Lecture: Traits of classicism, romanticism and realism in A. Griboedov’s comedy “Woe from Wit”

The leading literary movement at the beginning of the 19th century was classicism. However, not everything is so simple with Griboyedov’s comedy. The uniqueness of “Woe from Wit,” in particular, lies in the fact that in this comedy the features of several literary movements are manifested: and

Signs of classicism in Griboedov's comedy

The play “Woe from Wit” preserves the unity of place, time and action - three categories that characterize classicism .

The action takes place over the course of one day in Famusov’s house.

Formally, the play has one leading storyline - “Sofya - Chatsky - Molchalin”. However, this line is not the only one.

Firstly, Chatsky is not only a rejected hero-lover, he also performs the function of a reasoner in comedy, i.e. It is he who expresses ideas close to the author.

Secondly, Molchalin does not correspond in his qualities to the role of a hero-lover, but he is not a supporting hero, because Molchalin is loved by the heroine.

The secondary characters also significantly expand the classic roles. Lisa is not just a soubrette, but also a character who gives apt characteristics to the heroes

(“Who is as sensitive, and sharp, and sharp as Alexander Andreich Chatsky”).

Thus, the roles of the heroes are much wider than the classic canon.

The comedy also retains the principle of speaking surnames:

Famusov (from the Latin “rumour”) is afraid of gossip, rumors,

Prince Tugoukhovsky is really hard of hearing,

Repetilov (from the French “to repeat”) repeats after others.

The author’s attitude is also reflected in the names of Skalozub, Khryumina, Khlestova, Zagoretsky and others. In the first version of the manuscript, the main character's surname was listed as Chadsky. Many researchers see the closeness of the surname Chatsky with Chaadaev, a prominent philosopher of that time. Moreover, Chaadaev, like Griboyedov’s hero, was declared crazy.

So, the fact that in a comedy the speaking surnames do not fully reflect the character of the heroes is another deviation from the canons of classicism.

The composition of the comedy is classic: four acts, in the exposition Lisa (a minor character) gives characteristics to the main characters, gives the viewer an idea of ​​what is happening, the third act is the climax, the fourth is the denouement. But the play has quite a few long monologues characteristic of classicism, and the ending is atypical: the vice is not punished, the hero does not triumph, but leaves Famusov’s house.

Features of romanticism in the play "Woe from Wit"

Traits of romanticism can also be found in this amazing play. The social conflict of the play is characteristic precisely of romanticism: Chatsky alone opposes the entire Famus society, which is inert and sanctimonious. This is a confrontation in everything: in relation to wealth, rank, service, education, serfdom, foreign influences. Two camps - “the whole camp of the Famusovs and all the brethren” and one fighter, “the enemy of the quest” (I.A. Goncharov).

Romanticism is characterized by tragic pathos. There is also a kind of tragedy in Griboyedov’s play.

Goncharov spoke of Chatsky’s role as “passive”:

“Chatsky is broken by the amount of old power.”

But at the same time, he is a winner, because... the truth of the future lies behind him. Like any romantic hero, Chatsky is lonely

(“... in the crowd I’m lost, like I don’t belong”).

The motive of the hero’s exile is also associated with romantic tendencies.

(“Everyone is persecuting, everyone is cursing! The tormentors are a crowd”).

The hero appears in Famusov’s house after a long journey and again leaves Moscow, experiencing “a million torments”

(“... I’ll go look around the world where there is a corner for offended feelings!”).

The ending of the comedy is tragic, not funny.

Our presentation of the topic

Realism in Griboyedov's comedy

I.A. Goncharov, in an article devoted to the comedy “Woe from Wit,” wrote:

“Twenty faces reflected the whole of the former Moscow, its design, the spirit of that time,” the historical moment and morals. This characteristic, in particular, can be regarded as a characteristic of the realism of Griboyedov’s play.

A.S. Griboedov stood at the origins of new trends in Russian drama. The comedy vividly, accurately and skillfully combines the features of different literary movements - classicism, romanticism and realism, the main conflict of the era - “the present century and the past century.”

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A dramatic writer must be judged by the laws he has imposed on himself.

A. S. Pushkin

The creation of original Russian comedy was a pressing task at the beginning of the 19th century. Although A. S. Griboedov’s comedy “Woe from Wit” was the only play that expressed the ideas of the time, it was not born in an airless space in the sense of a literary atmosphere, but on the wave of the aspirations of the best poets. Attempts to subvert genre conventions in dramaturgy were obvious. You can recall the theater of Kuchelbecker and Katenin, but Griboedov became the real pioneer.

“Woe from Wit” was an exceptional comedy in the light of the development of Russian drama. A sharp plot, a smooth development of action, a beautiful poetic form, an apt Russian word - all this made Griboedov's comedy one of the most interesting works.

The dramatic genre of literature requires a special art from the writer - practically without the author's word, with the exception of brief remarks, to achieve great artistic truth. In lyric or epic poetry, you can use a variety of means to create an artistic image, including the author’s characterization. For a writer-playwright, the task is more complicated - the image is built from the words and replicas of the characters.

In his comedy, Griboyedov does not strive for a classical scheme, although he retains some of the indispensable features of classicist drama: first of all, the unity of place and time. But these unities, as well as the unity of action, cannot squeeze Griboyedov’s masterpiece into the templates of classicism. These three unities in the play coexist perfectly with elements of romanticism and realism. The signs of the romantic school are confirmed by Griboyedov himself when he correlates “Woe from Wit” with the genre characteristic of romanticism, calling his work “stage comedy.”

Chatsky is a romantic hero. He is not understood by society, is in conflict with it, and travels a lot. The conflict between Chatsky and his opponents is an expression of the struggle between the crowd and a heroic person who wants to change life, make it better, more honest, more just.

The main law that was recognized by Griboyedov is the law of plausibility, the real, the law of living reality. He masterfully combined classicism with romanticism in his comedy, but... created a truly realistic work.

The characters in “Woe from Wit” were created by deep observation of human feelings in their inconsistency. It is the inconsistency of traits that makes the characters created by the playwright not at all classicistic.

