the haplotype tree shown above.

Again, none of the six fossil DNA samples from a Spanish funeral cave from 7,000 years ago contained the mutation responsible for the digestibility of lactose in milk. This, in general, is no longer surprising, since even after two thousand years in the south of France this mutation was not discovered either. It apparently did appear with the Erbins about 5,000 years ago, and may have given them certain advantages in nutrition and, therefore, survival.

“Ice Man”, Ötzi the Iceman, haplogroup G2a, Alpine mountains on the border of Austria and Italy, 4550 years ago

The story of the mummy of the “ice man,” named Otzi (after the mountain range where he was found), and discovered in 1991 in a mountain glacier, is known to most people who follow events in the world. This is the oldest mummified person in the natural conditions of Europe. Its haplogroup is G2a2b, that is, the same haplogroup G2a, which just at that time began to disappear from Old Europe. One can, of course, fantasize that the G2a genocide began with him, but one cannot generalize an isolated case so much. In those days, he was not the first, and he was not the last, who fell victim at the hands of murderers, for various reasons.

Pharaoh Tutankhamun (3333-3323 years ago), haplogroup R1b

On February 17, 2010, Egyptian Minister of Culture Farouk Hosny and Secretary General of Egypt's Supreme Council of Antiquities Zahi Hawass announced the results of research from 2007-2009, according to which the genetic characteristics of Tutankhamun were determined (to some extent) and his haplogroup was determined. The haplogroup was not announced, and, judging by various signs, the leaders of Egypt did not want to announce it. It was clear that the haplogroup was somehow not the one that the leaders of Egypt would like to see. That is, it was clear that this was not a typical Egyptian haplogroup, but some kind of foreign one, and therefore the pharaohs were also foreign. This apparently injured the patriotic feelings of the Egyptian leadership.

But there was a leak of information. At first there were persistent rumors that Tutankhamun had haplogroup R1b, that is, “European,” which means, in the minds of ordinary people, Tutankhamun’s ancestors came from Europe. It is possible that they were the British or the French, hated even from the memories of the 1956 war. Therefore, the haplogroup was classified. Based on this, it was haplogroup R1b that was most likely for the pharaoh. Then there was a leak of information about the haplotype itself, which, in fact, belonged to the R1b1a2 haplogroup.

Finally, the 16-marker haplotype itself was made public on the website of iGENEA, a Swiss company (Zurich)

13 24 14 11 11 14 Х Х 10 13 13 30 16 14 19 10 15 12 (Tutankhamun haplotype)

It is already clear to an understanding person that this is not the usual “European” haplotype R1b1a2, which the Swiss company could slip in, allegedly passing off as the pharaoh haplotype. The fact is that almost all European haplotypes of the R1b1a2 group have allele 12 (immediately after X), but here it is 10. This is rare, such are only about 0.5% of European R1b1a2 haplotypes.

IGENEA, as a commercial company, naturally immediately launched a commercial campaign, a version of the Cinderella fairy tale. Namely, it announced a competition to try on this glass slipper for $179 or $399, which is the price for determining the haplotype for everyone, in the usual or improved version of testing. It was announced that the search for European relatives of the pharaoh was beginning.

At the same time, attractive “information” appeared on the company’s website, which makes your ears wither. For example, that haplogroup R1b1a2 appeared 9500 years ago in the Black Sea region, and along with the advancement of agriculture, starting from 7000 years ago, the carriers of this haplogroup moved to Europe. They were supposedly Indo-Europeans who spread across Europe in several waves shortly after 7,000 years ago.

True, it is not clear where this haplogroup came from in the Black Sea region, although one can guess that the legs there are growing from the works of Maria Gimbutas about the invasion of Indo-Europeans into Europe at about the same time. True, R1a1 carriers must be Indo-Europeans, and then it is not clear what R1b1a2 has to do with it, but that does not happen. Moreover, iGENEA reports that the “Indo-European mound culture” spread across Europe starting 6,400 years ago - and these were R1b1a2. Where iGENEA got this from, based on what data about R1b1a2 in Europe in such early times, remains unknown. In fact, before 4500 years ago, that is, two thousand years later, R1b1a2 were not recorded in Europe, and only the reconstruction of their basic haplotypes gives a dating of 4800 years ago for their arrival in Europe and the beginning of the Bell Beaker culture.

So where did the R1b1a2 haplogroup come from among the Egyptian pharaohs? Without dating, pointless fortune-telling will only continue, since this is done by population geneticists who chronically do not take into account the haplotypes themselves, their alleles and mutations, and therefore dating. They don’t accept them because they don’t know how to date them.

Let's see what can be done in this regard. Let's take another look at Tutankhamun's haplotype:

13 24 14 11 11 14 Х Х 10 13 13 30 16 14 19 10 15 12

It differs by 6 mutations from the ancestral haplotype of haplogroup R-M269* (with an age of approximately 7000 years ago)

12 24 14 11 11 14 X X 12 13 13 29 16 15 19 11 15 12

And 6-8 mutations from other ancestral European haplotypes descending from M269.

In other words, the pharaoh’s haplotype is not European at all; it is too far from all European ones. Based on all these mutational differences, it turns out that the common ancestor of the pharaoh and the European (and Asian) haplotypes lived at least 6000-8000 years ago. This is, naturally, not a European haplotype, where the common ancestors overwhelmingly have an “age” of 4200-4500 years ago for the most ancient European R1b1a2 subclades.

So, the R1b1a2 haplotype of Pharaoh Tutankhamun is not European. We continue the question - where did it come from in Egypt 3330 years ago, if not from Europe?

I answered this question several years ago in a series of publications. After arriving in the Middle East along the migration route from the Russian Plain (7000-6500 years ago) [and before that from Central Asia 16 thousand years ago] through the Caucasus (6000 years ago) and Anatolia (6000 years ago), founding Sumer (5500 years ago ago and later), with dates in Lebanon (5200±670 years ago), carriers of haplogroup R1b1a2 headed west, along the North African coast, passed through Egypt approximately 5500-5200 years ago, and eventually reached the Atlantic, crossed Gibraltar and landed in the Pyrenees about 5,000 years ago. This was the beginning of the Bell Beaker culture, which moved north from the Pyrenees about 4,800 years ago and settled Europe between 4,500 and 3,000 years ago.

Data on Tutankhamun's haplotype show that during this route, R1b1a2 carriers established a ruling elite in Egypt, which marked the beginning of the pharaonic dynasties. When it was? According to the dating of the migration route, it is between 5500 and 5200 years ago. Indeed, 6000 years ago they were still in the Caucasus and Anatolia, 5500-5200 years ago - in the Middle East, and 4800 years ago - already in the Pyrenees.

Now some background information. Tutankhamun, pharaoh of the 18th dynasty of Ancient Egypt, reigned 1333-1323. BC, that is, approximately 3330 years ago, if the date is converted into a form suitable for calculations within the framework of DNA genealogy. Before him in the XVIII dynasty, the pharaohs Ahmose I → Thutmose I → Thutmose III → Amenhotep II → Amenhotep III → Akhenaten → Horemheb → Tutankhamun ruled. Tutankhamun was the son of Akhenaten, and the dynasty traces its ancestry to Thutmose I (1504-1492 BC), and possibly from Ahmose I.

Ahmose I, founder of the XVIII dynasty, also known as Ahmes, Ahmose or Amasis I, son of Sekenen-Ra II, reigned 1550-1525 BC, and lived 3560 years ago. This was the time of the war with the Hyksos, in which his father died. Before Ahmose I, 18 pharaohs ruled, but according to a special principle of counting, Ahmose begins the 18th dynasty, in which Tutankhamun was the last, the eighth in a row. Before this dynasty there were five Middle Kingdom pharaohs (Mentuhotep II → Amenemhet I → Senusret I → Senusret III → Amenemhet III), before them seven Old Kingdom pharaohs (Djoser → Sneferu → Khufu → Khafre → Menkaura → Sahura → Peopi II), and before These are the six pharaohs of the early kingdom (Narmer → Menes → Khor Akha → Jer → Den → Khasekhemui).

