Forms of expression of “dialectics of the soul. Tolstoy is a master of depicting the dialectics of the soul Dialectics of the human soul

Tolstoy is a master of depicting the dialectics of the soul

Introduction - 3

1. Dialectics of the soul in the works of L. N. Tolstoy - 4

2. Dialectics of the writer’s soul - 5

Conclusion - 14

Literature - 15

I. Introduction

I chose the topic of the dialectics of the soul from L.N. Tolstoy, because, it seems to me, Lev Nikolaevich, like no one else, shows the development and evolution of man. Throughout the entire narrative, many of Tolstoy’s characters change, their inner world changes, but the reader himself has to assess whether Anna Karenina’s death was inevitable, whether Andrei Bolkonsky found his path...

With the light hand of N. G. Chernyshevsky, critics called “dialectics of the soul” one of the most important features of Leo Tolstoy’s works - penetration into the souls of his heroes, empathy with them throughout their entire development.

1. Dialectics of the soul in Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy

The writer L.N. Tolstoy depicts the inner world of this or that person, the hero of his work, in his own way. By discovering the “dialectics of the soul,” Tolstoy moves towards a new understanding of human character. With its help, delving into the details of a person’s mental state, he notices in him experiences and feelings that are beyond the control of anyone else. Lev Nikolaevich, like no one before him, gave examples of artistic depiction of moving, developing events and “fluid”, complex, contradictory, living human characters. Unlike many other writers, Tolstoy does not give complete, exhaustive characteristics of the characters at the beginning of the work. The image of the hero, his portrait and, most importantly, character, are given by the writer in motion, gradually consisting of traits and signs that appear in how the hero acts, what he says and thinks, and what impression he makes on others. Tolstoy was fascinated by the depiction of the very process of the spiritual life of the heroes, by showing the “dialectics of the soul.” The artistic images created by Tolstoy amaze with their vitality. Tolstoy’s predecessors, when depicting the inner world of a person, as a rule, used words that accurately named emotional experience: “excitement,” “remorse,” “anger,” “contempt,” “malice.” Tolstoy was dissatisfied with this: “To talk about a person: he is an original person, kind, smart, stupid, consistent, etc. - words that do not give any idea about a person, but have a claim to describe a person, whereas often they only confuse " Tolstoy does not limit himself to precise definitions of certain mental states. He goes further and deeper. He “points a microscope” at the secrets of the human soul and captures with an image the very process of the origin and formation of a feeling even before it has matured and acquired completeness. He paints a picture of mental life, showing the approximateness and inaccuracy of any ready-made definitions. He implants his concepts about the world around him into his heroes. As we read his works, we become their heroes, worry about their fates and what is happening, and look forward to the outcome of the events described. All this speaks of the great talent of the great writer. It seems to me that it is much easier for him to convey this or that spiritual mood of a person than for an artist. He has a rich Russian language at his disposal, which he uses as widely as a brilliant artist uses a palette of paints to paint portraits. But to understand all the silent feelings that the painter puts into his creation, not only attention is required, but also some mutual understanding.

2. Dialectics of the writer’s soul

The secrets of L. N. Tolstoy’s work are largely understood if we study the biography of the greatest prose writer himself. The dialectic of Tolstoy's soul is torment, a transition through internal contradictions, a constant striving for perfection. But we also see the simplification of a person who grows up and then grows old. Simplification in the highest, Christian sense. If the young Tolstoy takes on large-scale material, problems of life and death, problems of history, then in his old age he increasingly writes children's stories, the heroes of which are peasant children. And these moral teachings are unobtrusive, but wise and kind. A man who proudly tore off his cross in childhood preaches Christian values ​​in old age.

The diary that Tolstoy kept from 1847 until the end of his life was his first literary school - a school of scrupulous self-study, capturing the secret movements of the soul, the severity of the moral rules prescribed to himself. The autobiographical nature characteristic of Tolstoy also comes from his diary.

Tolstoy considered two years of solitary life in the Caucasus to be extremely significant for his spiritual development. The story "Childhood" written here - Tolstoy's first printed work - together with the stories "Adolescence" (1852-54) and "Youth" (1855-57) that appeared later, were part of the extensive plan of the autobiographical novel "Four Epochs of Development", the last part of which is “Youth” was never written. In his first stories, Tolstoy seemed to transfer the realistic principles of the natural school of the 40s. - objectivity, accuracy and detail of descriptions - into the field of research into psychology, the inner world of a child, teenager, then young man. He declares himself a researcher of human nature, wanting to understand the hidden laws by which consciousness moves. Already in “Childhood” Nikolenka Irteniev learns to pursue every shadow of falsehood, insincerity in feelings (her own and others). In the following stories of the trilogy, the hero's dissatisfaction with himself, reflection and introspection, a vague sense of the acute contradictions of life, and a thirst for moral improvement increase. The psychology of the child for Tolstoy is the first reason for the study of the “natural person”, alien to class privileges.

