Means of allegorical expression in literature. Expressive and figurative means in literature

SUBJECT: Means of linguistic expression in the lyrics of poets of the Silver Age

Content

Introduction…………………………………………………………….. .4

Chapter I: General information about the means of artistic expression. Poetic movements of the Silver Age.

1.1. Means of artistic expression in poetry………….6

1.2. Poetic movements of the Silver Age……………………………...13

Chapter II: Metaphor and symbol in the poetics of Russian symbolists

2.1. Metaphors in poetic language……………………………………16

2.2. Metaphors in the lyrics of V. Bryusov…………………………………….21

2.3. Symbol in the poetry of A. Blok………………………………………………………28

Conclusion…………………………………………………………….36

List of references………………………………………………………37

Introduction

The phrase “Silver Age” is a stable historical and cultural metaphor that arose in the circles of Russian emigrant writers who considered themselves heirs of the richest culture at the turn of the 19th – 20th centuries. Having appeared by analogy with the concept of the “golden age”, which denoted the Pushkin period of Russian literature, the new historical and literary formula soon began to be used in relation to the entire artistic and spiritual heritage of Russian culture of the early twentieth century.

Relevance selected topic is confirmed because the interest in studying the poetry of the Silver Ageand to the means of creating expressiveness and imagery in poetic textssymbolists, acmeists, futurists never weakened.What is the secret of the impact of the work of the Silver Age poets on the reader, what is the role of the speech construction of works in this, what is the specificity of artistic speech in contrast to other types of speech, all these questions have long occupied the minds of linguists, writers, and critics.

Object research is the poetic texts of the Silver Age poets.

Subject research is the means of linguistic expressiveness in the works of A. Blok, V. Bryusov, N. Gumilyov

Purpose is to determine the function and characteristics of the means of linguistic expression in the process of forming imagery and expressiveness in the texts of poems by A. Blok, V. Bryusov, N. Gumilyov.

Tasks:

- consider a brief biographical path of the author;

- identify morphological techniques for creating expressiveness;

Consider the means of linguistic expression;

Determine the features of artistic style and their influence on the use of visual and expressive means

The theoretical and practical basis of the course work consists of articles, monographs, dissertations, various collections devoted to the problems of poetics, and fundamental works of linguists.

Research methods used in the work:

direct observation, descriptive, method of component analysis, direct components, contextual, comparative-descriptive.

Scientific noveltyis that in this study: a relatively complete list of features that distinguish the language of poetry (artistic speech) from practical language (non-fiction speech) is presented and systematized; the linguistic means of expression in the texts of poems by A. Blok, V. Bryusov and other poets of the Silver Age are characterized.

The practical significance of the study is that coursework materials can be used in lectures and practical classes on the modern Russian language in the study of sections “Lexicology”, “Analysis of literary text”, when reading special courses, in classes with in-depth study of literary criticism in gymnasiums and lyceums.

Structure and scope of course work.

The work consists of an introduction, two chapters, a conclusion, and a list of references (48 sources). The total volume was 39 pages.

Chapter I. General information about the means of artistic expression

1.1. Means of artistic expression in poetry.

In literature, language occupies a special position, since it is that building material, that matter perceived by hearing or sight, without which a work cannot be created. An artist of words - a poet, a writer - finds, in the words of L. Tolstoy, “the only necessary placement of the only necessary words” in order to correctly, accurately, figuratively express a thought, convey the plot, character, make the reader empathize with the heroes of the work, enter the world created by the author . The best in a work is achieved through the artistic means of language.[ 18, p. 311]

The means of artistic expression are varied and numerous.

Trails(Greek tropos - turn, turn of speech) - words or figures of speech in a figurative, allegorical meaning. Paths are an important element of artistic thinking. Types of tropes: metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, litotes, etc.

Metaphor(Greek “transfer”) is a word or expression used in a figurative meaning based on the similarity or contrast in any respect of two objects or phenomena: “...and the green of my eyes, and a gentle voice, and the gold of my hair” (M. Tsvetaeva) and a clear example:

Wind. I love him when he's angry

He will cover the rye field with flora

Or plows through the gentle summer

Wave on pink lakes

(I. Annensky)

Metonymy- this is the replacement of a word or concept with another word, one way or another involved in it, adjacent to it:

All the seas kissed our ships,

We honored all the shores with battles.

(N. Gumilyov)

Synecdoche(Greek synekdoche - correlation) - one of the tropes, a type of metonymy, consisting in the transfer of meaning from one object to another based on the quantitative relationship between them

And at the door -

pea coats,

overcoats,

sheepskin coats...

(V. Mayakovsky)

Replacing a number with a set:

Millions of you. We are darkness, and darkness, and darkness.

(A. Blok)

Hyperbola(Greek hyperbole - exaggeration) - a means of artistic representation based on excessive exaggeration. Can be idealizing and humiliating. By means of hyperbole, the author enhances the desired impression or emphasizes what he glorifies and what he ridicules. Hyperbole is already found in ancient epics among different peoples, in particular in Russian epics:

At one hundred and forty suns the sunset glowed

(V. Mayakovsky)

Let it fill with years

life quota,

costs

only

remember this miracle

tears apart

mouth

yawn

wider than the Gulf of Mexico.

(V. Mayakovsky)

Litotes(Greek litotes - simplicity) - a trope opposite to hyperbole, a figurative expression, a turn of phrase that contains an artistic understatement of the size, strength, meaning of the depicted object or phenomenon. Litotes is found in folk tales: “a boy as big as a finger”, “a hut on chicken legs”, “a waist thinner than a bottleneck”:

Epithet(“attached”) is an artistic, poetic definition that emphasizes any property of an object or phenomenon that the author wants to draw attention to:

Sand. Smooth, flat, single color,

Verbless, pointless,

Sun-scorched sand

I was once in the depths of the sea,

And over him, arguing about strength,

Squall could fight with squall

(K. Balmont)

And we, poet, haven’t figured it out,

Didn't understand infantile sadness

In your seemingly forged poems.

(V. Bryusov)

Personifications - this is a special type of metaphor-allegory - transferring the features of a living being onto inanimate objects and phenomena:

Her nurse lay down next to her in the bedchamber - silence

(A. Blok)

Already to the black Night the pale Day gave up its torch and flew away. (I. Annensky)

Morning. The clouds are still crying, humming,

But the shadow lightens and reluctantly,

And banal behind the network of rain,

I tried to smile the day before.

(I. Annensky)

Symbol(translated from Greek - sign, identifying mark) - a word or object that conventionally denotes the essence of a phenomenon. The symbol acquires a key role in the poetry of the Symbolists and becomes one of the aesthetic dominants of their work:

In the morning fog with unsteady steps

I walked to mysterious and wonderful shores

(Vl. Soloviev)

I am your loving caress

I am illumined and dreaming.

But, believe me, I think it’s a fairy tale

An unprecedented sign of spring

(A. Blok)

Functions of artistic and expressive means (tropes):

Characteristics of an object or phenomenon;

Conveying an emotionally expressive assessment of what is being depicted.

Stylistic figures- a term of rhetoric and stylistics, denoting figures of speech that change the emotional coloring of a sentence. Figures of speech are often used in poetry.

These include: anaphora, antithesis, oxymoron, non-union, syntactic parallelism, epiphora, gradation, inversion, polyunion, rhetorical question.

Anaphora(Greek anaphora - carrying out) - repetition of the initial words, line, stanza or phrase.

When horses die, they breathe,

When the grasses die, they dry up,

When the suns die, they go out,

When people die, they sing songs

(V. Khlebnikov)

Antithesis(Greek antithesis - contradiction, opposition) - a sharply expressed opposition of concepts or phenomena:

Black evening.

White snow.

Wind, wind!

(A. Blok)

You are rich, I am very poor;

You are a prose writer, I am a poet;

You are blushing like poppies,

I am like death, skinny and pale.

(A.S. Pushkin)

So few roads have been traveled, so many mistakes have been made...

(S. Yesenin)

Oxymoron(Greek oxymoron - witty-stupid) - a combination of contrasting words with opposite meanings:

Only the ominous darkness shone for us

(A. Akhmatova)

That sad joy

That I was still alive

(S. Yesenin)

Asyndeton– a sentence with the absence of conjunctions between homogeneous words or parts of a whole. A figure that gives speech dynamism and richness:

Night, street, lantern, pharmacy,

Pointless and dim light.

Live for at least another quarter of a century -

Everything will be like this. There is no outcome.

(A. Blok)

Parallelism(from the Greek parallelos - walking next to) - one of the types of repetition (syntactic, lexical, rhythmic); a compositional technique that emphasizes the connection between several elements of a work of art; analogy, bringing together phenomena by similarity:

Your mind is as deep as the sea.

Your spirit is as high as the mountains.