The inconsistency of characters is the unconditional standard of realism that distinguishes Chatsky from the “virtuous reasoners of didactic comedy.” But Griboyedov put his thoughts and ideas into his mouth, so Chatsky is both the reasoner and the hero of the play. The role of Lisa is reminiscent of the maid from the comedy “The Marriage of Figaro” by Beaumarchais, who arranges her mistress’s love affairs, and in the finale of the play receives a reward for this. But in “Woe from Wit” everything is different. Lisa carries out the instructions of her young lady, but does not sympathize with the love affair at all and even tries to reason with Sofia (“there will be no use in this love”). The ending of the comedy is very realistic for feudal Russia - Liza is under threat of exile to the village.

There is no denouement in the play, the fate of the characters is not determined, that is, from the point of view of classicism, a fifth act is necessary, where everything is resolved. But the author violates this logic. He leaves it to the viewer and reader to think about the future fate of the characters. The ending of a classic comedy cannot be tragic, but the ending of the comedy “Woe from Wit” is tragic, thereby Griboedov “seems to take off the mask of a classic playwright.”

One of the features of the realistic poetics of Griboedov's comedy is the way of constructing a character type. This method can be conventionally called volumetric in time. Griboyedov connects his hero not only with the time of the play.

The characters in “Woe from Wit” seem like living people, primarily because there is no schematism in their depiction. In the comedies of Griboyedov's predecessors, usually each of the main characters seemed to personify one or another quality, turning into hypocrisy, boasting or walking virtue. And Griboedov managed, even by emphasizing certain properties of each, to show people from different sides, with many shades of aspirations and feelings.

As is known, realism “presupposes, in addition to the truthfulness of details, the truthful reproduction of typical characters in typical circumstances.” This kind of requirement is fully fulfilled in Griboyedov’s comedy. The playwright does not force his characters to commit actions that are contrary to their psychology and the influence of circumstances on them, or the logic of the development of the action. His heroes are living people.

The plot and composition of the play, the speech of the characters are subject to Griboyedov’s artistic laws, which he himself developed, creating a comedy hitherto unprecedented in Russian literature. The freedom with which the picture of morals is drawn, the panorama of old noble Moscow, is striking; it’s as if we are not present in the theater, but are seeing life itself.

Griboyedov, a realist, brought onto the stage a whole crowd of inhabitants of noble Moscow. According to the classical Russian tradition, the characters have names and characteristics: Chatsky (in the first edition - Chadsky) - the one who is in a child; Molchalin - dumb; Famusov - everyone knows him; Repetilov - repeating other people's words; Tugoukhovsky - hard of hearing; Khlestova - whipping, sharp. Sometimes the playwright singles out only one feature in the appearance of a character or in his character. Countess Khryumina is “remarkable” for her deafness, and Princess Tugoukhovskaya for her relentless search for suitors for her daughters. What unites everyone is a depressing spiritual misery. But this crowd of nonentities does not merge into one gray mass.

In Famusov, perhaps, the originality of Griboyedov’s satire was most clearly manifested. This image does not have that concentration of dark satirical colors that

thanks to which the reader’s attention is focused on any one quality of the hero. At first, it seems that he is not devoid of good nature; his behavior even seems to show some kind of breadth of nature: he not only scolds, but is capable of pity, likes to order, but sometimes tries to convince. In addition, he expresses thoughts that are characteristic not only of Moscow bars, but of the majority of those in power, ranging from the Saratov landowner to the imperial courtier. Therefore, it is very important to take a closer look at his beliefs. In their entire socio-historical essence, they are very simple: these are the beliefs of the serf owner and bureaucrat of the Pavlovian-Arakcheev school. But Famusov’s beliefs are interesting not only for this.

As a realist, Griboyedov knew that the main thing in a person’s character is formed in certain circumstances and depends on them. But he knew how to see in his heroes not only what was generated by the social conditions of his time, but also what was predetermined by the individual properties of people. We say that Famusov is a typical representative of the lordly and bureaucratic Moscow of the early 19th century. But how do we know that he is typical? Belinsky gave the following definition of a typical character in literature: “In true talent, each face is a type, and each type for a writer is a familiar stranger.” Famusov is drawn as a rather complex character. It is no coincidence that he is perceived as the “leading force” of the camp hostile to Chatsky. Griboyedov found an expressive technique for creating a significant, capacious character of the hero. The characters around him, more “simple” in their psychological and social essence, seem to “enter” him as unique components, thereby helping to better understand the central image. This technique appears to be particularly effective in creating satirical types. Griboyedov took typical life situations for his play, but under the playwright’s pen they turned into broad generalizations.

The realistic features of comedy also include the construction of a play based on two storylines. Moreover, both components - love and socio-political - are manifested in Chatsky’s character. This image caused and still causes ambiguous readings because, being romantic, it absorbed elements of classicism and romanticism.

Griboyedov’s main achievement is the reflection in the comedy of the main conflict of the era - the collision of the “present century” and the “past century”.

The main artistic feature of the play “Woe from Wit” is the combination of the features of classicism and critical realism in one work.

The classicism in “Woe from Wit” retains its high civic content. The idea of ​​comedy can be formulated as follows: in Russian society at the beginning of the 19th century, two social forces are fighting - “the present century” and “the past century.” “The Past Century” is presented in a very diverse way: almost all the characters except Chatsky. “The present century” is Chatsky and several off-stage characters, which are known from the conversations of the characters (Skalozub’s cousin, Princess Tugoukhovskaya’s nephew Prince Fyodor, several of Chatsky’s friends, whom he mentions in passing). In the play, at first glance, the “past century” wins the ideological clash: Chatsky is forced to leave Moscow, where he was declared crazy because of his bold speeches and behavior. However, it is easy to notice that to all Chatsky’s critical remarks about the modern life of noble society, representatives of the Famus camp (“of the past century”) cannot essentially answer anything. They are either horrified by the young man’s courage, or, like Famusov, they simply cover their ears, or pretend that they don’t hear anything at all (the end of the third act, when Famusov’s guests dance in response to Chatsky’s accusatory monologue). Therefore, following I.A. Goncharov, we can say that Chatsky and his ideas were defeated only by the overwhelming mass of Famusov’s camp, this is a temporary victory, and the optimism of the play, despite its sad end, lies in the fact that the “past century” with its outdated views will very soon have to give way to the more progressive beliefs of the “present century.”

In the aesthetics of classicism, a rational list of necessary characters was developed for plays, and Griboyedov uses it: the hero is a young man in love (Chatsky), the heroine is a girl in love (Sofya), the simpleton is a rival or friend of the hero (Molchalin), the noble parents of the hero and heroine (Famusov), a reasoner is a character who, in his remarks, expresses the author’s attitude to the depicted event, (Chatsky), a confidante is a friend or maid, in conversations with whom the heroine reveals her heartfelt secrets, (Liza).