In 1851-53, Tolstoy took part in military operations in the Caucasus (first as a volunteer, then as an artillery officer), and in 1854 he went to the Danube Army. Soon after the start of the Crimean War, at his personal request, he was transferred to Sevastopol (in the besieged city, he fought on the famous 4th bastion). Army life and episodes of the war provided Tolstoy with material for the stories “Raid” (1853), “Cutting Wood” (1853-55), as well as for artistic essays “Sevastopol in December,” “Sevastopol in May,” “Sevastopol in August 1855.” of the year" (all published in Sovremennik in 1855-56). These essays, traditionally called “Sevastopol Stories,” boldly combined document, reportage and plot narration; they made a huge impression on Russian society. The war appeared to them as an ugly bloody massacre, contrary to human nature. The final words of one of the essays, that its only hero is the truth, became the motto of the writer’s entire subsequent literary activity. Trying to determine the originality of this truth, N. G. Chernyshevsky insightfully pointed out two characteristic features of Tolstoy’s talent - “dialectics of the soul” as a special form of psychological analysis and “immediate purity of moral feeling” (Complete Works, vol. 3, 1947, p. 423 , 428).

In 1855, Tolstoy came to St. Petersburg, became close to the staff of Sovremennik, met N. A. Nekrasov, I. S. Turgenev, I. A. Goncharov, Chernyshevsky and others. The years 1856-59 were marked by Tolstoy’s attempts to find himself in an unfamiliar literary environment, get comfortable among professionals, assert your creative position; This is the time for searches, trials, errors, creative experiments. In the story “The Morning of the Landowner” (1856, a fragment of the unrealized “Novel of a Russian Landowner”) Chernyshevsky first noted the author’s “peasant” view of things. Written under the influence of A.V. Druzhinin’s circle, the story “Albert” (1857-58) expressed the idea of ​​“chosenness,” a sacred fire invested in the artist from above. In the story “Lucerne” (1857), inspired by the impressions of his first trip to Western Europe (1857), Tolstoy’s social temperament, fiercely attacking bourgeois hypocrisy, heartlessness, and social injustice, foreshadows the author of “Resurrection” and later journalistic treatises. The novel “Family Happiness” (1858-59) was intended to show the collapse of the ideal of a secluded “happy little world.” At the end of the novel, the future Tolstoy concept of a woman’s family duty, her virtue and self-sacrifice in marriage arose. The novel, published in M. N. Katkov’s Russky Vestnik (which marked Tolstoy’s departure from Sovremennik), did not have noticeable success among readers.

Tolstoy’s attraction to folk themes and broad epics already matured in the story “Cossacks” (1853-63). In the Caucasus, among the majestic nature and simple, pure-hearted people, the hero of the story is more fully aware of the falsehood of secular society and renounces the lies in which he lived before. The criterion of truth in social behavior for Tolstoy. becomes nature and the consciousness of a person close to nature, almost merging with it.

Dissatisfied with his work, disappointed in secular and literary circles, Tolstoy at the turn of the 60s. decided to leave literature and settle in the village. In 1859-1862, he devoted a lot of energy to the school he founded in Yasnaya Polyana for peasant children, studied the organization of pedagogical work in Russia and abroad (travel 1860-61), published the pedagogical magazine "Yasnaya Polyana" (1862), preaching a free, devoid of strict programmatic and official discipline system of education and upbringing.

In 1862, T. married Sofya Andreevna Bers (1844-1919) and began to live patriarchally and secludedly in his estate as the head of a large and ever-increasing family. During the years of peasant reform, Tolstoy served as a peace mediator for the Krapivensky district, resolving disputes between landowners and peasants, as a rule, in favor of the latter. In his worldview at this time, loyalty to the spirit of the old tribal aristocracy, far from the court and living by the concepts of class honor, and democratic aspirations are intricately combined. The “conscientious nobility” seems to give a hand to the peasant over the heads of the bourgeoisie, bureaucracy and urban philistinism.