(V. Bryusov)

Gradation- this is a (gradual increase) sequence in the arrangement of something, sequential stages, steps in the transition from one to another:

All edges of feelings, all edges of truth are erased

In worlds, in years, in hours.

(A. Bely)

Chiasmus –(cross-shaped arrangement in the form of the letter “x”) - a stylistic figure consisting in the fact that in adjacent phrases or sentences built on syntactic parallelism, the second sentence is constructed in the reverse order of its members:

The forest is like a fairy-tale reed.

And the reed is like a forest - a baby.

Silence is like life, and life is like silence.

(I. Severyanin)

We can distinguish polyunion, rhetorical question, appeal, parcellation. These and other means of artistic expression are needed in poetry in order to make speech brighter, more colorful, and more emotional. As a result, this gives the text the author’s originality, which is conveyed by the most subtle nuances of thoughts or images.

1.2. Poetic movements of the Silver Age

Symbolism- the first and most significant of the modernist movements in Russia. Based on the time of formation and the characteristics of the ideological position in Russian symbolism, it is customary to distinguish two main stages. Poets who made their debut in the 1890s are called “senior symbolists” (V. Bryusov, K. Balmont, D. Merezhkovsky, Z. Gippius, F. Sologub, etc.). In the 1900s, new forces joined symbolism, significantly updating the appearance of the movement (A. Blok, A. Bely, Vyach. Ivanov, etc.). The accepted designation for the “second wave” of symbolism is “young symbolists.” The “older” and “younger” were separated not so much by age as by the difference in worldviews and the direction of creativity. The philosophy and aesthetics of symbolism developed under the influence of various teachings - from the views of the ancient philosopher Plato to the philosophical systems of V. Solovyov, F. Nietzsche, and A. Bergson, contemporary to symbolists.

Symbolism enriched Russian poetic culture with many discoveries. The symbolists gave the poetic word a previously unknown mobility and ambiguity, and taught Russian poetry to discover additional shades and facets of meaning in the word.

Acmeism(from Greek 12 Akme – the highest degree of something; blossoming; top) arose in the 1910s in the “circle of young people”, who were at first close to symbolism of poets. The impetus for their rapprochement was opposition to symbolic poetic practice, the desire to overcome the speculativeness and utopianism of symbolic theories. In October 1911, a new literary association was founded - the “Workshop of Poets”. From the wide range of participants in the “Workshop”, a narrower and more aesthetically united group stood out: N. Gumilyov, A. Akhmatova, S. Gorodetsky, O. Mandelstam, M. Zenkevich, V. Narbut.

The main significance in the poetry of Acmeism is the artistic exploration of the diverse and vibrant earthly world. The Acmeists valued such elements of form as stylistic balance, pictorial clarity of images, precisely measured composition, and precision of detail. Acmeists have developed subtle ways of conveying the inner world of the lyrical hero. Often the state of feelings was not revealed directly; it was conveyed by a psychologically significant gesture, movement, or listing of things.

Futurism(from Latin - future) arose almost simultaneously in Italy and Russia. For the first time, Russian futurism manifested itself publicly in 1910, when the first futurist collection “The Fishing Tank of Judges” was published (its authors were D. Burliuk, V. Khlebnikov, V. Kamensky). Together with V. Mayakovsky and A. Kruchenykh, these poets soon formed the most influential group in the new movement. Futurism claimed a universal mission: as an artistic program, a utopian dream of the birth of super-art capable of transforming the world was put forward. In formal and stylistic terms, the poetics of futurism developed and complicated the symbolic orientation toward the renewal of poetic language. Syntactic biases manifested themselves among the futurists in violation of the laws of lexical compatibility of words and refusal of punctuation marks. Futurism turned out to be creatively productive: it made us experience art as a problem.

Conclusions on Chapter I:

Means of artistic expression in the works of poets of the Silver Age are designed to make speech richer and brighter, and therefore to attract the attention of the reader or listener, arouse emotions in him, and make him think.

The Silver Age of Russian poetry lasted about twenty years, but during this period poetry gave the world new names, directions, and views.

Each direction brought its own views on the art of words. Their poetry may be incomprehensible, and therefore turns out to be even more attractive to the reader. Poets of the Silver Age often violated all existing rules, norms, laws, their most important law - their own poetic imagination.

Chapter II Metaphor and symbol in the poetics of Russian symbolists

2.1. Metaphor in poetic language

We call a metaphor a change in the meaning of a word based on similarity. Thus, stars are like pearls: “pearl stars”, or “pearls of stars”, or stars - “pearls of the sky” represent various examples of poetic metaphor. The sky resembles a dome or vaults - "vault of heaven", or "firmament", or "heavenly dome" are among the metaphorical expressions. Metaphors are often found in colloquial language: for example, “severe grief”, “bitter disappointment”, “vivid feeling”, “foot of the mountain”, “neck of a bottle”, etc. The meaning of words changes in language according to the categories of metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, etc. In the process of naming, a new concept is denoted by an old word, but with a changed meaning; for example, “heavy” in general is a designation of weight, otherwise, however, in combination “heavy feeling.” Gradually, the new meaning of the word is separated from the original one and acquires an independent meaning (for example, “handle” is an insert, next to “handle” is a small hand); in the further process of the semantic life of the word, a new meaning can finally displace the old one (for example, “lingering” - with the original meaning “extended”, “sharp” from “cutting”; the so-called “catachresis” becomes possible, i.e. a contradiction between the original meaning of a word and its new use, indicating the oblivion of the original meaning (for example, “red ink”, “steam horse”). The process of forgetting the original meaning is natural in practical speech; here the task of linguistic creativity is to give a name to a new object using old word based on the similarity of certain features (“ink” = “black liquid”). In the future, the feature that served to change word usage may turn out to be practically insignificant (“ink” is a liquid of a known chemical composition, used for certain tasks) .

In the poet's language, metaphors come to life. This revitalization of the metaphorical meaning of the word is achieved by various techniques. Sometimes - with a somewhat unusual combination of metaphorical words, for example, instead of the prosaic “velvet voice” - in I. Annensky, “these sounds gone into velvet.” In other cases - a more or less consistent development of the metaphor; for example, instead of the prosaic “poisoned life”, “poisoned feeling” - in Baratynsky “we drink sweet poison in love” [8, 112]; instead of the usual “bitter words” - A. Blok has an unusual and consistent development of the same metaphor: “The honey of your words is bitter to me." Finally, the revival of a metaphor is often achieved by a new metaphorical formation (“neologism”), replacing a worn-out poetic image with another, similar in meaning, but expressed in different words. For example, instead of the usual “cold feeling”, “cold soul” - in A. Blok “snow blizzard in the heart”, “snow love”, etc. Instead of prosaic “sharp”, “harsh” (= “cutting”) words - in Balmont “I want dagger words” (cf. Shakespeare : "I will speak daggers" - "I will speak with daggers").

In realistic art, when the poet strives to bring his language closer to artistically stylized colloquial speech, any new and individual metaphor, not discolored in the process of development of prosaic language, would seem intrusive and immodest.

Against the background of the metaphorical style of the Symbolist poets, some of the newest poets are distinguished by such modesty and restraint in the use of metaphor. So, compare with Kuzmin:

I will console myself with pathetic joy,

Having bought the same hat as yours.

I’ll hang it on the hanger, sighing,

And I will remember you every time...

The artistic originality of Anna Akhmatova’s language is determined, first of all, by “overcoming” the metaphorical style of her predecessors, the classical simplicity and severity of word usage:

The last time we met was then

On the embankment, where we always met.

There was high water in the Neva

And they were afraid of floods in the city.

He talked about summer and how

That being a poet for a woman is absurd.

How I remember the tall royal house

And the Peter and Paul Fortress!..

In the poetics of Russian symbolists, associated with romanticism by deep internal kinship and direct historical continuity (Balmont, as a student of Fet; Blok, as a successor of Vl. Solovyov), the “metaphorical style” is one of the most significant features of romantic art. The attitude towards metaphor as a method of poetic knowledge of the world is especially clearly expressed by A. Blok in the lyrical drama “The Rose and the Cross”. The scene between the poet Gaetan, penetrating his prophetic spirit into the mysterious life of nature, and the simple knight Bertrand, not sophisticated in poetic experience, clearly shows us that the mystical truth that the romantic poet talks about, from the point of view of a style researcher, is a poetic metaphor . The knight sees the sea - waves, raging wind and splashes of foam, gray fog over the sea and the light of the rising sun - for the poet the fabulous world of the underwater city opens with its mysterious inhabitants, the treacherous fairy Morgana, the protector of believers, Saint Gwennole.

Ocean shore...

Gaetan: Now the underwater city is not far away.

Can you hear the bells ringing?

Bertrand: I hear

How the noisy sea sings.

G.: And you see,

Gwennole's gray robe rushes

Above the sea?

B.: I see like a gray fog

Diverges.

G: Now you see

How did the roses play on the waves?