Griboedov also uses formal techniques of classicism: the comedy is written in verse, the characters have “speaking” surnames and names, pronounce lines “to the side” (a conventional technique for conveying the thoughts of the hero). The main characters - especially Famusov and Chatsky - pronounce long monologues. Finally, the comedy implements the “rule of three unities”: the action takes place on one day (unity of time), in different rooms of Famusov’s house (unity of place), Chatsky, without a doubt, is the main character both in the love affair and in the social conflict ( unity of action). Striving for unity of action, Griboedov only outlines, but does not develop side plot lines, for example, Lisa’s love, the relationship of the Gorich couple, etc.

At the same time, the play observes many violations of the principles of classicism in favor of a realistic and critical depiction of Russian reality in the first quarter of the 19th century.

Firstly, Griboyedov took contemporary Russian life as the subject of his comedy, and not ancient myth or semi-legendary history (the latter is often found in classic plays). The author made the heroes of his comedy noblemen of middle income, that is, the most ordinary people, and not outstanding historical figures or kings (the latter is typical for classicist drama). The lifestyle of an average noble house is described through many everyday details: how the owners prepare for the ball, how Famusov scolds the servants or flirts with Liza, how Prince Tugoukhovsky tries to marry off his many daughters, etc.

Secondly, Griboyedov, while maintaining a classic set of characters, endowed his heroes with complex and multifaceted characters. In this respect, the playwright also violates the aesthetic norm of classicism, where the characters are depicted schematically, as the embodiment of one main passion. For example, the image of Lisa, who is a classic confidante, combines liveliness of character, sincere affection for the young lady, the ability not only to love the bartender Petrusha, but also to rebuff the advances of Molchalin and the advances of Famusov in order to preserve her human dignity. Being a serf, she expresses a deep thought about the position of a servant and any dependent person: Pass us away more than all sorrows, And the lordly anger, and the lordly love. (I, 2) In the final scene, the justice of these words is clear, because Famusov, finding Sophia with Chatsky in the entryway, became extremely angry, and his anger fell primarily on Lisa:

You, quick-eyed, everything comes from your mischief;
Here it is, Kuznetsky Most, outfits and updates;
There you learned how to make lovers meet,
Wait, I'll correct you:
Go to the hut, march, go after the birds... (IV, 14)

Famusov is also endowed with a completely realistic character, who is presented in the play as a loving and caring father, a hospitable host, a hospitable Russian gentleman with the habits of a serf-owner, a middling official and an ideologist of the “past century.”

Thirdly, an important feature of realism in Griboyedov’s comedy is the speech of the characters. If classic heroes - from the servant to the king - speak in similar solemn phrases, rhyming Alexandrian verse, then for realistic heroes speech becomes one of the important characteristics. Skalozub’s speech is masterfully written, illogical and filled with military terms; the cutesy speech of the Tugoukhovsky princesses, the verbose chatter of Repetilov. Particularly expressive is the speech of Famusov, who speaks differently with each character. He speaks politely, affectionately, even ingratiatingly to Skalozub (Sophia's possible fiancé); with Sophia (beloved daughter) - simply, but his love and admiration for her are noticeable; with his secretary Petrushka - rather rudely, grumpily; At the end of the play he shouts and stamps his feet at Lisa. The speech of all the characters is individualized, lively, only Chatsky expresses himself in the comedy like a classic hero (“What he says! And he speaks as he writes” (II, 2), - Famusov characterizes him). The fact that Griboyedov rhymes different lines in different ways further creates the impression that the characters are explaining themselves to each other not in poetry, but using ordinary spoken language.

Fourthly, the denouement of “Woe from Wit” differs significantly from the traditional one in the classic play, since it does not have an edifying character. At the end of Griboyedov's play, Chatsky, a noble and selfless fighter for progressive social ideals, is forced to leave Moscow. And the impeccable hero of a classic play should not run from his opponents - he must either defeat them or die, otherwise what kind of hero is he! Thus, in “Woe from Wit” it is not Famusov’s evil slanderers who suffer, but the victim of this slander. Contrary to the classic tradition, the love storyline also develops: the heroine’s chosen one is not the virtuous lover, but the unworthy hypocrite Molchalin.

Fifthly, in classicism it is completely unacceptable to mix high and low genres in one work. “Woe from Wit” combines a satirical depiction of Famus society and high tragedy - the suffering of the noble Chatsky from unjust persecution.

So, it is generally accepted that in the history of Russian literature, two works stand at the origins of realism - “Woe from Wit” and “Eugene Onegin”. It should be noted that in "Woe from Wit", along with the features of realism, there are signs of classicism: serious civic content, a traditional cast of characters, the predominance of monologue speech, remarks "to the side", "speaking" surnames, poetic form, "rule three unities." However, all these classicistic features relate mainly to the external, formal side of the play. In addition, in “Woe from Wit” one can note signs of romanticism (the proud and lonely Chatsky is opposed to the entire Famus society, there is a motive of exile, the hero’s wanderings are mentioned) and signs of sentimentalism (Sofya sincerely loves poor Molchalin).

In essential ways, Griboyedov fundamentally violates the aesthetics of classicism and other previous literary movements. The playwright creates complex, versatile, socially motivated characters in which positive and negative traits are intertwined. The images of Chatsky and Sophia are shown even in development. Griboedov chose as the subject of his image not ancient times, but contemporary Russian reality with its social problems and conflicts. The comedy is devoid of outright instructiveness, because in the finale the vice is not punished.

Thus, it can be proven that the comedy “Woe from Wit” was indeed written within the framework of critical realism, but also has signs of classicism.

The work “Woe from Wit” is considered a unique creation of Russian literature not only for its topical issues, interesting characters and Griboedov’s amazing language, but also for the fact that this comedy absorbed the distinctive features of the three main movements of literature of the 19th century. "Woe from Wit" is a superbly coordinated mixture of seemingly incompatible movements - classicism, romanticism and realism.

The reader sees the first and main feature of classicism at the very beginning of the work in the list of characters - telling names and surnames, by which, even before reading, the reader forms a definite opinion about each of the characters.