The ancestor of the entire line of pharaohs, Narmer, pharaoh of the Early Kingdom, Dynasty Zero, lived in the 32nd century BC, that is, 5200 years ago. It is noteworthy that his name is not in the royal lists, that is, he came from nowhere, but he was the conqueror of Lower Egypt and united it with Upper Egypt. Since Narmer himself was not a documented king, historical sources consider his son Menes, who already had an official royal title, to be the founder of Ancient Egypt. A new era began in the history of Egypt and a new royal line, the line of the pharaohs. As follows from the above, the line of haplogroup R1b1a2. It is quite possible that this line was stopped and appeared again, not necessarily as a continuation of the previous one.

Sources list five main theories about Narmer's origins. However, in fact, none of them indicate anything definite. These “theories” do not say whether Menes was Narmer’s heir, or Menes and Narmer are the same person, how long the unification of Egypt took, when it was completed, whether the winner of the uprising in Lower Egypt was the true unifier of Egypt, and so on. . As we see, there is absolutely nothing there about the origin of Narmer. But I don’t mind, let my theory be the sixth. It means that Narmer or his direct ancestors, carriers of haplogroup R1b1a2, arrived from the Middle East, and before that from the Caucasus and the Russian Plain, and before that from the Urals and Central Asia. In turn, the descendants of these people now make up up to 60% of the population of Western and Central Europe. They are, naturally, not the descendants of the Egyptian pharaohs, they are the descendants of their ancestors.

R1b, Germany, 4700-4500 years ago

DNA samples were successfully studied in two skeletal remains from a Bell Beaker culture burial in Kromsdorf, Germany, southwest of Berlin. Both turned out to be haplogroup R1b. Haplotypes are not described in the article (Lee et al., 2012). Radiocarbon dating of the burials showed 4690-4560 years ago.

Perhaps characteristic is the difference in the position of the corpse between carriers of haplogroups R1a and R1b. In both cases the position was crouched on the side, but for R1a and their women it was facing south, the men on the right side, the women on the left; for R1b - facing east, men on the left side, women on the right. Considering that burial rituals are among the most stable in ancient societies, perhaps, with the receipt of new data and their verification and double-checking, this may become an indication that the remains belong to certain haplogroups-cultures-tribes.

For example, on the Russian Plain, this is all mixed up, since no one made assignments to haplogroups for burials and skeletal remains, but there were clearly carriers of both R1a and R1b, and geographically in different cultures and at different times. Archaeologists view this as a “choke”, which is why there is confusion about where the roots of these cultures are and why they diverge in different directions. But they diverge because the families are different, each has a separate history, they came from different sides and different countries of the world. Again, DNA genealogy will help put things in order here. True, this is a very distant prospect, at least in Russia, where such research has not yet begun.

I2a, R1a, R1b, Germany, 3000-2700 years ago

A group burial was discovered in the Liechtenstein Cave in Lower Saxony, Germany. The cave, which extended to a depth of 115 meters, was discovered in 1972. In 2006, a dissertation published in German reported the results of DNA testing of 16 men from the burial, twelve of whom had haplogroup I2a2b-L38, two had haplogroup R1a, and one had R1b-U106. Since the source of the publication turned out to be inaccessible, there was no strict dating, and the estimated time of burial - between 3000 and 2700 years ago - was not something sensational, the work was noticed, but nothing more. She did not take her rightful place in literature.

Judging by the determined haplotypes, the carriers of the tested haplogroup I2a in the burial belonged to four hereditary lines, haplogroup R1a - to one (both haplotypes were the same). The largest group of I2a carriers had the following haplotype:

13 25 16 11 13 17 Х Х 11 12 11 28 15 10 (ancient I2a2b)

Others had variations in markers second, third, and third from end. The R1a haplotype was:
13 25 15 11 11 13 Х Х 11 13 11 30 14 11 (ancient R1a)

Single haplotype R1b:
13 23 14 11 11 14 X X 12 13 13 29 15 12 (ancient R1b-U106)

They are all similar to the ancestral haplotypes to which the haplotypes of modern European carriers of the indicated haplogroups converge, and which are correspondingly equal:

13 25 16 11 13 16 11 13 11 12 11 28 15 10 (ancestral I2a2b, 5000 years ago)
13 25 16 11 11 14 12 12 10 13 11 30 14 11 (ancestral R1a, 4600 years ago)
13 23 14 11 11 14 12 12 12 13 13 29 15 12 (ancestral R1b-U106, 4200 years ago)

The last haplotype, by pure chance, is generally identical to the fossil.

One way or another, all these data show that fossil and modern haplotypes are very similar, since modern haplotypes cluster around the ancestral haplotypes, diverging from them symmetrically along the alleles. The degree of divergence is determined by the time that has passed since the era when the common ancestors lived.

Anatoly A. Klyosov,
Doctor of Chemical Sciences, Professor

The formation of chromosomes occurs at the time of meiosis, when, in the process of crossing over, each randomly takes approximately half from the maternal chromosome and half from the paternal chromosome; which specific genes will be inherited from the mother and which from the father is not known, everything is decided by chance.

Only one male chromosome, Y, does not participate in this lottery; it is entirely passed from father to son like a relay baton. Let me clarify that women do not have this Y chromosome at all.

In each subsequent generation, mutations occur in certain areas of the Y chromosome, called loci, which will be transmitted to all subsequent generations through the male gender.

It was thanks to these mutations that it became possible to reconstruct the genera. There are only about 400 loci on the Y chromosome, but only about a hundred are used for comparative haplotype analysis and genera reconstruction.

In the so-called loci, or they are also called STR markers, there are from 7 to 42 tandem repeats, the overall pattern of which is unique for each person. After a certain number of generations, mutations occur and the number of tandem repeats changes up or down, and thus on the general tree it will be seen that the more mutations, the older the common ancestor for a group of haplotypes.

The haplogroups themselves do not carry genetic information, because Genetic information is located in autosomes - the first 22 pairs of chromosomes. You can see the distribution of genetic components in Europe. Haplogroups are just markers of days gone by, at the dawn of the formation of modern peoples.

What haplogroups are most common among Russians?

The modern Internet is a great thing. On the one hand, it contains a lot of interesting and useful information. Information available on the Internet that can be used to develop certain concepts, but if a) the author has some knowledge on the topic b) when comparing it with counterarguments c) when analyzing arguments and counterarguments from the standpoint of logic, context, verifiability, compliance with the general and related bodies of information in terms of consistency.

Unfortunately, this approach - essentially a source study, which requires, in fact, a serious humanitarian (exactly this kind of) education and, at a minimum, a flexible mind and refined logic - is not found among everyone. Unscrupulous journalists, bloggers and various types of online crazy people like to operate on data taken out of context. Sometimes the information of the latter contains references to “seemingly scientific” arguments and seems “evidence-based” to many inexperienced people. Usually their imaginary scientific nature is revealed by smart people quite quickly. As a rule, pseudoscience comes out immediately when the texts talk about “they are hiding the truth from us.” Any conspiracy theory always deals with delusional, unverifiable and unprovable things and outright fakes - such as the “Dulles Plan” invented by the commies (which never existed), the mythical phrase “Stalin took Russia with a plow and left with an atomic bomb” (which he never wrote and Churchill did not say), a classic forgery of a source - “Vlesova’s Book” (written, of course, by a self-taught White emigrant, and not by the ancient Slavs), and numerous exercises by Bushkov about “The Russia that never existed”, based on the nonsense works of Fomenko and Nosovsky - as an example, “The Great Wall of China, built by the ancient Rus, because the battlements are not on the same side” or “The Great Wall was built by Mao Zedong”, all kinds of chudinovism and leftism (everyone can buy the diplomas of these “academicians” for 300 dollars), etc.

In various kinds of pseudo-historical discussions concerning the historical origin of Russians and Slavs, it is now fashionable to interweave “haplogroups”. With the light hand of a certain “scientist” (not a biologist at all) Klesov, who lives (like “academician” Levashov) in the USA (hence the ridiculously familiar trick - an appeal to the authority of “Western science” - “American scientists have proven that Russians are 4500 years old!” ) this completely scientific method of determining paternity and dynasticity began to be used for constructions for which it was not at all intended. As a result, many posts contain monstrously distorted results of its use. The purpose of this post was to clarify the obvious points, so that the numerous references to the fact that “haplogroups have been proven”, given by the authors in place and out of place, would not be perceived uncritically when reading some texts.

Let me clarify some commonplaces in the form of popularly given answers to questions.