B.: Yes. This sun rises behind the fog.

G.: No! Those are the scales of an evil siren!..

Morgana rushes through the waves... Look:

Gwennole raises the cross over her!

B.: The fog thickened again.

G.: Do you hear groans?

The treacherous siren sings...

Don't hesitate, friend! Through the fog - forward!

For a romantic poet, like Novalis, the poet’s perception is not an arbitrary fiction, but the revelation of a different, deepest reality. In response to the words of the doubting Bertrand: “You’re telling me fairy tales again,” Alexander Blok says through the lips of the poet Gaetan: “Can’t there be truth in a fairy tale?” These words of the poet contain a romantic justification for the “style of metaphor.”

The metaphorical animation of nature can be observed in many symbolist poets. The metaphor becomes reality when, in romantic lyrics, nature really comes to life and is filled with mysterious and fairy-tale creatures - mermaids, elves, mountain spirits, etc. We can consider romantic mythology as the result of the process of “realization of metaphor”: the metaphorical animation of nature always precedes romantic mythology, artistically justifies and prepares its appearance.

The preparation of a wonderful vision in the process of realizing the metaphor can be found in the famous description of the “Ukrainian night” by Gogol, where this process is not yet completed, the night visions are still hidden in the poet’s soul and have not received independent reality, as if they stopped at the border between metaphor and myth:

"The forests became motionless, inspired<...>and cast a huge shadow from themselves. These ponds are quiet and peaceful; the cold and darkness of their waters are gloomily enclosed in the dark green walls of the gardens. The virgin thickets of bird cherry trees timidly stretched out their roots into the spring cold and occasionally babble with their leaves, as if angry and indignant, when the beautiful anemone - the night wind, creeping up instantly, kisses them.<...>And above everything is breathing, everything is marvelous, everything is solemn. But the soul is both immense and wonderful, and crowds of silver visions harmoniously appear in its depths.”

And in K. Balmont’s poem “Fantasy” the metaphor became a myth, the process of realization was completed, the poet’s “visions” became a fact of objective reality:

Like living statues, in the sparkles of the moonlight,

The outlines of pines, spruces and birches tremble slightly;

The prophetic forest calmly sleeps, the bright shine of the moon accepts

And he listens to the murmur of the wind, all filled with secret dreams.

Hearing the quiet groan of a blizzard, pine trees whisper, spruce trees whisper,

It is pleasant for them to rest in a soft velvet bed,

Without remembering anything, without cursing anything,

Slender branches bend, listen to the sounds of midnight.

Someone's sighs, someone's singing, someone's mournful prayer,

Both melancholy and ecstasy - like a star sparkling,

It’s like light rain flowing, and the trees seem to be dreaming of something,

Something that no one will ever dream of.

These are the spirits of the night rushing, these are their eyes sparkling,

At the deep hour of midnight, spirits rush through the forest.

What is tormenting them? What's worrying?..

Wed. other examples from Balmont: “Ghosts” (“The Rustle of Leaves”), “The Forgotten Bell Tower”, etc.

Conclusion: many symbolist poets consciously focused on classical examples, but offered their own interpretation of the classical theme. This is evidenced by the literal repetition of the titles of many poems, for example:

“Dagger” by M. Lermontov and “Dagger” by V. Bryusov;

“Troika” by N. Nekrasov and “Troika” by A. Bely;

“Monument” by A. Pushkin, V. Bryusov, V. Khodasevich

2.2. Metaphors in the lyrics of V. Bryusov

At the first stage of the existence of symbolism, V. Bryusov was the main theoretician of the new movement and its recognized leader. Strength of character, the ability to subordinate life to set goals, the ability to do thorough daily work - these qualities were core in V. Bryusov’s personality. Bryusov’s aesthetic views definitely took shape already in the 90s. Their essence is an understanding of symbolism as a purely literary phenomenon, a position of complete autonomy of art, its independence from public life, religion, and morality. With aphoristic clarity, this attitude was expressed in the poetic line “Perhaps everything in life is just a means for brightly melodious poetry” [38, p. 225]

In Bryusov's lyrics, feelings towards natural phenomena are replaced by the use of other metaphors, more rare and exotic. And here we can talk about the metaphorical depiction of nature as a technique of romantic art, but not about its intimate lyrical animation. So in the description of the sunset (“Evening Songs”):

And leaving the black depths,

On an azure day from the darkness

A bright swarm of peacocks takes off,

Opening their hundred-colored tails.

And Night, a hunter with a faithful bow,

He puts an arrow on the string,

She soared with a drawn-out sound,

And the birds fall into the darkness.

The entire brood was struck down by arrows...

There is no trace of the motley flock...

Metaphors such as “peacocks of dawn,” for which there are no corresponding associations in ordinary linguistic metaphors, give the impression of a poetic figure, a fantastic transformation of the world. Similar in another description of the sunset (“On Saimaa”):

Yellow silk, yellow silk

According to blue satin

Invisible hands sew

Towards the golden horizon

A bright fiery shard

The sun sets in the hour of separation.

Festive purple fabric

Someone is cleaning up,

Spreading the scarlet,

And in the yellow-azure water

They rushed about and shone

Red fire birds... 14,378

In the cycles “Evening Songs” and “On Saimaa” (the collection “Wreath”) you can find a number of examples that fantastically transform pictures of nature using metaphorical style techniques. A separate analogy to these paintings is provided by some of Gogol’s fantastic landscapes (“Terrible Vengeance”). “It shines quietly all over the world: then the moon appeared from behind the mountain. As if with a Damascus road and white as snow, it covered the mountainous bank of the Dnieper with muslin<...>. Those forests that stand on the hills are not forests: they are hairs growing on the shaggy head of a forest grandfather. Under her the beard is washed in water, and under the beard and above the hair there is a high sky<...>, the wind rippled the water, and the whole Dnieper turned silver, like wolf fur in the middle of the night.”

In general, Bryusov is not a poet of nature. Among Russian symbolists, he is the founder of the “poetry of the modern city.” The urban poetry of the Symbolists is a particularly characteristic expression of the romantic aspirations of modern art. Everyday life appears before us here fantastically transformed, mysterious and ghostly; this impression is achieved through the metaphorical “defamiliarization” of its familiar, prosaic elements. The modern city, predominantly at night, with its electric lamps and rotating signs, with its light-filled restaurants, stone multi-storey buildings and tall factory chimneys, railway stations and ringing trams, becomes wonderful and mysterious for the poet, as already in the image of earlier romantics ( “Nevsky Prospekt” by Gogol, “The Double and “White Nights” by Dostoevsky, “The Man of the Crowd” by Edgar Poe, “At the Window” by Hoffmann, etc.) Let us recall, for contrast, the image of the modern city in Pushkin’s classical poetry: a simple and precise description, lovingly highlighting artistic and essential details, not alien to everyday life, real prosaic trifles:

The merchant gets up. The peddler is coming.

A cab driver is heading to the stock exchange.

The okhtenka is in a hurry with the jug.

The morning snow crunches under it... etc.

As much as metaphors are inappropriate and impossible in such a description, they play such a significant role in the romantic depiction of the fantastic and monstrous everyday life of the City. First of all, from modern poets - in the urban poetry of Emil Verhaeren ("Villes tentacularies" - "Cities with tentacles"), whose student and interpreter was V. Bryusov. Bryusov has numerous examples of such descriptions in the collections “To Rome and the World” and “Wreath”:

The moons are burning with electricity

On arched long stems;

The telegraph strings are ringing

In invisible and tender hands;

Circles of amber dials

Magically lit up over the crowd,

And thirsty sidewalk slabs

Cool peace touched...

Or more:

The posters are screaming, lushly colorful,

And the word signs moan,

And the store lights are sharp

They sting like cries of triumph.

And with the further implementation of the metaphor, directly introducing the miraculous into the objective world, after its appearance was prepared by a number of corresponding metaphors:

Burn with white lights

The cramped streets! Doors to hell

Sparkle with flames before us,

So that we don't wander around at random!

Like the faces of women in the blue light

Naked, deepened,

Raise your furious lashes

Above all, children of Satan!..

The transition from the usual romantic description of the city, its ghostly and fantastic existence, to a miraculous phenomenon from the world of another reality takes place in Bryusov’s urban poetry constantly and imperceptibly - apocalyptic visions of the “last days” haunt him precisely in this ghostly and monstrous everyday life of the “City”. Compare: "In the Days of Desolation", "The Last Day", "Glory to the Crowds", "Spirits of Fire", especially "The Horse of Bled":

The street was like a storm. The crowds passed by

It was as if they were being pursued by an inevitable Doom.

Omnibuses, cabs and cars raced,

The furious stream of people was inexhaustible.

The signs, spinning, sparkled with alternating eyes,

From the sky, from the terrible height of thirty floors;

They merged into a proud anthem with the roar of wheels and the gallop

Shouts from newsmen and the cracking of whips.