For example:

Alexey Stepanovich Molchalin - by the name of this hero it immediately becomes clear that he is laconic and quiet, and will rarely express his opinion in various situations. This is how it turns out when reading: Molchalin always agrees with the points of view of others, but not due to lack of his own, but out of personal gain. By the way, with this quality of his he will punish the heart of Sofia Pavlovna, for whom his silence seemed very mysterious and romantic.

Molchalin is ready to forget himself for others,

The enemy of insolence - always shy, timid

Further reading reveals another feature of classicism: the plot is based on a love triangle.

In the comedy, the main character Chatsky has tender feelings for Sophia, but, alas, she is together with Molchalin, who in fact pretends to be mutually in love with the girl.

An important part of the trend of classicism presented in “Woe from Wit” is a moral teaching from the author, in which he shows all the vices of the then society and warns subsequent generations against repeating them. This is careerism, deceit, cowardice, acting only out of self-interest and personal gain.

The main feature of romanticism in Griboedov's comedy is the contrast between the rebellious personality of the main character - the ardent, ideally educated and sensual Chatsky - with the vicious society - Famusov, Molchalin, Skalozub and other members of the "Famusov society". At first, the ideas of the Moscow elite simply outraged Chatsky, who openly disputed them, but by the end of the work they brought him to a state of oppression, so Alexander Alexandrovich had to leave Moscow. In "Woe from Wit" Chatsky's line is the main one; special attention is paid to his judgments and inner world.

Now it wouldn't be a bad thing

For daughter and father

And on a foolish lover,

And pour out all the bile and all the frustration to the whole world.

Who was it with? Where fate has taken me!

Everyone is driving! everyone curses! Crowd of tormentors

In the love of traitors, in the tireless enmity

Indomitable storytellers,

Clumsy smart people, crafty simpletons,

Sinister old women, old men,

Decrepit over inventions, nonsense, -

You have glorified me as crazy by the whole choir.

Throughout the entire work, Chatsky said several times that in Russia there is a terrible tendency to blindly imitate Europe, people everywhere replace their native speech with French and invite German teachers. This can also be attributed to the features of romanticism, since through these lines the author encourages readers not to foolishly emulate other countries, but to return to their Slavic roots, to develop their own, Russian, original culture.

As we have been accustomed to believe since early times,

That without the Germans we have no salvation!

I arrived and found that there was no end to the caresses;

Not a Russian sound, not a Russian face

I didn’t meet him: as if in the fatherland, with friends;

Its own province. You'll see in the evening

He feels like a little king here;

The ladies have the same sense, the same outfits...

A considerable part of the main features of the work relates to realism. In general, in my opinion, the work “Woe from Wit” most relates to this direction, since both the characters and the situation are closest to real life.

Griboyedov's characters, no matter how it may seem to the reader at first, do not have clearly negative or positive characters. They, as in real life, are ordinary people, and not heroes of any important events, who are capable of doing both good and evil, and each of them chooses what they consider necessary. The clearest example of this is the character of Chatsky. Yes, he is smart, honest, noble, he understands the current problems of society, but due to his youth he is absolutely unrestrained and always tells a person straight to his face what he thinks about him.

Another feature of realism is the typical characters of the heroes (with a pronounced personality) for a certain period of time. For example, in Russia in the 19th century, the type of “Famus” nobleman was the main one for the entire class. These are excess weight, lack of education, rigid outdated stereotypes, rejection of everything new, especially enlightenment, both in the upper and lower strata of society.

Realism is also characterized by the fact that the characters in the work find themselves in situations and conflicts typical of that time. The most obvious example: the conflict between Chatsky and the “Famus” society.

Griboyedov in “Mountain” clearly showed readers his moral ideal, embodying it in Chatsky.

Realism of the comedy "Woe from Wit"

The appearance of “Woe from Wit” foreshadowed the victory of realism in Russian literature.

With brilliant vigilance, Griboedov, following Radishchev, reveals the typical features of wild lordly morals and the lack of rights of the serf. Thus, the image of Lisa quite expressively testifies to the serfdom that reigns in the world of the Famusovs. Lisa faces both the love of an aging red tape master and the master's reprisal. “Let’s go to the hut, march, go after the birds,” an enraged Famusov shouts at her at the end of the comedy.

Sympathy for the enslaved masses of the people is the basis of Griboyedov’s depiction of life: the people Chatsky speaks about constitutes an integral background of his comedy.

In "Woe from Wit" life is revealed not in the static images of the classic comedy of the 18th century, but in movement, in the struggle of the new with the old, in development. The change of historical eras is clearly felt, which Griboedov defines in his comedy with chronological accuracy. In the statements of Famusov, Chatsky and others, the image of old Moscow, going back to Catherine’s times, and Moscow after 1812, in which people like Chatsky appeared, appear. In the images and paintings of the comedy, Russian life of the modern era playwright is reproduced with historical fidelity.

Approving the principle of development, Griboyedov, naturally, had to show those life factors that determine the changes occurring in a person’s character and determine the process of formation of his personality. The playwright reveals the character of his characters in close connection with the social environment that raised them.

This is the strength of his realism. Molchalin became Molchalin precisely under the influence of the lordly environment around him, on which he depends. Peculiarities of upbringing determined Sophia's character. In the formation of Chatsky’s personality, the role of advanced ideas is emphasized.

The main feature of realism is the depiction of typical characters in typical circumstances. “Woe from Wit” fully meets this requirement of realism. Writers of the 18th century also sought to create types in their works. But often the types they created were abstract bearers of positive or negative moral qualities.

Griboyedov’s artistic innovation was manifested in “Woe from Wit” in the fact that he overcomes the singular linearity in the depiction of characters characteristic of writers of the 18th century.

Their one-sided aesthetics are contrasted with the principle of realistic portrayal of character.

By typifying the image, Griboedov at the same time gives each character in the comedy individual properties. Griboyedov himself and many contemporaries noted the portraits of the characters in Woe from Wit. “Portraits and only portraits,” the playwright wrote, “are part of comedy and tragedy; however, they contain features that are characteristic of many other persons, and others that are characteristic of the entire human race, to the extent that each person is similar to all his two-legged brothers.”

It is significant that in his comedy Griboedov strives to reveal in the particular, the individual, the general that is inherent in a given era and a given environment. The principle of generalization by depicting the individual is consistently carried through the entire comedy.

Scenes and episodes from the private life of one noble family reveal typical features: a social portrait of an entire social circle is drawn at the moment of intensification of the struggle between two political camps in Russian society of the Decembrist era. The fate of one progressive, thinking young man reflects the fate of an entire generation of freedom-loving noble youth.