Question 1 Can a specific haplogroup indicate a specific nationality? In other words, is there a Russian or German (without quotes) haplogroup?

Answer: No. Why? Because any currently existing ethnic group consists of people with at least two or three Y-chromosomal haplogroups. In other words, you can be Russian with haplogroup I1, R1a1, R1b, N3, I2, J2 and even E. The same applies to other peoples. for example, among Ashkenazi Jews - about 12% are carriers of the supposedly "marker" haplogroup R1a1 for Russians - and it is emphasized that not among "half-breeds" and "goyim", but among the most real, typical representatives of their ethnic group. And so on.

Thus, the correlation of a certain haplogroup with modern nationalities and individual representatives of ethnic groups can only be of a statistical, relative nature. “Measuring skulls” by haplogroups won’t work - it’s quite likely that you’ll classify a Jew as a Russian, and a Russian as a Jew. The presence of R1a among Poles - 56.4%, and... Kyrgyz - as much as 63.5% speaks about whether peoples can be defined as “Aryans” by only one criterion - the presence of a statistical marker haplogroup. And the Volga Tatars are no different from the Russians in terms of the set of haplogroups. I hope that conclusions have been drawn? In other words, no ethnic community will emerge that unites people from the conventionally “Aryan” haplogroup R1a1. At the same time, there is no objective difference between the classical Russians living in the same region, but with the conditionally “Finnish” haplogroup N, and the same classical Russians, carriers of the “Aryan” haplogroup R1a. The entire rest of the gene pool (and in many ways more significant than the haplomarker) of the descendants of the “ancestral Finnish men” and the “ancestral Aryan men” was mixed a long time ago.

Question 2. What do haplogroups actually talk about and what can’t they talk about?

Answer: As follows from answer 1 and as correctly noted by the author of another detailed post dedicated to haplogroups: “Those sections of the Y chromosome that serve as markers for identifying haplogroups themselves do not encode anything and have no biological meaning. These are markers in their pure form "They can be compared to the orange and green LEDs in the film "Kin-dza-dza", which were used to identify Chatlans and Patsaks, and there was no other difference between these "races" except the color of the light bulb."

By haplogroup one can judge - statistically(!!! this is important - precisely statistically, i.e. with inevitable errors, but still possible) about the difference, dissimilarity in the origin of certain large ethnolinguistic massifs and the degree of proximity of their contacts (sexual ones). For example, all Turkic peoples are carriers of specific haplogroups. Even if some of the Turks do not have or have very few of their “markers” and C, O and Q, which are absent among the Slavs, then D, R1b1b1 or N1b, which are less common among the Turks, are still statistically absent among Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians. We can conclude, therefore, that contacts with the Turks throughout history among the Eastern Slavs are statistically insignificant, and the statement that “we are Asians” is incorrect. Such conclusions are quite scientific. It can also be argued that the typical “Mongoloid” haplogroups C and Q are not found among Russians at all, and if so, the contacts of the population of Rus' with the Mongols during the period of the yoke were minimal. This, however, is clearly evidenced by all historical sources - 20 years after 1240, all Mongol military formations were withdrawn from the territory of Rus' and the Russian princes carried the tribute collected in Rus' to the Horde themselves. Thus, most likely the average Russian peasant of the late 13th and 14th-15th centuries never saw a single living “Mongol” (Horde) in his life. And this is not a “discovery” at all - haplogroups only confirm what we already know (another thing is that in “popular” ahistorical literature, including in textbooks, the content of which is now practically not controlled by scientists, about little is written about this).

Further, from answer 1 it is clear that if representatives of a certain ethnic group belong to several haplogroups, then this DOES NOT MEAN that this ethnic group is a kind of mechanical combination of populations with different gene pools. The rest of their gene pool, except for the Y chromosomes, will be mixed without any practical possibility of differentiation. 16% of haplogroup N among Russians in the regions north of Moscow does not mean that 16% of them are supposedly “more Finns than Slavs” - both for the reason stated above (mixing the rest of the, much more important, gene pool to the point of unrecognizability) and for reasons statistical - because Among the population of Finland, only 60% of the population have this haplogroup, and among Estonians in general there are 40%.

I will quote again - “The peculiarity of the Y chromosome is that it is passed from father to son almost unchanged and does not experience “mixing” or “dilution” by maternal heredity. This allows it to be used as a mathematically accurate tool for determining paternal origin. If the term "dynasty" has any biological meaning, then it is precisely the inheritance of the Y chromosome. a specific mutation has occurred on the Y chromosome."

Modern science is inclined to believe that these mutations could have occurred between 50 and 10 thousand years ago, and the creationist version, which seems more truthful to me, speaks of the complete uncertainty of the results of using the “biological clock” methods (they give completely different values) and says about the probable practical simultaneity of the appearance of these mutations associated with the legend of the Tower of Babel and the dispersion of peoples. Whether one or the other is right is, in principle, not very important for us living today.

What matters is that Y - chromosome does not determine the gene pool. It is not a carrier of some “ethnically specific” information in the genome. From more than 20,000 genes human genome, the Y chromosome contains only about 100 pieces. They encode mainly the structure and functioning of the male genital organs. There is no other information there. Facial features, skin color, mental and thinking characteristics are spelled out on other chromosomes which, during inheritance, go through recombination (the paternal and maternal sections of the chromosomes are randomly mixed). The carrier of the “Aryan chromosome” after hundreds of generations can be a typical black man (if, say, his black mother got pregnant in the 16th century from a Portuguese father). And vice versa.

Thus. people who talk about “Aryan”, “Semitic”, “Russian”, “Finnish”, “Celtic” haplogroups not in their conventional marker meaning tied to MODERNITY, but in a literally understood one, and even transfer these definitions to the distant past - are mistaken and confuse others. The phrase “4500 years ago in the Voronezh region they found a skeleton identified by haplogroup as Russian, Russians began to exist 4500 years ago” does not make any sense. Russians have several haplogroups, - once. The skeleton does not represent a statistically significant sample - that's two(maybe this is the same Ashkenazi Jew from the 12% of carriers of the “Aryan” haplogroup R1a1? Or Kyrgyz?). Three: Why on earth was it concluded that the mutation arose (and continued) exactly 4500 years ago? Were the skeletons of his father and grandfather, as well as the skeletons of his offspring, examined? Why didn't it arise 10 thousand years ago? And so on.

Question 3: is R1a1, a Russian haplogroup, an “unconditional enic marker”? Is it true that Russians, in terms of their purity (i.e., the frequency of occurrence of this haplogroup), are the most stable and pure among Europeans?

Answer: No. And it's not true. The stability of Russians as a people, their ethnic uniqueness is not determined by haplogroups, and neither is haplogroup R1a1. Let's look at the data: if we take an average sample from several different studies with a 100% fit. then (remember that haplogroups are named according to MODERN distribution among peoples):

47% of Russians have the “Aryan” haplogroup R1a1, which they inherited from the Proto-Slavs and other autochthons of Eastern Europe.

16% of Russians- conditionally “Finnish” haplogroup N3.

7% of Russians- conditionally “Celtic” haplogroup R1b, which dominates among many peoples of Western Europe. This is a legacy of the presence of the Proto-Slavs in Central Europe.

5% of Russians- “Northern European” haplogroup I1 (I1a according to the old classification), common in Scandinavia and Northern Europe. Apparently, these are the descendants of the notorious “Varangians”.

15% of Russians- “Balkan” haplogroup I2 (formerly I1b), characteristic of the peoples of the Balkan Peninsula. This is an indirect consequence of Slavic expansion in the Balkans in the 6th-9th centuries, when Slavic newcomers actively mixed with the local autochthonous population. Some of the Slavs subsequently left the Balkans to the north and northeast (see “The Tale of Bygone Years”).

4%- “Eastern Mediterranean” haplogroup J2, typical of the ancient Greeks and even more ancient representatives of the Minoan civilization. For the Russians, this is most likely an integral part of the “Balkan heritage”, and perhaps of the earlier Hellenic colonization of the Northern Black Sea region.

6% Russians are represented by the “Afrasian” haplogroup E, the frequency of which among Jews, Greeks, Balkan Slavs and southern Italians reaches 20% or more. This is the “Balkan trace” again. In total, the descendants of “Byzantine refugees” (settlers from the Balkans and the Black Sea region) make up more than 25% of Russians.