The merciless light poured from the chained moon.

Moons created by the lords of nature.

In this light, in this hum, the souls were young,

The souls of intoxicated, city-drunk creatures.

And suddenly - in this storm, in this hellish whisper,

In this delirium embodied in earthly forms,

An alien, dissonant stomp rushed in,

Drowning out the rumbles, chatter, and the rumble of carriages.

A fiery-faced horseman appeared from the turn,

The horse flew swiftly and became with fire in its eyes.

But there was a moment - trembling, there were looks - fear!

The horseman had a long scroll in his hands,

Fiery letters proclaimed the name: Death...

In bright stripes, like the yarn of lush threads,

High above the street the firmament suddenly flared up...

Among the visions inhabiting the ghostly and fantastic city, one should stop our attention before others - this is a fleeting meeting with an unfamiliar woman, a mysterious Stranger, in which the romantic poet sees his only beloved, a fairy-tale bride, a Beautiful Lady. (Cf. the development of this motif in Gogol’s Nevsky Prospekt and Dostoevsky’s White Nights.)

Oh, these meetings are fleeting

On the noisy streets of the capitals!

Oh, these unaccountable glances,

White eyelash conversation!..

The description of this meeting as mysterious and wonderful and the very transformation of the beautiful person she meets into the mysterious Stranger is accomplished with the help of metaphorical style techniques.

She passed and intoxicated

The languid smell of perfume

And with a quick glance she shaded

The possibility of impossible dreams.

Through the street's iron roar

And drunk from the blue fire,

I suddenly heard greedy laughter,

And the snakes entwined me.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

And in the horror of the stubborn struggle,

Between oaths, prayers and threats,

I was entangled in black moisture

Her hair flowing.

A number of transformative metaphors surrounding the image of the beloved signify the entry into the world of another reality. The poem “In a Restaurant” is similar in structure: the poet recognizes his mysterious Friend in the unknown beauty. At the same time, the Stranger’s repeated metaphors are “the spirits are breathing”, “the silks are whispering anxiously” (cf. also “you are breathing black silks, the sable has opened”). The content of the poem, to which the poet attaches such significance (“I will never forget!..”) is precisely in this revelation of the image of his only beloved, in the scene of mystical confession:

You rushed with the movement of a frightened bird,

You passed like my dream, easy...

And the spirits sighed, the eyelashes fell asleep,

The silks whispered anxiously.

But from the depths of the mirrors you threw me glances,

And throwing it, she shouted: “Catch it!”

So, in modern life and in the depths of centuries, the poet loved to identify the lofty and beautiful and affirmed these properties as the stable foundations of human existence.

2.3. Symbol in the poetry of A. Blok

Symbolism as a poetic movement gets its name from a special type of metaphor. In prose speech, we often designate emotional experience with a metaphorical word that originally belongs to the outside world, for example. “cold house”, “dark thoughts”, “empty dreams”, etc. A symbol is a special case of metaphor - an object or action (i.e. usually a noun or verb) taken to denote a mental experience.

The folk song has its own traditional symbolism. Pearls represent grief (tears); picking a rose means kissing a girl, tasting her love.

Alexander Blok also uses traditional symbolism in the lyrical drama “Rose and Cross” (symbolism of the Rosicrucians; compare Goethe’s poem “The Sacraments”):

Oh, how far from you, Izora,

The one given by the fairy

That faded cross! -

Bloom, oh rose,

In the treasured garden...

Stay on guard, Bertrand!

Your rose will not fade...

But in this case we already have an example of an individual interpretation of a traditional symbol. The symbolism of Blok's drama cannot be revealed in precise terms; for example, rose = love, earthly happiness; cross = suffering, renunciation. Its content is much broader and more uncertain. It expresses the complex and individual experience of the mystic poet, which cannot be revealed in a logically precise formula and which is understandable only in its figurative expression, in this individual combination of images.

In Symbolist poetry, based on an individualistic approach to mystical experience, we usually encounter individual symbolism or traditional religious symbols in a new, individual interpretation. In this respect, the lyrics of the Russian Symbolists reveal a deep similarity with the poetic art of the German Romantics.

The poet of symbols par excellence in modern Russian poetry is Alexander Blok. His poetic speech is a language of habitual allegories, like a dictionary of conventional mysterious signs, which he uses with exceptional skill to express in poetic symbols mystical experiences that cannot be expressed in logically precise words of poetic language. Reading his works, we can compile for ourselves the following dictionary of metaphorical images: “night”, “darkness”, “fogs” (especially “blue fogs”), “twilight”, “haze”, “wind”, “blizzard”, “blizzard” ", "dawn", "dawn", "azure", "spring", "distant country", "distant shore" - finally, the usual metaphors of passion: "flame", "bonfire", "wine", "cup" etc. Such allegories convey the events of the poet’s mystical life; in particular, the early “Poems about a Beautiful Lady” form a subtle interweaving of translucent hints to a different, mysterious and inexpressible meaning:

We live in an old cell

At the water spill.

Here in the spring there is a lot of fun,

And the river sings.

And as a harbinger of fun,

On the day of spring storms

Cells will pour into our doors

Light azure.

And full of treasured trembling

Long awaited years

We'll rush off-road,

Into the unspeakable light.

However, in Blok’s later poems there is a mysterious double meaning, a mystical background that deepens every situation and gives it a different, endless perspective; and here the poet denotes, with the help of a metaphorical allegory, the contact of two worlds, the feeling of another reality entering this world. For example, verse. “The Commander’s Steps” begins with the usual images of fog outside the window, dead night, approaching dawn, the meaning of which is doubled between the material and allegorical, but can be interpreted in a realistic sense - to the place where the rooster crows “from a blessed, unfamiliar, distant land” does not foretell the appearance of a ghost. 21.8

Blok’s teacher in the field of poetic allegory is Vl. Solovyov, who was rightly called the first Russian symbolist. In Solovyov's poetry we find almost all of Blok's favorite symbols. So, spring: “The still invisible already sounds and blows, the coming spring is the breath of eternity”; azure: “Oh, how you have so much pure azure and black, black clouds.” Today my queen appeared before me all in azure" 73; dawn: "The dawn fought with the last stars" 74; roses: "Light from darkness. The faces of your roses could not rise above the mountain" 75; "the circle of the earth and the sky were breathing with roses" 76; fog; distant shore: "In the morning fog with unsteady steps I walked towards the mysterious and wonderful shores" 77; blizzards - sometimes snowy, sometimes sultry (cf. Blok has the usual combination “to burn out in the snows of oblivion” 78): “in the land of frosty blizzards, among the gray mists, you were born” 79 ; “Under the alien power of the sultry blizzard, having forgotten previous visions” 80 ; “The ice is melting, the heartfelt subsides blizzards" etc. However, in Solovyov the symbolic image usually appears in a fixed and undeveloped form, like a constant metaphorical cliche; in this respect, his symbols are often close in nature to the traditional religious symbolism of such poems as "The Song of the Ophites" and "U my queen has a high palace...", etc.

In Blok's youthful poetry, poetic symbols are also motionless and stereotyped; solving a metaphorical allegory in an abstract concept is not difficult:

Let the month shine - the night is dark.

May life bring happiness to people,

There is spring in my love soul

Will not replace stormy bad weather... 10.3

This is naive, abstractly logical symbolism of the type “The darker the night, the brighter the stars,” with a frank indication of the allegorical nature of word usage: “love is spring” - besides, it is “in my soul” (cf. what was said above regarding the description of the night in Gogol : "crowds of silver visions" arise "in the depths of the soul"). The same in another poem of the same years, especially close to Solovyov’s symbolism (“In the morning fog...”):

I was on my way to bliss. The path shone

Evening dew with red light,

And in my heart, freezing, I sang

If in his early Blok he proceeds from the symbolism of Vl. Solovyov, then at the peak of his creativity he gives us the same symbols in a new, individual use, no longer in the stereotyped and fixed form of image-concepts, but in movement and development, in a diverse combination with each other, bold and original deviations from the use of prose speech . A few examples will explain the laws of his art.

We say in colloquial language "cold feeling", "cold heart". “I defeated cold oblivion” (Balmont) is a common prosaic metaphor. Blok updates this metaphor, brings life back to it, or rather, he creates an original metaphorical neologism similar to the usual metaphor of the language “snow heart”, further developing this original symbol: “a heart covered in a snow blizzard”:

And there is no more enviable fate for me -

Burn out in the snows of oblivion,

And on the coastal snow field

To die under a ringing blizzard.10,224

The development of a metaphor leads to its realization. The poet no longer says that “a snow blizzard is in the heart” (cf. “and in the heart, fading, a distant voice sang the song of dawn”). The snow blizzard takes on a kind of independent life, becomes an objective reality, or at least a poetic reality. Born from the “heart” of the poet, it carries the poet himself. The poet dies “under a ringing blizzard”, “on a snowy field”.