Griboyedov was able to give a picture of enormous general significance, to reveal the essential, typical aspects of Russian reality of that time, to identify the main conflict of the era.

At the same time, the comedy would never have acquired the vitality with which it still amazes today if the conflict depicted in it were not connected with the fate of specific people, with the personal relationships of the main characters.

That is why the conflict in “Woe from Wit,” deeply historical in its specific content, has universal significance and meaning: there is a struggle between an intelligent, honest, freedom-loving person and social vices. It should be noted that the conflict developing in “Woe from Wit” manifests itself in sharp clashes, in an ever-increasing struggle between opposing sides.

The innovation of Griboyedov as an artist, expressed in the naturalness, simplicity and clarity of the dramatic composition, was brilliantly characterized by V.K. Kuchelbecker.

Griboyedov also turned out to be a brilliant innovator in the development of the language of Russian drama. He widely and abundantly used lively spoken language in his comedy. It is important to note that the individualization of the characters and their vivid portraiture were facilitated by speech characteristics. Indicative in this regard is Skalozub’s speech with its military terms, phrases similar to military orders, rude expressions of Arakcheev’s military, such as “learning will not faint me,” “teach in our way: one, two.” Molchalin is delicate, insinuating, and taciturn, loving respectful words. The speech of Khlestova, an experienced Moscow lady, unceremonious and rude, is colorful and characteristic.

In general, the speech of Famusov’s society is extremely characteristic for its typicality, its color, a mixture of “French and Nizhny Novgorod”. In his comedy, Griboedov subtly and evilly ridicules the fact that the majority of Frenchized representatives of the nobility do not speak their native word, their native speech.

Chatsky’s speech is very diverse and rich in shades. Chatsky’s remarks and monologues capture the emotional and lexical features of the language of the advanced intelligentsia of the 20s of the last century. Chatsky acts in the age of romanticism, and his romantic sensitivity and fiery passion are reflected in his lyrical-romantic phraseology.

But Chatsky not only loves, he denounces, and his lyrical speech is often replaced by the speech of a satirist, castigating the vices of Famus society, accurately and expressively branding its representatives in two or three words. Chatsky loves aphorisms, which reflect his philosophical mindset and his connections with the Age of Enlightenment. Chatsky's speeches, filled with public pathos, in their structure, in their high style, undoubtedly go back to the political ode of Radishchev and the Decembrist poets. Along with this, Griboyedov’s hero has a good sense of his native language, its spirit, its originality. This is evidenced by the idioms he uses: “She doesn’t put a penny on him,” “That’s a lot of nonsense.” A man of high culture, Chatsky rarely resorts to foreign words, elevating this to a consciously pursued principle in order “so that our smart, cheerful people, even though in language, do not consider us Germans.”

Two trends are noticeable in Griboyedov’s work on language. The author of “Woe from Wit” sought, on the one hand, to overcome the smoothness and impersonality of secular language, which was used to write the light love comedies of Khmelnitsky and other fashionable playwrights. On the other hand, he persistently cleared his works of heavy archaism, going back to the styles of ancient book speech. Griboyedov allows lexical and stylistic archaisms in his comedy only for artistic purposes - to convey the peculiarities of the language of a particular character, his emotional state. Griboedov's artistic task was to enrich the literary language with the practice of lively spoken language.

In “Woe from Wit” Griboedov achieved an amazing lightness of verse, which is almost imperceptible in the dialogue, but at the same time is unusually precise and expressive, sharply different from the heavy verse of most comedies of that time. For comedy of the 18th - early 19th centuries, iambic hexameter is typical. In “Woe from Wit” almost half of all poems are also written in iambic six feet. But the iambic meter varies all the time: iambic hexameter is interrupted by other iambic verses - from monometer to pentameter - and thereby loses its monotony and heaviness.

The verse of the comedy, as well as its language, amazed contemporaries with its ease and naturalness.

The free verse of Griboyedov's comedy prepared the transition of Russian drama, in particular comedy, to prose language. Ten years after “Woe from Wit,” Gogol’s “The Inspector General” appeared, and Russian prose comedy established itself on the stage.

“Woe from Wit” destroyed the division of various dramatic genres accepted in the aesthetics of classicism. Sharply different from the classic comedy, the play was not a comedy based on a love affair, since in it the social conflict is in the foreground. It cannot be classified as a domestic comedy. “Woe from Wit” is, as contemporaries said, a high comedy. “Woe from Wit” combined social satire, character comedy, and psychological drama: comic scenes are replaced by pathetic scenes.

Dramatic innovation Griboyedov was manifested primarily in the rejection of some genre canons of classic “high” comedy. The Alexandrian verse, with which the “standard” comedies of the classicists were written, was replaced by a flexible poetic meter, which made it possible to convey all the shades of lively colloquial speech - free iambic. The play seems “overpopulated” with characters in comparison with the comedies of Griboyedov’s predecessors. One gets the impression that Famusov’s house and everything that happens in the play are only part of a larger world, which is brought out of its usual half-asleep state by “madmen” like Chatsky. Moscow is a temporary refuge for an ardent hero traveling “around the world”, a small “post station” on the “main road” of his life. Here, not having time to cool down from the frantic gallop, he made only a short stop and, having experienced “a million torments,” set off again.

In “Woe from Wit” there are not five, but four acts, so there is no situation characteristic of the “fifth act”, when all the contradictions are resolved and the lives of the heroes resume their unhurried course. The main conflict of the comedy, the socio-ideological one, remained unresolved: everything that happened is only one of the stages of the ideological self-awareness of conservatives and their antagonist.

An important feature of “Woe from Wit” is the rethinking of comic characters and comic situations: in comic contradictions the author discovers hidden tragic potential. Without allowing the reader and viewer to forget about the comedy of what is happening, Griboyedov emphasizes the tragic meaning of the events. The tragic pathos is especially intensified in the finale of the work: all the main characters of the fourth act, including Molchalin and Famusov, do not appear in traditional comedic roles. They are more like heroes of a tragedy. The true tragedies of Chatsky and Sophia are complemented by the “small” tragedies of Molchalin, who broke his vow of silence and paid for it, and the humiliated Famusov, tremblingly awaiting retribution from the Moscow “thunderer” in a skirt - Princess Marya Aleksevna.