We see, therefore (as expected from the answer to the second question) that haplogroups DO NOT determine “Russianness”. The purely statistical “predominance” of R1a1 is 47 percent. 53 percent of Russians DO NOT HAVE this haplogroup and are still Russian. Consequently, if we do not fall into Russophobia and do not say that 53 percent of modern Russians are “unclean” (which we will not do), we will inevitably be forced to once again draw the same conclusion that was made above - the haplogroup does not have any specific characteristics ethnically defining features, and ethnicity is indefinable through haplogroups.

Question 4: is the reconstruction of ethnic migrations and processes based on the analysis of modern haplogroups justified?

Answer: No. There are several problems here.

One can perceive with great skepticism and rather negatively the reports about the “correspondence of the distribution of haplogroups to historical migrations,” and all “haplogroup” conclusions about the time of the emergence of a particular people are likely to be considered at least unverifiable and strained. Why? Because you need to not uncritically quote the “Klesovs” (“a scientist wrote!”) but THINK. First of all, with your own head, using logic and the education you have received.

Firstly, the historical migrations of certain peoples in preliterate times are not an axiom. but the subject of scientific debate and discussion - both in terms of whether the bearers of a particular archaeological culture were representatives of a certain ethno-linguistic unity (we will never be able to say this with accuracy - pots and axes do not speak), and in terms of accuracy of correspondence of archaeological culture to a specific ethnic group or ethnocultural unity. Archaeological cultures are a complex of objects of material culture, things, their remains, or rather. From the point of view of an archaeologist of the 30th century, throughout Russia and Europe. In the United States in the 21st century, there will be a single, with local variations, archaeological culture of “tires, plastic bags, bottles, cans and computers”, in which the differences between nations in their material culture will not be visible. Although there is little reason to imply such globalization in antiquity, it is worth remembering. that the older the archaeological culture, the more blurred its ethnicity. Thus, the thesis “such and such a skeleton is undoubtedly Indo-European... has such and such a haplogroup” is immediately called into question. The fact that he is “undoubtedly” Indo-European, and not a foreigner who slipped in here and adopted the way of life of this tribe, still needs to be proven. And with an extremely unrepresentative sample(agree, a dozen or a hundred burials over a huge area is not a sample, or at least a sample incomparable in terms of representativeness with a modern sample among living people) this is made almost equally probable, that is, uncertain.

Secondly, tracing such migrations by haplogroups is extremely problematic due to the fact that (in the case of the Indo-Europeans, for example) among the many archaeological cultures of the Bronze Age - “cuisines of ancestral ethnic groups”, the funeral rite of cremation of corpses in its various variations is common, the same in some territories and in the Iron Age. The DNA material of the carriers of these cultures is irretrievably lost and we can say absolutely nothing about their haplogroups. Thus, the “haplogroup” approach does not work here - vast territories and entire millennia fall out of its scope completely, depriving us of the opportunity to build any kind of succession chain of already extremely scarce and essentially unrepresentative material.

Third, mutations occur on the Y chromosome randomly and can both increase and “decrease” (or return to the original, source code). This indicates that you cannot determine the time and place of the emergence of this or that “group” due to constant migrations, which could be by land or sea, and mutations that occur throughout the life of a particular historical human community.

Fourthly, theoretically, the very accuracy of the study of the modern distribution of haplogroups can be questioned - i.e. that initial material extrapolated to the past (difficulty in determining the ethnicity of persons taking the test - who is stopping you from calling yourself Russian or Belarusian?). With relatively small samples and controversial issues like “Russian-Ukrainian” (in fact, a free question of self-designation), this is extremely important and can decide everything.

In other words, transferring the modern distribution of sets of haplogroups into the past is unjustified, and if so, then it is impossible to draw conclusions about the ethnicity of certain human remains, passing them off as someone’s ancestors only on this basis. It's forced and superficial.

To summarize everything described.

References to haplogroups as an “unconditional indicator of ethnicity” are untenable.
- Haplogroups are research tools, statistically significant markers. Real, objectively observed Y chromosomes do not carry significant ethnic information in the gene code.
- Russians (like Germans, Finns and Turks, etc.) exist and are unique not due to haplogroups.
- Any nation has not one, but two, three or more haplogroups in its set, and there is no reason to make some “less pure” and others “more pure”, for the reason described in the thesis above.
- We a priori cannot reconstruct reliable migrations based on haplogroups. and even more so - the date of origin (emergence) of this or that modern ethnic group.

Thus, you can safely throw Klesov’s works and fairy tales into the same trash bin where we have Fomenko, Levashov and Chudinov.

Russian blood - descendants of the Aryans.Haplogroup R1a1.

Although the scientific data obtained by American scientists is not classified and has already been published in scientific journals, for strange reasons, a Conspiracy of Silence remains around them... What kind of discovery is this? This mystery is connected with the origin of the Russian people and the thousand-year historical path of the Slavic ethnic group.
What is the essence of the discovery of American geneticists?

Genetic code- a method of encoding the amino acid sequence of proteins using a sequence of nucleotides, characteristic of all living organisms. There are 46 chromosomes in human DNA, each person inherits half of the chromosomes from the father, half from the mother. Of the 23 chromosomes received from the father, only one - the male Y chromosome - contains a set of nucleotides that is passed from generation to generation without changes for thousands of years.

Geneticists call this set of DNA haplogroup.

DNA research has united all people on Earth into genealogical groups and designated them with letters. People of the same haplogroup have one common ancestor in distant prehistory.
The haplogroup, due to its hereditary immutability, is the same for all men of one nation. Each biologically distinctive people has its own haplogroup, different from the haplogroups of other peoples. In fact, this is the genetic marker of the entire people.
The goal is to trace the path of one ethnic group, one people over thousands of years of its history.

DNA studies have shown that Asians and Europeans diverged about 40,000 years ago. Most scientists believe that approximately 10,000 or 8,000 years ago, the Indo-Europeans still spoke the same language! Over time, the Indo-European community begins to fragment and migrate to different parts of the world.
American scientists found that 4,500 years ago, the people of the Central Russian Plain experienced a mutation of their haplogroup R1a, as a result of which a person appeared with a new modification, R1a1, which turned out to be unusually resilient.

Approximately 5,000 years ago, there was an archaeological Yamnaya culture (more precisely - the Ancient Yamnaya cultural and historical community (3600-2300 BC) This archaeological culture dates from the late Copper Age - early Bronze Age. During archaeological excavations of mounds in this area, human remains were found subclade of Y-DNA R1a1, Copper and bronze tools were found, people believed in an afterlife.

A characteristic feature of the Yamnaya culture is the burial of the dead in pits under mounds, lying on their backs, with their knees bent. The bodies were sprinkled with ocher. Burials in the mounds were multiple, and often took place at different times. Fragments of animal bones (cows, pigs, sheep, goats and horses) were also discovered. Burials of the mound type characteristic of Proto-Indo-Europeans.

Andronovo archaeological culture(2300 – 1000 BC) comes from an older Yamnaya culture (3600 BC) and is the culture of the Proto-Indo-European community. American scientists analyzed ancient remains on the territory of the Andronovo archaeological culture (2300 - 1000 BC) and discovered the predominance of the Y-DNA subclade R1a1. Out of 10 men, 9 people have Y-DNA R1a1a - this is a type of fair-haired and light-skinned people with blue (or green) eyes. The Maykop culture (3700-2500 BC), in the North Caucasus, is also represented by haplogroups R1a1 and R1b1.

American geneticists have discovered that subclades of Y-DNA R1a are common throughout Europe and northern India. The Aryans, who first settled in the north of India, also influenced the construction of the statehood of ancient India, dividing society into castes.

It is known that haplogroup R1a1 appeared in northern India 3500 years ago. At that time in northern India there was Harappan civilization, it was replaced by the more developed Aryan civilization. The Harappan period of Indian history gave way to the Aryan, the Indo-Aryans appeared, and the civilization of the Saraswati River valley appeared. It is known that the Indo-Aryans spoke Vedic Sanskrit; the Rig-Veda, the oldest part of the Vedas, was written in this language. The Aryans considered themselves to be the highest caste of society - the Brahmans - they were the ones who possessed secret knowledge (Rig-Veda) and a secret language that the Indians did not know. Vedic Sanskrit and classical Saeskrit are two different languages.