The symbol of a “snow blizzard”, “blizzard” in itself is already of dual origin: it connects an updated metaphor like “cold heart”, “snow heart” with another metaphorical series - it “raised a whole storm”, in a “whirlwind of passion”, etc. P. - from where, as a metaphorical new formation, Blok’s expression about his love: “blizzard”, “blizzard”. Usually both rows are connected in a permanent "snow blizzard" symbol. Thus, in the poem “The Heart is Devoted to the Rioters”:

I forgot everyone I loved

I twisted my heart like a blizzard,

I threw my heart from the white mountains,

It lies at the bottom! 11, 251

The main metaphor “snow blizzard”, in turn, becomes the object of further metaphorization; eg: “snow blizzard” and then “snow canopy” - “curtain of silver”:

There is no escape from the blizzards

And it’s fun for me to die.

Led into an enchanted circle

She curtained her blizzards with silver... 11,250

This feature of the metaphorical style is brought into verse even more consistently. "Her songs", where the original symbol of the "snow blizzard" is overgrown with a number of new metaphors - "silver blizzard", "yarn" of white threads, a white "sleeve" with which the snow Maiden hugs the poet, and finally - "whirling blizzard", like " aerial carousel" (usually: dance, round dance):

With the sleeve of my bluebells

I'll strangle you.

The silver of my joys

I'll stun you.

On an aerial carousel

I'll spin it around.

Yarn of tangled tow

Shoes. 11,220

Thanks to the consistent development of metaphor, the whole poem becomes metaphorical in its theme. Moreover, even a whole cycle of poems is entitled “Snow Mask”, an entire book is entitled “Earth in the Snow”. The poet talks here about snow blizzards and blizzards, about snow love and the snow Maiden, which became a poetic reality in his work. He writes in the preface: “And now the Earth is covered in snow<...>. And the snows, darkening the radiance of the One Star, will subside. And the snow covering the ground - before spring. While the snow blinds the eyes and the cold has shackled the soul, blocking the paths, the lonely song of the peddler can be heard from afar: a triumphantly sad, inviting melody carried by the blizzard.”

We have a new complication of an already familiar symbol where the third metaphorical series is connected with the image of a “snow blizzard” - the image of a “troika” carrying away the poet or his happiness. We say in colloquial language: happiness has passed, flashed by, or life has rushed by. Blok renews the old metaphor, creating the image of a troika carrying away happiness:

Earthly happiness is late

On your crazy three!

If in this passage the source of the metaphorical allegory is exposed (“happiness... in the C grade... belated”), then in its further development the metaphor-symbol becomes the theme of the whole poem and acquires, to some extent, poetic reality:

I'm pinned to the bar counter.

I've been drunk for a long time. I don't care.

There's my happiness in the troika

Gone into the silver smoke.

Flies on a troika, sank

In the snow of time, in the distance of centuries...

And it just overwhelmed my soul

Silvery haze from under the horseshoes...

Throws sparks into the deep darkness,

Sparks all night, light all night...

The bell babbles under the arc

About the fact that happiness has passed...

And only the golden harness

Visible all night... Heard all night...

And you, soul... deaf soul...

Drunk drunk... drunk drunk... 11,168

The combination of the image of a troika, carrying away happiness, life and love, and the image of a snow blizzard, a blizzard, sweeping the heart, is given in the following poem. The troika no longer takes away happiness - it takes away the poet himself and his snowy friend. The symbol has reached its final realization:

Here she is. Overshadowed

All the smart ones, all the friends,

And my soul entered

Into her designated circle.

And under the sultry moan of snow

Your features have blossomed.

Only the troika rushes with a ringing sound

In snow-white oblivion.

You waved your bells

She took me to the fields...

You choke me with black silks,

The sable opened...

And about that free will

The wind cries along the river,

And they ring and go out in the field

Bells and lights?.. 11,254

We would say in prosaic speech: “she lit me up with her love, rushed away, carried me along with her.” But a metaphor-symbol has its own artistic laws when it consistently develops - from a simple allegory into a poetic theme. Therefore, it is not easy to answer, regarding such an extended metaphor, what the “troika” means in the above poems, and, even more so, what the “bells” and “golden stream” mean. Once it has appeared, the symbolic image develops according to its own internal laws, and the logical precision and immobility of an abstract concept can no longer follow this individual and dynamic development. But the symbolic meaning of this image certainly shines through its poetic reality. It is not without reason that realist writers, for example, Gorodetsky, in their literary manifesto directed against symbolism and mysticism ("Apollo", 1913, No. 1), rebelling against symbolism as a poetic method, indignantly pointed to Blok and demanded from young poets a real troika, and not symbolic 91. At the same time, literary Old Believers, not accustomed to the language of allegories, the reading of which had become completely familiar and easy for us, often complained about the incomprehensibility of Blok’s poetry. We recall a letter to the editors of Birzhevye Vedomosti, sent relatively recently (in 1909), the author of which asked what the meaning of a poem by a young “decadent” was, distinguished by such incomprehensible words:

You are as bright as innocent snow.

You are as white as a distant temple.

I don't believe this night is long

And hopeless evenings...

However, this poem, in its still very primitive symbolism, approaches the old scheme of fixed metaphors, concepts like: “The darker the night, the brighter the stars.” Much more difficult for prosaic “understanding” is, of course, created by such unusual in colloquial speech and bold metaphorical new formations as the above verses: “I threw my heart from the white mountains, it lies at the bottom” and many others. etc.

Conclusion:

Alexander Blok lived a short life - only forty years, but his creative path reflected the most difficult years in the fate of his Motherland with truly extraordinary brightness, depth and sincerity. (“I wasn’t looking for a better life...” (42, p. 5) Blok’s lyrics are a unique phenomenon. With all the diversity of its problems and artistic solutions, with all the differences between the early poems and the subsequent ones, it appears as a single whole, as one unfolded in time the work as a reflection of the “path” traveled by the poet.

- the language of allegory in Blok’s poetry represents only an example of the consistent application of artistic trends equally inherent in the work of all symbolists.

Conclusions on Chapter II:

Analyzing the above, we can conclude that the lexical and syntactic means of expression in the poetry of V. Bryusov and A. Blok are very diverse. It is worth noting their active use by authors in their work. The use of metaphors and symbols allows symbolist poets to have an emotional, aesthetic impact on the reader, to describe the inner world of a person and the human condition. Complex, intricate words and expressions are the incorruptible style of silversmith poets. The originality, that is, the originality of the authors’ creativity makes the reader involuntarily re-read and once again plunge into the diverse, interesting, colorful world of their works.

Conclusion

In the lyrics of the Silver Age poets, we saw various modifications of the poetics of allegories. We said that the generic features of symbolism as a literary school are revealed in individual symbolist poets by individual characteristics that make up their unique identity. However, behind these individual possibilities, the generic features of romantic poetics emerge with complete originality, forming a harmonious and internally connected artistic system. We tried to approach this system in one of its most significant stylistic features. We defined the art of romanticism as the “poetics of metaphor” and in the new life consciousness of mystical poets we found the deepest sources of the metaphorical style.

Having carried out analysis and synthesismeans of linguistic expressiveness in the poetry of the Silver Age, it should be emphasized that the expressiveness of speech in creativity can be created both by linguistic units of lexical groups (expressive-colored vocabulary, everyday vocabulary, neologisms, etc.), if the author uses them skillfully and in a unique way, and figurative means of language (epithets, personifications, metaphors, etc.), syntactic figures (inversion, anaphora, appeals, etc.). It is worth noting that a special place in the lyrics of Bryusov and Blok is occupied by metaphors and symbols that reflect the emotions of the lyrical hero, helping to identify the main intention of the authors.

In their poems there is love, and a tender feeling for nature, expressed by precise comparisons, and a jubilant feeling of love for this beauty around, and sadness. It was in these feelings, actions, impulses that the poets of the Silver Age so subtly used syntactic and lexical means that fill their work and make it modern.

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The means of artistic expression are so numerous and varied that it is impossible to do without dry mathematical calculations.

Wandering through the nooks and crannies of the metropolis of literary theory, it’s easy to get lost and not reach the most important and interesting things. So, remember the number 2. Two sections need to be studied: the first is tropes, and the second is stylistic figures. In turn, each of them branches into many alleys, and we currently do not have the opportunity to go through all of them. Trope - a derivative of the Greek word “turn”, denotes those words or phrases that have a different, “allegorical” meaning. And thirteen paths and alleys (the most basic). Or rather, almost fourteen, because here, too, art has surpassed mathematics.

First section: trails

1. Metaphor. Find similarities and transfer the name of one object to another. For example: worm tram, bug trolleybus. Metaphors are most often monosyllabic.

2. Metonymy. Also a transfer of the name, but according to the principle of contiguity, for example: I read Pushkin(instead of the name “book” we have “author”, although many young ladies have also read the poet’s body).