The principle of “unity of characters” - the basis of the dramaturgy of classicism - turned out to be completely unacceptable for the author of “Woe from Wit”. “Portraitness,” that is, the life truth of the characters, which the “archaist” P.A. Katenin attributed to the “errors” of comedy, Griboedov considered its main advantage. Straightforwardness and one-sidedness in the portrayal of the central characters are discarded: not only Chatsky, but also Famusov, Molchalin, Sophia are shown as complex people, sometimes contradictory and inconsistent in their actions and statements. It is hardly appropriate and possible to evaluate them using polar assessments (“positive” - “negative”), because the author seeks to show not “good” and “bad” in these characters. He is interested in the real complexity of their characters, as well as the circumstances in which their social and everyday roles, worldview, system of life values ​​and psychology are manifested. The words spoken by A.S. Pushkin about Shakespeare can rightfully be attributed to the characters of Griboyedov’s comedy: these are “living creatures, filled with many passions...”

Each of the main characters appears to be the focus of a variety of opinions and assessments, because even ideological opponents or people who do not sympathize with each other are important to the author as sources of opinions - their “polyphony” makes up the verbal “portraits” of the characters. Perhaps rumor plays no less a role in comedy than in Pushkin’s novel “Eugene Onegin.” Judgments about Chatsky are especially rich in various information - he appears in the mirror of a kind of “oral newspaper” created before the eyes of the viewer or reader by the inhabitants of Famus’s house and his guests. It is safe to say that this is only the first wave of Moscow rumors about the St. Petersburg freethinker. “Crazy” Chatsky gave secular gossips food for gossip for a long time. But “evil tongues,” which for Molchalin are “more terrible than a pistol,” are not dangerous to him. Chatsky is a man from another world, only for a short moment he came into contact with the world of Moscow fools and gossips and recoiled from it in horror.

The picture of “public opinion”, masterfully recreated by Griboyedov, consists of the oral statements of the characters. Their speech is impulsive, impetuous, and reflects an instant reaction to other people's opinions and assessments. The psychological authenticity of the speech “portraits” of the characters is one of the most important features of comedy. The verbal appearance of the characters is as unique as their place in society, manner of behavior and range of interests. In the crowd of guests gathered in Famusov’s house, people often stand out precisely because of their “voice” and peculiarities of speech. Chatsky’s “voice” is unique: his “speech behavior” already in the first scenes reveals him as a convinced opponent of the Moscow nobility. The hero’s word is his only, but most dangerous “weapon” in the truth-seeking “duel” that lasts the whole long day with Famus society. Chatsky contrasts the idle and “evil tongues” of “indomitable storytellers, / Clumsy wise men, crafty simpletons, / Sinister old women, old men, / Decrepit over inventions and nonsense,” the hot word of truth, in which bile and vexation, the ability to express in words the comic aspects of them existence, are combined with the high pathos of affirming genuine life values. The language of comedy is free from lexical, syntactic and intonation restrictions; it is a “rough”, “uncombed” element of colloquial speech, which under the pen of Griboyedov, the “speech creator”, turned into a miracle of poetry. “I’m not talking about poetry,” Pushkin noted, “half of it should become a proverb.”

Despite the fact that Chatsky the ideologist opposes the inert Moscow nobility and expresses the author’s point of view on Russian society, he cannot be considered an unconditionally “positive” character, as, for example, the characters of the comedians who preceded Griboyedov were. Chatsky’s behavior is that of an accuser, a judge, a tribune, fiercely attacking the morals, life and psychology of Famusites. But the author indicates the motives for his strange behavior, because he did not come to Moscow as an emissary of St. Petersburg freethinkers. The indignation that grips Chatsky is caused by a special psychological state: his behavior is determined by two passions - love and jealousy. They are the main reason for his ardor. That is why, despite the strength of his mind, Chatsky in love does not control his feelings, which are out of control, and is not able to act rationally. The anger of an enlightened man, combined with the pain of losing his beloved, forced him to “throw pearls in front of the Repetilovs.” His behavior is comical, but the hero himself experiences genuine mental suffering, “a million torments.” Chatsky is a tragic character caught in comic circumstances.

Famusov and Molchalin do not look like traditional comedy “villains” or “dumb people”. Famusov is a tragicomic figure, because in the final scene not only do all his plans for Sofia’s marriage collapse, but he is threatened with the loss of his reputation, his “good name” in society. For Famusov, this is a real disaster, and therefore at the end of the last act he exclaims in despair: “Isn’t my fate still deplorable?” The situation of Molchalin, who is in a hopeless situation, is also tragicomic: captivated by Liza, he is forced to pretend to be a modest and resigned admirer of Sophia. Molchalin understands that his relationship with her will cause Famusov’s irritation and managerial anger. But rejecting Sofia’s love, Molchalin believes, is dangerous: the daughter has influence on Famusov and can take revenge and ruin his career. He found himself between two fires: the “lordly love” of his daughter and the inevitable “lordly anger” of his father.

Sincere careerism and feigned love are incompatible, an attempt to combine them turns out to be humiliation and “fall” for Molchalin, albeit from a small, but already “taken” official “height”. “The people created by Griboedov are taken from life in full height, drawn from the bottom of real life,” emphasized the critic A.A. Grigoriev, “they do not have their virtues and vices written on their foreheads, but they are branded with the seal of their insignificance, branded with a vengeful hand executioner-artist.”

Unlike the heroes of classic comedies, the main characters of “Woe from Wit” (Chatsky, Molchalin, Famusov) are depicted in several “social roles.” For example, Chatsky is not only a freethinker, a representative of the younger generation of the 1810s. He is both a lover, and a landowner (“he had three hundred souls”), and a former military man (Chatsky once served in the same regiment with Gorich). Famusov is not only a Moscow “ace” and one of the pillars of the “past century”. We see him in other “social roles”: a father trying to “find a home” for his daughter, and a government official “a manager in a government place.” Molchalin is not only “Famusov’s secretary, living in his house” and Chatsky’s “happy rival”: he, like Chatsky, belongs to the younger generation. But his worldview, ideals and way of life have nothing in common with Chatsky’s ideology and life. They are characteristic of the “silent” majority of noble youth. Molchalin is one of those who easily adapt to any circumstances for the sake of one goal - to rise as high as possible up the career ladder.