In those days there was no concept of “Aryan race”. Word Arias translated from ancient Indian. Ā́rya, ari ̯ a meant “lord”, “master of the house”. With the prefix “a-” the word acquired a negative meaning: anārya - anarya - “non-Aryan”, “ignoble”, “barbarian” or “dasyu”, “robber, enemy, demon, stranger”. The word "Arya" was never used in a racial or ethnic sense. "Arya" meant "spiritual", "noble person". Aristoi - aristoi - “the most noble”, hence the word “aristocrat”. Etymology words arya - ari ̯ a comes Vedic Sanskrit root kars (ar) - “to plow, cultivate the land”, and the word “Aryan”, in the original meaning of the word, meant “farmer”, the word was preserved in the ancient Russian language “yell” - plow, “oratay” - plowman.

Vedic Sanskrit is the oldest language in which the Rig Veda was written (3900 BC). Vedic Sanskrit contains the origins of the Indo-European group of languages.

Founder of comparative historical linguistics. William Jones (1746 - 1794) the creator of the theory of the Indo-European family of languages ​​in 1786 said about Sanskrit: “No matter how ancient Sanskrit is, it has an amazing structure. Sanskrit, whatever its origin, reveals an amazing structure: being more flawless than Greek and richer than Latin, it is more refined than both of them.Moreover, it has such noticeable similarities with these languages ​​in verb roots and grammatical forms that it could not have arisen by chance.The similarity is so strong that not a single philologist who has studied all three languages ​​would doubt their origin from a common ancestor, which may no longer exist.”

People with haplogroup R1a1 then looked exactly the same as we do now; the ancient Rus did not have any Mongoloid or other non-Russian features. Scientists recreated from bone remains the appearance of a young woman with haplogroup R1a1, who lived several thousand years ago, and the result was a portrait of a typical Russian beauty , millions of the same live in our time in the Russian outback.

A connection between haplogroup R1a1 and speakers of Indo-European languages ​​was noticed in the late 1990s. Spencer Wells and his colleagues concluded that R1a1 was widespread in the Caspian steppes.

Currently, holders of the R1a1 haplogroup make up a high percentage among the male population of Russia (47), Ukraine (48 and Belarus (52), and in ancient Russian cities and villages - up to 80%. The greatest distribution of the R1a1 haplogroup is in Eastern Europe: among the Lusatian Germans (63 , Poles (57 .

R1a1 is a biological marker of the Russian ethnic group.

A set of DNA nucleotides called a haplo

Indeed, the haplogroup in the Y-chromosome DNA, unlike language, culture, religion and other creations of human hands, is not modified or mixed with the genetic codes of other peoples. The genetic hereditary biological sign is not washed away, therefore the genetic history is the main one, and everything else can only complement or clarify it, but not refute it in any way.

American geneticists began to take tests from people and look for biological “roots”, their own and others. What they accomplished is of great interest to us, since it sheds true light on the historical paths of the Russian people and destroys many established myths.

So, the ethnic center of the Russian people arose 4500 years ago on the Central Russian Plain - this is the place of maximum concentration of R1a1, from here it emerged and spread to the territories of Eastern Europe and Siberia. The question of that “area of ​​ancient Indo-European territory where the Slavs originated” also remains controversial. (Lubor Niederle).

The history of the development of haplogroups R1a and R1b are inextricably linked with each other.

Subclades R1a and R1b are closely related to the spread of Indo-European languages, as evidenced by its presence in all regions of the world where Indo-European languages ​​were spoken in ancient times, from the Atlantic coast of Europe to India. Almost all of Europe (except Finland and Bosnia-Herzegovina), Anatolia, Armenia, European Russia, southern Siberia, many areas around Central Asia (notably Xinjiang, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan and Afghanistan), not forgetting Iran, Pakistan, India and Nepal.

The settlement of peoples speaking Proto-Indo-European languages, representing Subclades of haplogroups R1a and R1b settled to the west (from the Don to the Dniester, Danube) and to the east (to the Volga-Ural region).Men of both haplogroups R1a and R1b probably lived in the Pontic steppes.

In Poland, holders of the Russian haplogroup R1a1 make up 57% of the male population, in Latvia, Lithuania, the Czech Republic and Slovakia - 40%, in Germany, Norway and Sweden - 18%, in Bulgaria - 12%, and in England - the least (3.

It is known that the European clan aristocracy has Aryan roots. One of the royal houses of Europe, the House of German Hohenzollern, of which the English Windsors are a branch, has Aryan roots. Windsor dynasty- the current ruling royal dynasty of Great Britain, a junior branch of the ancient Saxon house of Wettin (until 1917 the dynasty was called Saxe-Coburg-Gotha).
The Wettins (German: Wettiner, English: House of Wettin) are a German princely family, now represented by the Windsor dynasty, ruling in Great Britain, as well as Saxe-Coburg-Gotha dynasty of kings of Belgium. The Wettin dynasty dominated for more than 800 years in the Central German area of ​​the southeastern foothills of the Harz in Saxony in the 10th century. Witekind, leader of the Saxons, who converted to Christianity under Charlemagne, is considered the legendary founder and ancestor
Vettinov

.

63% of Lusatian Germans - Lusatians - a national minority in Germany, have a haplogroupR 1 a1. It is known that 60 thousand German citizens have Serbian Sorbian roots: 40 thousand live in Upper Lusatia (Saxony) and 20 thousand live in Lower Lusatia (Brandenburg).

the R1a1 group is “Russianness” from a genetic point of view.
Thus, the Russian people in a genetically modern form were born in the European part of present-day Russia about 4,500 years ago.

change from 02/17/2016 - (added)

The data below is essentially a secret. Formally, this data is not classified, since it was obtained by American scientists outside the field of defense research, and was even published in 2011, but the aura of silence organized around it is unprecedented. And the information that can be found is very confusing. So, briefly about the essence of the discovery of American geneticists:

There are 46 chromosomes in human DNA, half of which are inherited from the father and half from the mother. Of the 23 chromosomes received from the father, one single, male Y-chromosome contains a set of nucleotides (58 million), which is passed on from generation to generation without any changes for thousands of years. Geneticists call this set a haplogroup. Every man living today has in his DNA exactly the same haplogroup as his father, grandfather, great-grandfather, great-great-grandfather, and so on for many generations.

The haplogroup, due to its hereditary immutability, is the same for all people of the same biological origin, that is, for men of the same nation. Each biologically distinctive people has its own haplogroup, different from similar sets of nucleotides in other peoples, which is its genetic marker, a kind of ethnic mark (Y-DNA). Women also have such marks, only in a different coordinate system - in mitochondrial DNA rings (mt-DNA).

Of course, there is nothing absolutely unchangeable in nature, for movement is a form of existence of matter. Haplogroups also change - in biology such changes are called mutations - but very rarely, at intervals of millennia, and geneticists have learned to very accurately determine their time and place. Thus, American scientists found that one such mutation occurred four and a half thousand years ago on the Central Russian plain. Or did they decide that? Maybe they should have turned to the epic “Mahabharata” and re-read it more carefully?

Briefly speaking. A boy was born with a slightly different haplogroup than his father, to which they assigned the genetic classification R1a1. The paternal R1a mutated and a new R1a1 emerged.

The mutation turned out to be very viable. The R1a1 genus, which was started by this same boy, survived, unlike millions of other genera that disappeared when their genealogical lines were cut off, and multiplied over a vast space. The story of the first woman involuntarily comes to mind. But this is true, by the way.

Currently, holders of haplogroup R1a1 make up 70% of the total male population of Russia, eastern Ukraine and Belarus, and in ancient Russian cities and villages - up to 80%. R1a1 is a biological marker of the Russian ethnic group. This set of nucleotides is “Russianness” from a genetic point of view.

Thus, the Russian people in a genetically modern form appeared on the European part of present-day Russia about 4,500 years ago. A boy with the R1a1 mutation became the direct ancestor of all men now living on earth whose DNA contains this haplogroup. All of them are his biological or, as they used to say, blood descendants and blood relatives among themselves, together making up a single people.