2a. Synecdoche. Suddenly - 2a. This is a type of metonymy. Replacement by concept. And in the plural. " Save your penny"(Gogol) and" Sit down, luminary"(Mayakovsky) - this is based on concepts, instead of money and sun." I will retrain as a building manager"(Ilf and Petrov) - this is by numbers, when the singular number is replaced by the plural (and vice versa).

3. Epithet. A figurative definition of an object or phenomenon. Examples of a car (an example - instead of “many”). Expressed by almost any part of speech or phrase: leisurely spring, beautiful spring, smiled like spring etc. The means of artistic expression of many writers are completely exhausted by this trope - diverse, rascal.

4. Comparison. Always binomial: the subject of comparison is the image of similarity. The most commonly used conjunctions are “as”, “as if”, “as if”, “exactly”, as well as prepositions and other lexical means. Beluga scream; like lightning; silent like a fish.

5. Personification. When inanimate objects are endowed with a soul, when violins sing, trees whisper; Moreover, completely abstract concepts can also come to life: calm down, melancholy; just talk to me, seven-string guitar.

6. Hyperbole. Exaggeration. Forty thousand brothers.

7. Litota. Understatement. A drop in the sea.

8. Allegory. Through specificity - into abstraction. The train left- it means the past cannot be returned. Sometimes there are very, very long texts with one detailed allegory.

9. Paraphrase. You beat around the bush, describing an unsayable word. " Our everything", for example, or " The sun of Russian poetry"But not everyone can simply say Pushkin with such success.

10. Irony. Subtle mockery when words with the opposite meaning are used .

11. Antithesis. Contrast, opposition. Rich and poor. Winter and summer.

12. Oxymoron. Combination of incompatibilities: a living corpse, hot snow, a silver bast shoe.

13. Antonomasia. Similar to metonymy. Only here a proper name must appear instead of a common noun. Croesus- instead of "rich man".

Second section: Stylistic figures, or Figures of speech that enhance the expressiveness of the statement

Here we remember 12 branches from the main avenue:

1. Gradation. The arrangement of words is gradual - in order of importance, ascending or descending. Crescendo or diminuendo. Remember how Koreiko and Bender smiled at each other.

2. Inversion. A phrase in which the usual word order is broken. Especially often combined with irony. " Where, smart one, are you wandering from?"(Krylov) - there is also irony here.

3. Ellipsis. Because of his inherent expressiveness, he “swallows” some words. For example: " I am going home" instead of "I'm going home."

4. Parallelism. The same construction of two or more sentences. For example: " Now I walk and sing, now I stand on the edge".

5. Anaphora. Unity of people. That is, each new construction begins with the same words. Remember Pushkin’s “Near the Lukomorye there is a green oak tree”, there is a lot of this goodness there.

6. Epiphora. Repeating the same words at the end of each construction, and not at the beginning. " If you go to the left, you will die, if you go to the right, you will die, and if you go straight, you will definitely die, but there is no turning back."

7. Non-union or asyndeton. Swede, Russian, it goes without saying that he chops, stabs, cuts.

8. Polyunion or polysyndeton. Yes, that's also clear: and it’s boring, you know, and sad, and there’s no one.

9. Rhetorical question. A question that does not expect an answer, on the contrary, it implies one. Have you heard?

10. Rhetorical exclamation. It greatly increases the emotional intensity of even written speech. The poet is dead!

11. Rhetorical appeal. Conversation not only with inanimate objects, but also with abstract concepts: " Why are you standing there, rocking...", "Hello, joy!"

12. Parcellation. Also very expressive syntax: That's it. I'm done, yes! This article.

Now about the topic

The theme of a work of art, as the basis of the subject of knowledge, directly lives on the means of artistic expression, since anything can be the subject of creativity.

Telescope of intuition

The main thing is that the artist must examine in detail, looking through the telescope of intuition, what he is going to tell the reader about. All phenomena of human life and the life of nature, the animal and plant world, as well as material culture lend themselves to depiction. Fantasy is also a wonderful subject for research, from there gnomes, elves and hobbits fly into the pages of the text. But the main theme is still a description of the characteristics of human life in its social essence, no matter what terminators and other monsters frolic in the vastness of the work. And no matter how much the artist runs away from current public interests, he will not be able to break ties with his time. The idea, for example, of “pure art” is also an idea, right? All changes throughout the life of society are necessarily reflected in the themes of the works. The rest depends on the author’s flair and dexterity - what means of artistic expression he will choose for the most complete disclosure of the chosen topic.

The concept of Big style and individual style

Style is, first of all, a system that incorporates creative style, features of verbal structure, plus subject visualization and composition (plot formation).

Big style

The totality and unity of all visual and figurative means, the unity of content and form is the formula of style. Eclecticism does not completely convince. Great style is the norm, expediency, tradition, it is the incorporation of the author's feeling during the Great Time. Such as the Middle Ages, Renaissance, classicism.

According to Hegel: three types of Grand Style

1. Strict - from severe - with the highest functionality.

2. Ideal - from harmony - filled with balance.

3. Pleasant - from the everyday - light and flirty. Hegel, by the way, wrote four thick volumes only about style. It is simply impossible to describe such a topic in a nutshell.

Individual style

Acquiring an individual style is much easier. This is both the literary norm and deviations from it. The style of fiction is especially clearly visible in its attention to detail, where all components are merged into a system of images, and a poetic synthesis occurs (again, the silver bast shoe on Pavel Petrovich Kirsanov’s table).

According to Aristotle: Three steps to achieving style

1. Imitation of nature (discipleship).

2. Manner (we sacrifice truthfulness for the sake of artistry).

3. Style (fidelity to reality while maintaining all individual qualities). The perfection and completeness of style are distinguished by works that have historical truthfulness, ideological orientation, depth and clarity of issues. To create a perfect form that matches the content, a writer needs talent, ingenuity, and skill. He must rely on the achievements of his predecessors, choose forms that correspond to the originality of his artistic ideas, and for this he needs both a literary and general cultural outlook. The classical criterion and spiritual context are the best way and the main problem in finding style in current Russian literature.

In the work of any author, means of expression play a huge role. And to create a good, solid detective story, with its tense atmosphere, mysterious murders and even more mysterious and colorful characters, they are simply necessary. Expressive means serve to enhance the expressiveness of statements, give “volume” to characters and poignancy to dialogues. Using expressive means, the writer has the opportunity to more fully and beautifully express his thoughts and fully bring the reader up to date.

Expressive means are divided into:

Lexical (archaisms, barbarisms, terms)

Stylistic (metaphor, personification, metonymy, hyperbole, paraphrase)

Phonetic (use of sound texture of speech)

Graphic (graphon)

Stylistic means of expression are a way of imparting emotion and expressiveness to speech.

Syntactic expressive means are the use of syntactic constructions for stylistic purposes, to semantically highlight (emphasize) any words or sentences, giving them the desired coloring and meaning.

Lexical expressive means are the special use of words (often in their figurative meaning) in figures of speech.

Phonetic expressive means is the use of the sound texture of speech in order to increase expressiveness.

Graphic - show deviations from speech norms.

Lexical expressive means.

Archaisms.

Archaisms are words and expressions that have fallen out of everyday use and are felt as outdated, reminiscent of a bygone era. From the Great Soviet Encyclopedia: “Archaism is a word or expression that is outdated and has ceased to be used in ordinary speech. Most often used in literature as a stylistic device to add solemnity to speech and to create a realistic color when depicting antiquity.” Whilome - formerly, to trow - to think - these are obsolete words that have analogues in modern English. There are also words that have no analogue, for example: gorget, mace. You can also give an example from the book of John Galsworthy:

“How thou art sentimental, maman!”

Foreign words.

Foreign words in stylistics are words and phrases borrowed from a foreign language and not subjected to grammatical and phonetic transformations in the language of borrowing.

Terms (Terms) - words and phrases denoting scientific concepts that reflect the properties and characteristics of an object. Let us give an example from Theodore Dreiser’s work “The Financier”:

“There was a long conversation - a long wait. His father came back to say I was doubtful whether they could make the loan. Eight per cent, then being secured for money, was a small rate of interest; considering its need. For ten per cent Mr. Kugel might make a call-loan.”

Stylistic means of expression.

Periphrasis is the use of a proper name as a common noun, or, conversely, the use of a descriptive phrase instead of a proper name. For example, instead of the word “readers” A.S. Pushkin in his poem “Ruslan and Lyudmila” says “Friends of Lyudmila and Ruslan!” “He is Napoleon of crime” (Conan Dole).

Epithet is a figurative definition of an object, usually characterized by an adjective. Examples include the words good, bed, cold, hot, green, yellow, big, small, etc.