Griboyedov neglects an important “rule” of classicist drama - the unity of plot action: in “Woe from Wit” there is no single event center (this led to reproaches from literary Old Believers for the vagueness of the “plan” of the comedy). Two conflicts and two storylines in which they are realized (Chatsky - Sofia and Chatsky - Famus society) allowed the playwright to skillfully combine the depth of social problems and subtle psychologism in the depiction of the characters' characters.

The author of “Woe from Wit” did not set himself the task of destroying the poetics of classicism. His aesthetic credo is creative freedom (“I live and write freely and freely”). The use of certain artistic means and dramatic techniques was dictated by specific creative circumstances that arose during the work on the play, and not by abstract theoretical postulates. Therefore, in those cases where the requirements of classicism limited his capabilities, not allowing him to achieve the desired artistic effect, he resolutely rejected them. But often it was the principles of classicist poetics that made it possible to effectively solve an artistic problem.

For example, the “unities” characteristic of the dramaturgy of the classicists - the unity of place (Famusov’s house) and the unity of time (all events take place within one day) are observed. They help to achieve concentration, “thickening” of action. Griboyedov also masterfully used some particular techniques of the poetics of classicism: the depiction of characters in traditional stage roles (an unsuccessful hero-lover, his nosy rival, a maid - her mistress's confidant, a capricious and somewhat eccentric heroine, a deceived father, a comic old woman, a gossip, etc. .). However, these roles are necessary only as a comedic “highlight”, emphasizing the main thing - the individuality of the characters, the originality of their characters and positions.

In comedy there are a lot of “characters”, “figurants” (as in the old theater they called episodic characters who created the background, “living scenery” for the main characters). As a rule, their character is fully revealed by their “speaking” surnames and given names. The same technique is used to emphasize the main feature in the appearance or position of some central characters: Famusov - known to everyone, on everyone’s lips (from Latin fama - rumor), Repetilov - repeating someone else’s (from French repeter - repeat) , Sophia - wisdom (ancient Greek sophia), Chatsky in the first edition was Chadsky, that is, “being in the child”, “beginning”. The ominous surname Skalozub is “shifter” (from the word “zuboskal”). Molchalin, Tugoukhovskiye, Khlestova - these names “speak” for themselves..

In “Woe from Wit,” the most important features of realistic art were clearly revealed: realism not only frees the writer’s individuality from deadening “rules,” “canons,” and “conventions,” but also relies on the experience of other artistic systems.

The leading literary movement at the beginning of the 19th century was classicism. However, not everything is so simple with Griboyedov’s comedy. The uniqueness of “Woe from Wit,” in particular, lies in the fact that in this comedy the features of several literary movements are manifested: and

Signs of classicism in Griboedov's comedy

The play “Woe from Wit” preserves the unity of place, time and action - three categories that characterize classicism .

The action takes place over the course of one day in Famusov’s house.

Formally, the play has one leading storyline - “Sophia - Chatsky - Molchalin”. However, this line is not the only one.

Firstly, Chatsky is not only a rejected hero-lover, he also performs the function of a reasoner in comedy, i.e. It is he who expresses ideas close to the author.

Secondly, Molchalin does not correspond in his qualities to the role of a hero-lover, but he is not a supporting hero, because Molchalin is loved by the heroine.

The secondary characters also significantly expand the classic roles. Lisa is not just a soubrette, but also a character who gives apt characteristics to the heroes

(“Who is as sensitive, and sharp, and sharp as Alexander Andreich Chatsky”).

Thus, the roles of the heroes are much wider than the classic canon.

The comedy also retains the principle of speaking surnames:

Famusov (from the Latin “rumour”) is afraid of gossip, rumors,

Prince Tugoukhovsky is really hard of hearing,

Repetilov (from the French “to repeat”) repeats after others.

The author’s attitude is also reflected in the names of Skalozub, Khryumina, Khlestova, Zagoretsky and others. In the first version of the manuscript, the main character's surname was listed as Chadsky. Many researchers see the closeness of the surname Chatsky with Chaadaev, a prominent philosopher of that time. Moreover, Chaadaev, like Griboyedov’s hero, was declared crazy.

So, the fact that in a comedy the speaking surnames do not fully reflect the character of the heroes is another deviation from the canons of classicism.

The composition of the comedy is classic: four acts, in the exposition Lisa (a minor character) gives characteristics to the main characters, gives the viewer an idea of ​​what is happening, the third act is the climax, the fourth is the denouement. But the play has quite a few long monologues characteristic of classicism, and the ending is atypical: the vice is not punished, the hero does not triumph, but leaves Famusov’s house.

Features of romanticism in the play "Woe from Wit"

Traits of romanticism can also be found in this amazing play. The social conflict of the play is characteristic precisely of romanticism: Chatsky alone opposes the entire Famus society, which is inert and sanctimonious. This is a confrontation in everything: in relation to wealth, rank, service, education, serfdom, foreign influences. Two camps - “the whole camp of the Famusovs and all the brethren” and one fighter, “the enemy of the quest” (I.A. Goncharov).

Romanticism is characterized by tragic pathos. There is also a kind of tragedy in Griboyedov’s play.

Goncharov spoke of Chatsky’s role as “passive”:

“Chatsky is broken by the amount of old power.”

But at the same time, he is a winner, because... the truth of the future lies behind him. Like any romantic hero, Chatsky is lonely

(“... in the crowd I’m lost, like I don’t belong”).

The motive of the hero’s exile is also associated with romantic tendencies.

(“Everyone is persecuting, everyone is cursing! The tormentors are a crowd”).

The hero appears in Famusov’s house after a long journey and again leaves Moscow, experiencing “a million torments”

(“... I’ll go look around the world where there is a corner for offended feelings!”).

The ending of the comedy is tragic, not funny.

Realism in Griboyedov's comedy

I.A. Goncharov, in an article devoted to the comedy “Woe from Wit,” wrote:

“Twenty faces reflected the whole of the former Moscow, its design, the spirit of that time,” the historical moment and morals. This characteristic, in particular, can be regarded as a characteristic of the realism of Griboyedov’s play.

A.S. Griboedov stood at the origins of new trends in Russian drama. The comedy vividly, accurately and skillfully combines the features of different literary movements - classicism, romanticism and realism, the main conflict of the era - “the present century and the past century.”

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Question No. 12. Features of classicism and realism in comedy. Topicality of the sound of comedy in the 19th century. and in our time

The comedy "Woe from Wit" was created in the early 20s of the 19th century. The classicism of the era of Catherine the Great still had power over the literature of that time. But outdated canons limited the playwright’s freedom in describing real life, so Griboedov, taking classic comedy as a basis, neglected some of the laws of its construction.