Biology is essentially an exact science. It does not allow for double interpretation, and genetic conclusions to establish kinship are accepted even by the court. Therefore, genetic and statistical analysis of population structure, based on the determination of haplogroups in DNA, allows us to trace the historical paths of peoples much more reliably than ethnography, archeology, linguistics and other scientific disciplines dealing with these issues.

Indeed, the haplogroup in the Y-chromosome DNA, unlike language, culture, religion and other creations of human hands, is not modified or assimilated. She's either one or the other. And if a statistically significant number of indigenous inhabitants of a territory have a certain haplogroup, we can say with one hundred percent certainty that these people descend from the original carriers of this haplogroup, who were once present in this territory.

From an investigative point of view, the inscription on the clay pot “Vasya was here” is, of course, evidence indicating Vasya’s presence in this place, but only indirectly - someone could have joked and signed Vasya’s name, the pot could have been brought from another area, etc. etc. But if local men have Vasya’s haplogroup in their DNA, then this is direct and irrefutable evidence that Vasya or his blood relatives in the male line actually visited here and inherited - the hereditary biological mark is not washed away. Therefore, genetic history is the main one, and everything else can only complement or clarify it, but not refute it in any way.

Realizing this, American geneticists, with the enthusiasm inherent in all emigrants in questions of origin, began to wander around the world, take tests from people and look for biological “roots”, their own and others. What they accomplished is of great interest to us, since it sheds true light on the historical paths of peoples and destroys many established myths. Maybe that’s why they were afraid to publish this data for 20 years?

So, having emerged 4500 years ago on the Central Russian Plain (the place of maximum concentration of R1a1 is an ethnic focus), the ethnos began to quickly expand its habitat. I hope you understand that now we are talking purely about the conclusions of American geneticists, about a specific period, and not about the entire history of the Russians. 4000 years ago, the ancestors of the Russians went to the Urals and created Arkaim and a “civilization of cities” there with many copper mines and international connections all the way to Crete (chemical analysis of some of the products found there shows Ural copper). They looked then exactly the same as we do now; the ancient Rus did not have any Mongoloid or other non-Russian features. Scientists have recreated the appearance of a young woman from the “civilization of cities” from bone remains - the result is a typical Russian beauty, millions of the same live in our time in the Russian outback.

Another 500 years later, three and a half thousand years ago, haplogroup R1a1 appeared in India. The history of the arrival of the Rus in India is known better than other vicissitudes of the territorial expansion of our ancestors thanks to the ancient Indian epic, in which its circumstances are described in sufficient detail. But there is other evidence of this epic, including archaeological and linguistic.

It is known that the ancient Rus were called Aryans at that time - this is how they are recorded in Indian texts. It is also known that it was not the local Hindus who gave them this name, but that it was a self-name. Convincing evidence of this has been preserved in hydronymy and toponymy - the Ariyka River, the villages of Upper Ariy and Lower Ariy in the Perm region, in the very heart of the Ural civilization of cities, etc.

It is also known that the appearance on the territory of India of the Russian haplogroup R1a1 three and a half millennia ago (the time of birth of the first Indo-Aryan, calculated by geneticists) was accompanied by the previous death of a developed local civilization, which archaeologists, based on the site of the first excavations, called Harappan (settlers from the sinking continent of Mu). Before their disappearance, this people, who had populous cities at that time in the Indus and Ganges valleys, began to build defensive fortifications, which they had never done before. However, the fortifications apparently did not help, and the Harappan period of Indian history gave way to the Aryan. The first monument of the Indian epic, which talks about the appearance of the Aryans, was formalized in writing four hundred years later, in the 11th century BC, and in the 3rd century BC, the ancient Indian literary language Sanskrit, surprisingly similar to the modern Russian language, emerged in its completed form.

Now men of the R1a1 genus make up 16% of the total male population of India, and in the upper castes they make up almost half - 47%, which indicates the active participation of the Aryans in the formation of the Indian aristocracy (the second half of the men of the upper castes are represented by local tribes, mainly Dravidian).

Unfortunately, information on the ethnogenetics of the Iranian population is not yet available, but the scientific community is unanimous in its opinion about the Aryan roots of ancient Iranian civilization. The ancient name of Iran is Arian, and the Persian kings loved to emphasize their Aryan origin, as eloquently evidenced, in particular, by the popular name Darius.

The ancestors of the Rus migrated from their ethnic home not only to the east, to the Urals, and to the south, to India and Iran, but also to the west, to where European countries are now located. In the western direction, geneticists have complete statistics: in Poland, holders of the Aryan haplogroup R1a make up 57% of the male population, in Latvia, Lithuania, the Czech Republic and Slovakia - 40%, in Germany, Norway and Sweden - 18%, in Bulgaria - 12%. In Britain and France, haplogroup R1a is expressed even less - only 8%, at most 12%, and in England the least - 3%. The remaining place in percentage terms is occupied by haplogroup R1b1a2 (R1b is a parallel subclade for haplogroup R1a) and other haplogroups that do not belong to representatives of the white race. Currently, most of Europe speaks Indo-European languages, while haplogroup R1b is more specific to western Europe and R1a to eastern Europe. It can be assumed that the tribes of hybrid Celts had the R1b1a2 haplogroup, because it is this haplogroup that is widespread among the Arabs and European Iberians. For example, here in the Caucasus and Central Asia - where the Arabs once visited.

The current concentration of haplogroup R1b is maximum in the territories of the migration routes of the Celts and Germans: in southern England about 70%, in northern and western England, Spain, France, Wales, Scotland, Ireland - up to 90% or more. And also, for example, among the Basques - 88.1%, Spaniards - 70%, Italians - 40%, Belgians - 63%, Germans - 39%, Norwegians - 25.9% and others. In Eastern Europe, haplogroup R1b is much less common. Czechs and Slovaks - 35.6%, Latvians - 10%, Hungarians - 12.1%, Estonians - 6%, Poles -16.4%, Lithuanians - 5%, Belarusians - 4.2%, Russians - from 1 .3% to 14.1%, Ukrainians - from 2% to 11.1%. In the Balkans - Greeks - up to 22.8%, Slovenes - 21%, Albanians - 17.6%, Bulgarians - 17%, Croats - 15.7%, Romanians - 13%, Serbs - 10.6%, Herzegovinians - 3.6%, Bosnians - 1.4%.

Unfortunately, there is no ethnogenetic information on the European patrimonial aristocracy yet, and therefore it is impossible to determine whether the share of ethnic Russians is evenly distributed across all social strata of the population or, as in India and, presumably, Iran, the Aryans made up the nobility in the lands where they came .

The only reliable evidence in favor of the latter version was a by-product of a genetic examination to establish the authenticity of the remains of the family of Nicholas II. The Y chromosomes of the king and heir Alexei turned out to be identical to samples taken from their relatives from the English royal family. This means that at least one royal house of Europe, namely the house of the German Hohenzollerns, of which the English Windsors are a branch, has Aryan roots.

However, Western Europeans (haplogroup R1b) are in any case our closest relatives, oddly enough, much closer than the northern Slavs (Finno-Ugrians, haplogroup N1c1, settled from Tibet) and the southern Slavs (haplogroup I1b, the Balkans are considered their homeland and Pyrenees). Our common ancestor with Western Europeans lived about 13 thousand years ago, at the end of the Ice Age, five thousand years before gathering began to develop into crop farming, and hunting into cattle breeding. That is, in the very gray Stone Age antiquity.

The fundamental point is that there are no descendants of the Mongols (haplogroup C3) left after the two-hundred-year Tatar-Mongol yoke. Or they do occur, but very rarely. How can this be? Moreover, in the genome of the Bulgar Tatars there are also a large number of carriers of the R1a1 (30%) and N1c1 (20%) gaprogroups, but they are mostly not of European origin.

The settlement of the Aryans to the east, south and west (there was simply nowhere to go further to the north, and so, according to the Indian Vedas, before coming to India they lived near the Arctic Circle) became a biological prerequisite for the formation of a special language group, Indo-European. These are almost all European languages, some languages ​​of modern Iran and India and, of course, the Russian language and ancient Sanskrit, which are closest to each other for the obvious reason - in time (Sanskrit) and in space (Russian language) they stand next to the original source, the Aryan proto-language , from which all other Indo-European languages ​​grew.