Hyperbole is the use of a word or expression that exaggerates the actual degree of quality, the intensity of a characteristic, or the scale of the subject of speech. Hyperbole deliberately distorts reality, increasing the emotionality of speech. Hyperbole is one of the oldest means of expression, and it is widely used in folklore and epic poetry of all times and peoples. Hyperbole has become so firmly established in our lives that we often do not perceive it as hyperbole. For example, hyperbole includes such everyday expressions as: a thousand apologies, a million kisses, I haven't seen you for ages, I beg a thousand pardons. “He heard nothing. He was more remote them the stars” (S. Chaplin) .

Metaphor (Metaphor) is a type of trope (trope is a poetic turn, the use of a word in a figurative meaning, a departure from literal speech), the figurative meaning of a word, based on the likening of one object or phenomenon to another by similarity or contrast. Like hyperbole, metaphor is one of the oldest means of expression, and an example of this is ancient Greek mythology, where the sphinx is a cross between a man and a lion, and a centaur is a cross between a man and a horse.

“Love is a star to every wandering bark” (from Shakespeare's sonnet). We see that the reader is given the opportunity to compare concepts such as “star” and “love”.

In the Russian language we can find such examples of metaphor as “iron will”, “bitterness of separation”, “warmth of the soul” and so on. Unlike a simple comparison, a metaphor does not contain the words “as”, “as if”, “as if”.

Metonymy - establishing a connection between phenomena or objects by contiguity, transferring the properties of an object to the object itself, with the help of which these properties are revealed. In metonymy, the effect can be replaced by the cause, the content - by the container, the material from which the thing is made can replace the designation of the thing itself. The difference between metonymy and metaphor is that metonymy deals only with those connections and combinations that exist in nature. Thus, in Pushkin, the “hissing of foamy glasses” replaces the foaming wine itself, poured into the glasses. Famusov recalls from A.S. Griboedov: “It’s not like he ate silver, he ate gold.” In English there are such examples of metonymy as:

"She has a quick pen." Or:

"The stars and stripes invaded Iraq". In the first case, in the example of metonymy, the characteristic is transferred from the girl herself to her writing pen, and in the second, the color and design of the flag replaces the name of the country.

Gradation (Climax) is a stylistic figure in which definitions are grouped according to the increase or decrease of their emotional and semantic significance. This is a gradual strengthening or weakening of images used to intensify the effect. Example:

I do not regret, do not call, do not cry,

Everything will pass like smoke from white apple trees. (S.A. Yesenin).

In English you can find the following examples of gradation:

“Little by little, bit by bit, day by day, he stayed of her.” Or a sequential listing of attributes in increasing order: clever, talented, genius.

Oxymoron is a special type of antithesis (opposition), based on the combination of contrasting values. An oxymoron is a direct correlation and combination of contrasting, seemingly incompatible features and phenomena. An oxymoron is often used to achieve the desired effect when describing a person’s character, to indicate a certain inconsistency in human nature. Thus, with the help of the oxymoron “the splendor of shamelessness”, a capacious characterization of a woman of easy virtue in W. Faulkner’s novel “The City” is achieved. Oxymoron is also widely used in the titles of works (“Young Peasant Lady,” “Living Corpse,” etc.). Among English authors, the oxymoron is widely used by William Shakespeare in his tragedy “Romeo and Juliet”:

O brawling love! O loving hate!

O any thing! of nothing first create.

O heavy lightness! serious vanity!

(act 1, scene 1).

Comparisons (Similes) are a rhetorical figure close to metaphor, identifying a common feature when comparing two objects or phenomena. A comparison differs from a metaphor in that it contains the words “as”, “as if”, “as if”. Comparison is widely used both in literature and in everyday speech. For example, everyone knows such expressions as: “plow like an ox,” “hungry like a wolf,” “stupid as a plug,” etc. We can observe examples of comparisons in A.S. Pushkin in the poem “Anchar”:

Anchar, like a formidable sentry,

It stands alone in the entire universe.

In English there are comparisons such as: fresh as rose, fat as a pig, to fit like a glove. An example of a comparison can be given from Ray Bradbury’s story “A sound of thunder”:

"Like a stone idol, like a mountain avalanche, Tyrannosaurus fell"

Personification is the endowment of objects and phenomena of inanimate nature with the characteristics of living beings. Personification helps the writer more accurately convey his feelings and impressions of the surrounding nature.

How soon hat Time, the subtle thief of youth,

Stoln of wing my three and twin teeth year! (classical poetry of the 17th-18th centuries)

Antithesis - artistic opposition. This is a technique for enhancing expressiveness, a way of conveying life’s contradictions. According to writers, antithesis is especially expressive when it is made up of metaphors. For example, in G.R. Derzhavin’s poem “God”: “I am a king - I am a slave, I am a worm - I am god!” Or A.S. Pushkin:

They got along. Water and stone

Poetry and prose, ice and fire

Not so different from each other... ("Eugene Onegin")

Also, many artistic oppositions are contained in proverbs and sayings. Here is an example of a common English saying:

“To err is human and to forget is divine.” Or here’s a striking example of an antithesis:

“The music professor's lessons were light, but his fees were high.”

Stylistic means of expression also include the use of slang and neologisms (words formed by the author himself). Slang can be used both to create an appropriate flavor and to enhance the expressiveness of speech. Authors usually resort to neologisms when they cannot make do with a traditional set of words. For example, with the help of the neologism “loud-boiling cup,” F.I. Tyutchev creates a vivid poetic image in the poem “Spring Thunderstorm.” Examples from the English language include the words headful - a head full of ideas; handful - handful.

Anaphora - unity of command. This is a technique that consists of different lines, stanzas, and sentences starting with the same word.

“Not a little thing like that! Not a butterfly!” cried Eckels."

Epiphora is the opposite concept of anaphora. Epiphora is the repetition at the end of a segment of text of the same word or phrase, a single ending of phrases or sentences.

I woke up alone, I walked alone and returned home alone.

Syntactic expressive means.

Syntactic means of expression include, first of all, the author’s arrangement of signs, designed to highlight any words and phrases, as well as give them the desired coloring. Syntactic means include inversion - incorrect word order (You know him?), unfinished sentences (I don't know...), italics of individual words or phrases.

Phonetic means of expression.

Phonetic means of expression include onomitopia (Onomethopea) - the author’s use of words whose sound texture resembles some sounds. In the Russian language you can find many examples of onomitopia, for example, the use of the words rustles, whispers, crunches, meows, crows, and so on. In English, onomitopy includes words such as: moan, scrabble, bubbles, crack, scream. Onomitopia is used to convey sounds, speech patterns, and partly the character’s voice.

Graphic means of expression.

Grafon (Graphon) is a non-standard spelling of words that emphasizes the characteristics of the character’s speech. An example of a graphon is an excerpt from Ray Bradbury’s story “The sound of thunder”:

“His mouth trembled, asking: “Who-who won the presidential election yesterday?”

The author’s use of expressive means makes his speech more rich, expressive, emotional, bright, individualizes his style and helps the reader feel the author’s position in relation to heroes, moral standards, historical figures and the era.

Artistic means are also characteristic of colloquial speech, but in literary work they are especially common, as they help the writer to give individual features to the phenomena described and to evaluate them.

First of all, tropes belong to them - these are figures of speech in which words or expressions are used not in their literal meaning, but figuratively. They are based on a comparison of a pair of phenomena that seem similar to us in some way. Thus, the signs of one phenomenon characterize another, create a vivid, clear, concrete idea about it, and explain it.

Paths are used in a writer’s speech to form new combinations of words with new meanings. With their help, speech acquires other semantic shades, and the author’s assessment of the described phenomena is conveyed.

There are two types of trails: complex and simple.

The simplest artistic means are epithet and comparison.

An epithet serves to characterize, define and explain some property of an object or phenomenon. This only happens when it is combined with a defined word. The epithet transfers its characteristics onto it. For example: silver spoons, silk curls.

Comparison defines a phenomenon by comparing it with another phenomenon that has characteristics similar to the first. It can be expressed through words (exactly, as, as if, etc.) or indicate similarity by the construction of a sentence (she was similar to...).

Complex artistic means are litotes, hyperbole, periphrasis, synecdoche, metaphor, allegory and metonymy.

Litotes is something that deliberately downplays the power, significance, and dimensions of the phenomenon that is depicted. The author resorts to this means to make his speech more expressive. For example, Thumb Boy.

Hyperbole, on the contrary, is an exorbitant increase in the meaning, strength, size of the depicted phenomenon or object. The author resorts to it to sharpen the image and attract the reader’s attention.

Periphrasis is the replacement of a specific name of an object or phenomenon with a description of the characteristics characteristic of it. This creates a vivid picture of life in the reader's mind.

Metaphor is one of the most commonly used complex tropes, in which a word is used in its figurative meaning to define some phenomenon or object that is similar to it in common aspects or features.