PrinciplesclassicismAnddeviations from them in “Woe from Wit”:

So, Griboedov wanted to ridicule the vices of his contemporary society in a comedy built in accordance with the canons of classicism. But in order to more fully reflect the real situation, he had to deviate from the canons of classic comedy. As a result, we can say that in the comedy “Woe from Wit”, through the classicist form of the work, built on the principles of the “past century,” the features of a new literary direction, realism, are visible, which opens up new possibilities for the writer to depict real life.

The topicality of the sound of A. S. Griboedov’s comedy “Woe from Wit” in the 19th century. and in our time Until recently, the “silent people” also flourished, and they tried to get rid of the “Chatskys”. I think that this led our country to a spiritual crisis; there were too many submissive people who lived by the principle: “You shouldn’t dare have your own opinion.” The main feature of realism is the depiction of typical characters in typical circumstances. “Woe from Wit” fully meets this basic requirement of realism. By typifying the image, Griboyedov gives each character individual traits and properties. Why is comedy still modern? Griboedov brilliantly captured not only life and morals, but also the characters that exist at all times. In the army you can meet a rude soldier (Griboedov's Skalozub), in any department - the “all-powerful uncle” (Famusov), the patron of relatives, who keeps all employees in line.

The comedy “Woe from Wit” was created in the early 20s of the 19th century. The main conflict on which the play is based is the confrontation between the “present century” and the “past century.” The classicism of the era of Catherine the Great still had power over the literature of that time. But outdated canons limited the playwright’s freedom in describing real life, so Griboedov, taking classic comedy as a basis, neglected, as necessary, some of the laws of its construction.

Any classic work (drama) had to be built on the principles of unity of time, place and action, constancy of characters.

The first two principles are observed quite strictly in comedy. In the work you can notice more than one love affair, as was customary (Chatsky - Sophia, Sophia - Molchalin, Molchalin - Liza, Liza - Petrusha), but they all seem to line up “in one line”, without violating the unity of action. In classic works, a loving pair of masters was matched by a pair of servants, parodying them. In “Woe from Wit” this picture is blurred: the master’s daughter herself is in love with the “servant” (Molchalin). Thus, Griboedov wanted to show a really existing type of people in the person of Molchalin, whom Famusov “warmed up the rootless and introduced him to the secretary...” (and now Molchalin is preparing to become a nobleman by marrying his daughter).

Most classic works were built on the principle: duty is higher than feelings. In the comedy “Woe from Wit,” a love conflict plays an important role, which develops into a socio-political one.

All heroes of classic works were clearly divided into positive and negative. This principle is observed only in general terms: the so-called “Famus society” is contrasted with a hero expressing new, progressive views. But if we consider each representative of this society separately, it turns out that each of them is not so bad. For example, in the image of Famusov (the main antipode of Chatsky in the social conflict), quite understandable positive human traits emerge: ok loves his daughter, wishes her well (in his understanding), and Chatsky for him is a dear person (after the death of Chatsky’s father, Famusov became his guardian teacher) at the beginning of the comedy. Famusov gives Chatsky some very practical advice:

First of all, don't be a whim

Brother, don’t mismanage your property,

And most importantly - go ahead and serve...

The image of the positive hero, the progressive Chatsky, is marked by some negative traits: hot temper, a tendency to demagoguery (it was not for nothing that A.S. Pushkin was perplexed: why did the main character make fiery speeches in front of these aunties, grandmothers, and repetilovs), excessive irritability, even anger. (“Not a man - a snake” is Chatsky’s assessment of his former lover Sophia). This approach to the main characters indicates the emergence of new, realistic trends in Russian literature.

In a classic comedy, a good ending is required, that is, the victory of positive heroes and virtue over negative heroes, over vice. In “Woe from Wit” the number of negative characters is many times greater than the number of positive ones (the positive characters include Chatsky and two more off-stage characters - a relative of Skalozub, about whom he says: “The rank followed him, he suddenly left his service, and began reading books in the village read”; and the nephew of Princess Tugoukhovskaya, about whom she disdainfully reports: “... he is a chemist, he is a botanist, Prince Fedor, my nephew”). And due to the disparity of forces, the positive heroes in the play are defeated, “they are broken by the old force.” In fact, Chatsky leaves as a winner, since he is confident that he is right. By the way, the use of off-stage characters is also an innovative technique. These heroes help to understand what is happening in Famusov’s house more broadly, on a national scale; they seem to expand, push the boundaries of the narrative.

According to the laws of classicism, the genre of a work strictly determined its content. The comedy had to be either humorous, farcical, or satirical in nature. Griboedov's comedy not only combines these two types, but also incorporates a purely dramatic element. In comedy there are such heroes as Skalozub and Tugoukhovsky, funny in every word and action. Or such as the princesses, who were not even given names (a parody of all Moscow young ladies) Platon Gorich, “a husband-boy, a husband-servant from his wife’s pages, the high ideal of all Moscow husbands”; nameless gentlemen N and P, necessary to show the cruel mechanism of the spread of gossip in secular society (elements of satire). The comedy also uses other techniques of comic portrayal: speaking names (Skalozub, Molchaliv, Repetilov, Gorich, Tugoukhovsky, Famusov), “distorting mirror” (Chatsky-Repetilov).

Just as the entire work combines humor and satire, its main characters (Chatsky and Famusov) are ambiguous. We laugh merrily at the head of the family and the owner of the house, Famusov, when he flirts with Liza, goes out of his way to marry his daughter to the ridiculous Skalozub, but we think about the structure of society at that time when he, an adult and respected by everyone, is afraid “What will Princess Marya Aleksevna say?”

Chatsky is an even more ambiguous hero. He somewhat expresses the author’s point of view (acts as a reasoner), at first he sneers at Moscow residents and their way of life, but, tormented by unrequited love (hero-lover), becoming embittered, he begins to expose everyone and everything (hero-accuser).

So, Griboedov wanted to ridicule the vices of his contemporary society in a comedy built in accordance with the canons of classicism. But in order to more fully reflect the real situation, he had to deviate from the canons of classic comedy. As a result, we can say that in the comedy “Woe from Wit”, through the classicist form of the work, built on the principles of the “past century,” the features of a new literary direction, realism, are visible, which opens up new possibilities for the writer to depict real life.