So, haplogroup R1a in DNA genealogy is a common haplogroup for part of the Slavs, part of the Turks and part of the Indo-Aryans (since naturally there were representatives of other haplogroups among them), part of the haplogroup R1a1 during migrations along the Russian Plain became part of Finno-Ugric peoples, for example Mordovians (Erzya and Moksha). Part of the tribes of haplogroup R1a1 during migrations brought this Indo-European language to India and Iran approximately 3500 years ago, where the Aryan languages ​​became the basis of a group of Iranian languages, the oldest of which date back to the 2nd millennium BC. A large part of the R1a1 haplogroup joined the Turkic ethnic groups in ancient times and today largely marks the migration of the Turks

Haplogroup N1 can be traced, besides Russia, in southern China, Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, Japan, Taiwan and Korea. Many researchers also associate the emergence of Turkic languages ​​with haplogroup N1, possibly N1b. Among the Huns there was also a significant proportion of Siberian subclades of haplogroup N, and perhaps the legendary leader Attila was its representative. The first leaders who took part in the formation of the Hungarian Empire about X centuries ago were also N1c1, a Ugric subclade, which was confirmed by DNA testing. In Europe, haplogroup N, in the form of the European subclade N1c1, is extremely common around the entire Baltic Sea, reaching maximum frequencies in the eastern Baltic, while the southern Baltic region and southern Scandinavia are characterized by a slightly different subclade.

The ancestor of haplogroup E1b1b1 was born approximately 15 thousand years ago in East Africa (apparently in Ethiopia). For several millennia, the carriers of this haplogroup lived in their historical homeland in Ethiopia and were engaged in hunting and gathering. By race, they were initially Negroid, but later, after migrations to the north, separate peoples appeared with their own language and culture: Egyptians, Berbers, Libyans, Cushites, Ethiopians, Himyarites, Canaanites, etc. Currently, haplogroup E1b1b1a is common among Albanians and Greeks, and is represented by various Balkan subclades.

Haplogroup C3 - Mongolian peoples, Tungus-Manchu peoples, Turkic peoples of Siberia and Central Asia, part of the Yakuts and Chinese. The same genus includes two mysterious isolated peoples - the Yukagirs and the Ainu, the origin of whose language is still controversial among scientists.

Haplogroup O3 was born in the territory of modern China, at the same time it reached the Indonesian islands of Borneo and Sumatra, and today O3 carriers are found all the way to remote Polynesia.

There are haplogroups of other peoples (denoted by Latin letters from A to T), including Caucasian, Semitic and peoples of the American continent. But everything there is so confusing that it needs to be dealt with separately.

PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT

Despite the fact that Russians are anthropologically the most homogeneous ethnic group in Europe, and this has already become an axiom among researchers, genetically they represent two peoples. Two ethnic groups completely different in mental organization. By mental organization, but not by appearance. The fact is that the Valdai group of our people, the Central Russian and South Russian groups have the R1b1a2 haplogroup in their chromosomes. Exactly the same haplogroup is distributed throughout Western Europe, including Scandinavia. This proves that genetically our people are no different from Western Europeans. No matter how much they boast of their “Europeanism,” the fact remains. What’s even more interesting is that this haplogroup is named by geneticists "Atlantic".

But among the northern population of Rus', haplogroup R1a1 predominates. Representatives of both haploid groups differ in behavior. “Atlantists”, by their nature, are more drawn to the South. The North makes them afraid, they are afraid of it. Suffice it to remember who explored Siberia? Mostly people from the north - Arkhangelsk residents, industrialists from Pinega, Mezen residents, people from Vologda, Ladoga residents and others. The Cossacks did not rush from the forest-steppe zone to the east. If they went there, it was under duress. But that is not all. The Atlanticists, with the exception of the Don Cossacks, are prone to individualism; they do not shy away from trade. Consequently, deception for them, although a sin, is not fatal.

From all of the above it is clear that they are predisposed to opportunism and deep materialization of consciousness. The tsarist authorities were well aware of this weakness of the Southern Russians. Therefore, when fighting with Stepan Razin, and later with Emelyan Pugachev, they very often resorted to bribery.

The behavior of the northern group of Rus is completely different. People with the R1a1 haploid group have a keen sense of the North. They cannot imagine their life without their native places, pine forests, clean rivers and lakes. The Russians of the north are not inclined to trade. They do it only when necessary. They are drawn to creative creativity. Here they have no equal. It is enough to recall our northern shipbuilding. The northern group of Russians is characterized by conscientiousness, the concept of honor, and they have a very developed sense of justice. In a word, in terms of behavior, they are a completely different Russian people.

So where did the northern haplogroup R1a1 come from? But essentially there is no choice except from the lost ancestral home - the great Oriana. And the descendants of the white-eyed miracle, and settlers from Ladoga, Novgorod, Pskov, and residents of Ustyug, Vologda - all of them are direct heirs of northern Oriana. The country is long gone, but its children are alive.

Do you understand now why the West hates Russians so much? Moreover, they realized that people with the northern haplogroup are programmed with great difficulty. It is difficult for them to get into their heads those things that contradict their nature. That's the problem for Westerners! But at the same time, carriers of the Atlantic haplogroup R1b1a2 are easily programmed. Just like the French or Germans. Remember how Napoleon, with his articles and speeches, warmed up the French public for war with Russia? No one thought why Russia began to threaten Europe? Has she gone crazy? She should take care of her affairs. The country is vast! Hitler did the same with his people. The effect is exactly the same. Of course, not everyone among the French and the Germans fell for it, but we are now talking about the majority. The same thing is happening now in Ukraine. The script is the same everywhere, the actors are different.

We are not saying now that people with the Atlantic haplogroup are defective, these are ordinary people. Among them there are individuals with developed moral and spiritual qualities. Simply because of slightly different genetics, they have a different mental organization. I don’t think it’s worth proving that children are born with an established character. Of course, you can meet creative, noble, and incorruptible people, but there are relatively few of them! That's the problem. Just one percent, maybe two or three. Here we are dealing with a law of nature.

By the way, this is the reason for the medieval witch hunts. In essence, the descendants of the Vedic priests and keepers of ancient sacred knowledge were destroyed. But there was another hidden meaning. In the countries of Western Europe, inquisitors used hot iron and fires to kill the direct descendants of the Orians, people with haplogroup R1a1. Actually, they were the descendants of ancient guardian priests and boyar managers. Why were they burned? Because they were sometimes forced to use secret knowledge, because they deeply understood the laws of nature, because they did not recognize Christ as God, and even because of external beauty. This is the whole essence of the project, which, on behalf of those who wished to remain in the shadows, was carried out by the Catholic Church in Europe 3-4 centuries ago.

What about the Atlantic group? How did it come about? Of course, we can only assume that the northern Adityas and Danavas, the western Atlanteans (dityas), descendants of the goddess Danu (according to the Indian epic), differed from each other not only in the psychology of their behavior, but also genetically. There are versions that this is genetic mixing with archanthropes, only not directly, but through the genetic mediation of the Iberians and similar races that once lived in these territories. And note that we are still persistently convinced that interracial mixing does not cause any problems.

Now the question is: why is programming not accepted into the mental field of carriers of the R1a1 haplogroup? Yes, and owners of haplogroup R1b1 are selectively affected. Basically, people with a natural predisposition to vice. From all of the above, we can conclude that mental field worms mainly infect the mental structures of serfs or sudras, and only because the latter do not want to get rid of them by force of will. Maybe they can’t, that’s why they are sudras.

Will is a great power. If we consider the classes of the Golden Age from the position of volitional potential, we get the following picture: the most weak-willed are the slaves. An order of magnitude higher than them is the first class of workers. Managers stand even higher, and above them are priests or philosophers, but this is ideal. Here we also need to consider the quality of will. There is an evil will and a good will. The above refers to the will of the creator - good. So she is able to cleanse a person from any filth. By turning it on, even an inveterate hater of goodness gradually turns into a normal person. In fact, willpower can change human genetics. But genetic transformation also requires faith. Faith is as important as will. Nothing will work without her.

What has been said above about haplogroups are irrefutable scientific facts, moreover, obtained by independent American scientists. Disputing them is the same as disagreeing with the results of a blood test at a clinic. They are not disputed. They are simply kept silent. They are hushed up unanimously and stubbornly, they are hushed up, one might say, completely. And as we see, there are good reasons for this.