Metonymy is the replacement of the name of a phenomenon or concept with another name, but one that in the human mind is still associated with the first phenomenon. For example, from A.S. Pushkin’s phrase “All flags will visit us...” it is clear that ships from several countries will come to the port.

The predominance of certain means of language in the work creates the peculiarities of the writer’s artistic style. Also, the author’s style may consist in the repetition of ideas that reflect his perception of the world, in the very content of the work, in a certain range of plots and characters that he depicts most often.

The set of means used by the author, the features of his creative style, his worldview, his depiction of life - all this is determined by the historical and social conditions in which he develops. Their imprint falls on both the form of the work of art and the content.

In addition, style refers to the characteristics of not one author, but several. In the work of each of them the following features are repeated (and at the same time united by them): a similar understanding of life, the same ideas of works, the use of identical artistic means.

Artistic styles into which writers are grouped according to the characteristics listed above are usually called literary movements (symbolism, futurism, sentimentalism, acmeism and others).

Perhaps the most confusing and difficult topic for those who are not friends with literature and verbal figures. If you have never been impressed by classical literature, and especially poetry, then perhaps getting to know this topic will allow you to look at many works through the eyes of the author and spark an interest in the literary word.

Paths - verbal turns

Paths make speech brighter and more expressive, more interesting and richer. These are words and their combinations used in a figurative sense, which is why the very expressiveness of the text appears. Paths help convey various shades of emotions, recreate true images and pictures in the mind of the reader; with their help, masters of words evoke certain associations in the mind of the reader.

Along with the syntactic means of language, tropes (related to lexical means) are quite a powerful weapon in the literary sphere. It is worth paying attention to the fact that many tropes have moved from the literary language into colloquial speech. We have become so accustomed to them that we have ceased to notice the indirect meaning of such words, which is why they have lost their expressiveness. It’s a common occurrence: tropes are so “hackneyed” in colloquial speech that they become cliches and cliches. The once expressive phrases “black gold”, “brilliant mind”, “golden hands” have become familiar and hackneyed.

Classification of tropes

In order to understand and clearly clarify which words and expressions, in what context, are classified as figurative and expressive means of language, let us turn to the following table.

From the examples it becomes clear that the figurative and expressive means of language, namely tropes, are used not only in works of art, but also in living spoken language. You don’t have to be a poet to have competent, rich, expressive speech. It is enough to have a good vocabulary and the ability to express thoughts outside the box. Saturate your vocabulary by reading quality literature, it is extremely useful.

Visual means of phonetics

Paths are only part of the arsenal of artistic means of expression. What is designed to specifically influence our hearing is called phonetic figurative and expressive means of language. Once you understand the essence of the phonetic component of the artistry of a language, you begin to look at many things with different eyes. An understanding of the play on words in the poems of the school curriculum, once studied “through force” comes, and the poetics and beauty of the syllable are revealed.

It is best to consider examples of the use of phonetic means of expression based on classical Russian literature; this is the richest source of alliteration and assonance, as well as other types of sound writing. But it would be wrong to think that examples of figurative and expressive means of language are not found in modern art. Advertising, journalism, songs and poems by modern performers, proverbs, sayings, tongue twisters - all this is an excellent basis for searching for figures of speech and tropes, you just need to learn to hear and see them.

Alliteration, assonance and others

Alliteration is the repetition of identical consonants or their combinations in a poem, which gives the verse sound expressiveness, brightness, and originality. For example, the sound [z] in Vladimir Mayakovsky’s “Cloud in Pants”:

You came in

sharp, like “here!”

mucha suede gloves,

“You know -

I'm getting married".

or right there:

I'll strengthen myself.

See -

how calm!

Like the pulse of a dead man.

Remember?...

And here is a modern example for us. From the singer Utah (“Fall”):

I will smoke and eat bread,

Staring at the dusty lampshade in the hallway...

Assonance is a specially organized repetition of consonant sounds (usually in a poetic text), which gives the verse musicality, harmony, and songfulness. A skillfully created phonetic device can convey the atmosphere, setting, state of mind and even surrounding sounds. Vladimir Mayakovsky’s carefully crafted assonance carries a tinge of fluid hopelessness:

Your son is beautifully sick!

His heart is on fire.

Tell your sisters

Lyuda and Ole,—

he has nowhere to go.

In any poem, Vladimir Vladimirovich combines figurative and expressive means of a phonetic nature with tropes and syntactic figures. This is the author's uniqueness.

Pun rhymes are combinations of words and sounds based on the similarity of sounds.

The realm of rhymes is my element,

And I write poetry easily,

Without hesitation, without delay

I run to line from line,

Even to the Finnish brown rocks

I'm making a pun.

D. D. Minaev

Syntactic means of expressiveness in language

Epiphora and anaphora, inversion, parcellation and a number of other syntactic means help the master of verbal art to saturate his works with expressiveness, creating an individual style, character, and rhythm.

Some syntactic devices enhance the expressiveness of speech and logically highlight what the author wants to emphasize. Others add dynamism and tension to the narrative, or, conversely, make you stop and think, re-read and feel. Many writers and poets have their own individual style, based specifically on syntax. Suffice it to recall A. Blok:

"Night, street, lantern, pharmacy"

or A. Akhmatova:

"Twenty-one. Night. Monday"

The individual author's style consists, of course, not only of syntax, there is a whole set of all components: semantic, linguistic, as well as rhythm and vision of reality. And yet, an important role is played by what figurative and expressive means of language the artist prefers.

Syntax to aid artistic expression

Inversion (rearrangement, reversal) is the reverse or non-standard order of words in a sentence. In prose it is used to semantically highlight any part of a sentence. In poetic form it is sometimes necessary to create rhyme and focus attention on the most important points. In Marina Tsvetaeva’s poem “An Attempt of Jealousy,” inversion conveys an emotional breakdown:

How are you doing - are you healthy -

Maybe? Sung - how?

With the ulcer of an immortal conscience

How are you coping, poor man?

A. S. Pushkin considered inversion to be perhaps the most important means of poetic expression; his poems are mostly inversion, which is why they are so musical, expressive, and simple.

A rhetorical question in a literary text is one that does not require an answer.

The day was innocent and the wind was fresh.

The dark stars went out.

- Grandmother! - This brutal rebellion

In my heart - isn't it from you?..

A. Akhmatova

In Marina Tsvetaeva’s lyrics, her favorite devices were the rhetorical question and the rhetorical exclamation:

I'll ask for a chair, I'll ask for a bed:

“Why, why do I suffer and suffer?”

I learned to live in the fire itself,

He threw it himself - into the frozen steppe!

That's what you, dear, did to me!

My dear, what have I done to you?

Epiphora, anaphora, ellipse

Anaphora is the repetition of similar or identical sounds, words, phrases at the beginning of each line, stanza, sentence. A classic example is Yesenin’s poems:

I didn't know that love is an infection

I didn't know that love is a plague...

Oh, wait. I don't scold her.

Oh, wait. I don't curse her...

Epiphora - repetition of the same elements at the end of phrases, stanzas, lines.

Foolish heart, don't beat!

We are all deceived by happiness,

The beggar only asks for participation...

Foolish heart, don't beat.

Both stylistic figures are more characteristic of poetry than prose. Such techniques are found in all types and genres of literature, including oral folk art, which is very natural, given its specificity.

An ellipse is an omission in a literary text of any linguistic unit (it is easy to restore), while the meaning of the phrase does not suffer.

What yesterday is waist-deep,

Suddenly - to the stars.

(Exaggerated, that is:

Full height.)

M. Tsvetaeva

This gives dynamism, conciseness, and highlights the desired element intonationally in the sentence.

In order to clearly navigate the diversity of linguistic figures and professionally understand the name of a visual and expressive means, you need experience, knowledge of theory and language disciplines.

The main thing is not to overdo it

If we perceive the surrounding information through the prism of linguistic means of expressiveness, we can come to the conclusion that even colloquial speech refers to them quite often. It is not necessary to know the name of a figurative and expressive means of language in order to use it in speech. Rather, it happens unintentionally, unnoticed. It’s another matter when various figures of speech flow in the media, both appropriate and not. The abuse of tropes, stylistic devices, and other means of expressiveness makes speech difficult to perceive and oversaturated. Journalism and advertising are especially guilty of this, apparently because they deliberately use the power of language to influence the audience. The poet, in the rush of the creative process, does not think about what visual and expressive means to use; this is a spontaneous, “emotional” process.

Language is the most powerful tool in the hands of the classics

Each era leaves its mark on the language and its visual means. Pushkin's language is far from Mayakovsky's creative style. The poetics of Tsvetaeva’s legacy differs sharply from the unique texts of Vladimir Vysotsky. The poetic language of A. S. Pushkin is permeated with epithets, metaphors, personifications, I. A. Krylov is a fan of allegory, hyperbole, and irony. Each writer has his own style, created by him in the creative process, in which his favorite visual forms play an important role.