The father of dialectics, the ancient Greek Heraclitus, is known as the author of the saying “everything flows, everything changes.” Less known is the continuation of this phrase of his: “except for the human soul.” While a person is alive, his soul remains unchanged. The same is true for a more complex form of organization of living matter than a person - for a people. The people's soul is unchanged as long as the people's body is alive. The Russian folk body is marked by nature with a special sequence of nucleotides in the DNA that controls this body. This means that as long as there are people on earth with haplogroup R1a1 on the Y chromosome, their people retain their souls unchanged.

The language evolves, culture develops, religious beliefs change, but the Russian soul remains the same as all four and a half millennia of the people’s existence in current its genetic form. And together, the body and soul, constituting a single biosocial entity under the name “Russian people,” have a natural ability for great achievements on a civilizational scale. The Russian people have demonstrated this many times in the past; this potential remains in the present and will always exist as long as they are alive.

It is very important to know this and, through the prism of knowledge, to evaluate current events, words and actions of people, to determine one’s own place in the history of the great biosocial phenomenon called the “Russian nation.” Knowledge of the history of a people obliges a person to try to be at the level of the great achievements of his ancestors, and this is the worst thing for opponents of the Russian nation. That's why they try to hide this knowledge.

And further. When studying the haplogroups of other peoples, do not be attached to the conclusions drawn from the research of American geneticists. Take the grain, that is, specific haplogroups and apply them to the chronicle and historical facts that are reliable for you. I assure you that you will find a lot of interesting things. But since the actual conclusions largely depend on the level of awareness and worldview of a particular person, it makes no sense to present them here.

EPILOGUE

Once upon a time, the light priesthood taught that, in terms of species, the humanity of the Earth, in addition to races and nations, is divided into four more outwardly similar, but internally completely different species. Two species are carnivorous, and two are non-predatory. The Magi called the predators this way: the first type is a non-human cannibal, the second type is a werewolf cannibal.

The first type was considered the most formidable and bloodthirsty. This includes people whose psyche, from childhood, has been aimed at destroying their own kind. These are people who know neither pity nor compassion. They see their life purpose in violence against their fellow men and from fanaticism they receive satisfaction, joy and mental relaxation. They are afraid, like animals, only of those who are much stronger than them. They do not recognize equal relationships: they suppress those who are weaker, and if they deal with the strong, they wait in the wings for years. They are very vindictive and cruel. Torture of living beings and especially people is their greatest entertainment. These are straightforward, cynical, evil creatures, brave and arrogant to the point of madness. Bloody orgies lead them into a wild trance. It is enough to recall one of the heroes of the ancient Greeks, Athena’s favorite, Theseus, who, having struck his enemy, split his skull and began to devour the still living human brain. Even the warrior Pallas recoiled from such a beast-man.

It must be said that non-human cannibals have strong strong-willed qualities, moreover, the need for destruction and global extermination of all living things, and first of all humans, constantly stimulates their will. And, as we have already said, the will for a magical action is no less important than the energy of thought. Therefore, as occultists (due to the fact that the will of non-humans is dark) they are very dangerous.

The second predatory human species, which was called by the Russian people a werewolf cannibal, differs little in terms of aggressiveness towards humans from the first species. He is also predatory and insatiable, like the cannibalistic non-human species. But it is more flexible and cunning than the first type. A werewolf cannibal always hides his predatory essence for the time being. He knows how to perfectly disguise himself and play the role of a harmless, even virtuous person. If in human society the first predatory species plays the role of a wolf, then the second species resembles a fox in its behavior. He is artistic, very articulate, sociable and surprisingly active. A striking example of people of the second predatory type can be such famous political figures as Trotsky, Lenin, Hitler and others. All of them are united by eloquence and the ability to transform.

The Magi believed that both predatory human species appeared on Earth as a result of the mixing of the Aryans, descendants of the Lemurians, red and yellow peoples with the humanoid descendants of the ancient earthly races, degraded to the bestial level, whose ancestors came to our planet tens of millions of years ago. Over time, hybrids from such mixing, while outwardly remaining representatives of their races and peoples, turned into a special species due to changes in the brain.

The two non-predatory human species were called Magi as follows. The first type is the most common - “people of agreement”. And the last type is the people of the Aryan spirit, or “people of light.”

People of the Aryan spirit, or “people of light” are the only group of non-predatory people who are able to fight the will of predatory human species. These are people, first of all, creators and preservers, people of high honor, love and faith in the triumph of goodness and justice. These are true warriors in spirit, defenders of the weak and disadvantaged. Only from them are true heroes of nations born. Such people always go to great deeds and even to death consciously; they do not experience joy from the sight of blood and suffering even from their enemies. Murder always causes them a feeling of regret, and they resort to it as a last resort, when all other means have been exhausted.

An example of the high Aryan spirit is the defender of Troy, Hector, from the ancient heroes. And among the Russian heroes, of course, is the old Cossack Ilya Muromets. According to the epic, this bright hero confronts the Nightingale the Robber - a representative of the first predatory human species - and defeats him.

If you still doubt the scientific nature of the Magi’s statement about the presence of four types of people in the human races: two predatory and two non-predatory, let us once again return to the data of science.

In the middle of the 20th century, the prominent Russian anthropologist Boris Fedorovich Porshnev (Russian historian, sociologist, doctor of historical and philosophical sciences), studying the skulls of modern humans, in particular, their anterior frontal lobes, where the center of speech is located, and therefore the second signaling system , came to the sensational conclusion that people's nervous systems are not the same. Over time, using the scientific method, using genetics, mathematics and other sciences, Porshnev proved that Homo sapiens is represented on Earth by four species. It turned out that all four species of Homo sapiens differ from each other in the structure of the frontal lobes of the brain, and all these four species are scattered throughout all large and small earthly human races.

Porshnev was very interested in this issue, and he devoted more than 20 years to studying it. And what did he discover? But the fact that two human species have a third signaling system, but two species of Homo sapiens do not have it. In addition, the scientist realized that human species that do not have a third signaling system, i.e. those who do not have reason, but live only by reason (the second signaling system that appeared in humans thanks to speech), are not genuine people. These two species, according to Porshnev, originate from other adelphophages. More precisely, from those anthropoids who killed and ate their own fellow tribesmen. According to the scientist’s research, all four types of Homo sapiens are so different in the structure of their human brain that the offspring from mixing these species, especially from predatory with non-predatory ones, is doomed to degeneration. This explains the degeneration of many royal European and Asian dynasties. And among the people there are any number of examples of the degeneration of surnames and clans. And, as a rule, the ancestor of such surnames has always been a human individual of a predatory species. Porshnev named these four types of people scientifically.

The first species - the one that was called by the Magi "non-human cannibal" - was christened by Porshnev superanimal, i.e. talking animals. This is an evil, assertive, very cruel despot, striving to subjugate everyone and everything to his will, he does not know compassion, pity, does not suspect that there is honor, conscience and nobility in the world. In a word - a super animal.

The second species - "werewolf cannibal" - he called suggestor(from Latin suggestio - suggestion). Suggestors are somewhat different predators; they prefer not forceful pressure, but psychological pressure. Their main weapons are all forms of lies and persuasion. In appearance they are cheeky and talkative, but at the same time they are very assertive, unscrupulous and arrogant.

The third type - those whom the priests called “compromisers” - the scientist called diffusers(from Latin diffusio - distribution, dispersion). In his opinion, such people can be broken, their consciousness can be lowered to the animal structure of the psyche, that is, the psyche of slaves.

And the last type of “people of light” Porshnev called non-anthropes, a man of the future. He considered them a new emerging species. Moreover, Porshnev classified all three highest ancient forgotten classes as non-anthropes: workers, managers and strategists. According to the scientist, the neanthrope is so strong and resilient that it is able to withstand the pressure of both superanimals and suggestors.

Porshnev’s mistake is only in one thing: the scientist proceeded in his research from Darwin’s theory, he was a fan of it, which is why he called the last species of man a nonanthrope. Although in fact the Porshnev neanthrope is the most ancient of all four human species. It is he who has survived to our time without change, in his psyche, as a cosmic species of Homo sapiens, a descendant of the great Oriana-Hyperborea. In fact, this is exactly what American geneticists showed.

Some parallels in human relationships can be traced from the point of view of Ayurveda.