An aristocrat by upbringing and family tradition, Tolstoy found a way out of the spiritual crisis of the late 50s. in getting closer to the people, their interests and needs. The whole logic of the ideological and creative quest of the writer of the early 60s. - the desire to depict folk characters (the story "Polikushka", 1861-63), the epic tone of the narrative ("Cossacks"), attempts to turn to history to understand modernity (the beginning of the novel "The Decembrists", 1860-61, published 1884) - led him to the concept of the epic novel "War and Peace".

60s - the time of the heyday of Tolstoy’s artistic genius. The “years of study” and “years of wandering” are left behind. Living a sedentary, measured life, he found himself in intense, concentrated spiritual creativity. The original paths mastered by Tolstoy, with all his apparent literary loneliness, led to a new rise in national culture.

“War and Peace” (1863-69, beginning of publication 1865) became a unique phenomenon in Russian and world literature, combining the depth and intimacy of a psychological novel with the scope and multi-figure nature of an epic fresco. With his novel, the writer responded to the urgent desire of literature of the 60s. understand the course of historical development, the role of the people in decisive epochs of national life. Appeal to the special state of national consciousness during the heroic period of 1812, when people from different strata of the population united in resistance to foreign invasion, created the basis for the epic. In turn, the poetry of the national community found support in the utopian view of the writer, who lovingly recreated the life of the local nobility at the beginning of the century. Tolstoy sees alienation from his people at a time of terrible trials as the main flaw in the “ghostly” life of the St. Petersburg court and secular society. And, on the contrary, the patriotism of the Rostovs appears as part of the general element of people's life. The novel is permeated by the most important thought and feeling of the artist, which also organizes its plot. The first stage of a person’s awareness of himself as an individual is his liberation from the shackles of class, caste, circle (this is how Andrei Bolkonsky and Pierre Bezukhov stand out and move away from the court circle, the Scherer salon). The second stage is the merging of personal consciousness with the huge extra-personal world, with folk truth, enrichment with it and dissolution of oneself in it. Despite all the contradictory spiritual quests of Bolkonsky and Bezukhov, the main result in the movement of their destinies remains the overcoming of egoism and class isolation: from proud individuality and subjectivity, the heroes come to the consciousness of their belonging to other people, the people (a similar path will be followed by Levin, Nekhlyudov - the heroes of Tolstoy’s later works). The author of “War and Peace” sees national Russian traits in the “hidden warmth of patriotism,” in aversion to ostentatious heroism, in a calm belief in justice, in modest dignity and courage (images of ordinary soldiers, Timokhin, Captain Tushin). Kutuzov's folk wisdom stands out even brighter in comparison with the decorative grandeur of Napoleon, whose appearance is satirically reduced. Despite all the artistic freedom in depicting historical figures, Tolstoy does not put them at the center of his epic. He tends to recognize the objective driving forces of history that shape the fate of the people and the nation. Russia's war with Napoleonic troops is depicted as a people's war. The Russians, according to Tolstoy, raised the “club of the people’s war,” which “nailed the French until the entire invasion was destroyed.”

Completeness and plasticity of the image, branching and crossing of destinies, incomparable pictures of Russian nature - features of the epic style of “War and Peace”. The concepts of fate and fate characteristic of the classical epic are replaced by Tolstoy with the concept of life in its spontaneous flow and overflow. Tolstoy rejects the traditional idea of ​​a “hero.” His hero in the novel seems to be life itself (private and general, “swarm”), its leisurely progress, its joys and sorrows, victories and failures, its simple and eternal moments (birth, love, death), the triumph of its constant renewal. Thought, psychology, no less than “life” in its actions and accomplishments, occupy the author of the novel. Complex internal struggle, unexpected disappointments and discoveries, new insights into thought and new doubts - this is what invariably accompanies the quest of Tolstoy's heroes. The author creates the illusion of a continuously flowing mental process, the “core” of which is the desire for truth, for justice, making its way through the inertia of life, the customs of the environment, the mood of the moment.

The novel also reflected the obvious contradictions in Tolstoy’s thought, his distrust of theoretical knowledge, and the idealization of the patriarchal mind, especially evident in the artistic type of Platon Karataev. The author's philosophical arguments about freedom and necessity, about the driving forces of the historical process are marked by features of fatalism. T. views the concept of freedom as an instinctive force of life, not subject to reason. But in the very attempt to explain the processes of life, taking into account the dialectical relationship between freedom and necessity, summing up the manifestation (direction) of the will of countless individuals, Tolstoy stands incomparably higher than the bourgeois historians of his time (such as A. Thiers), who often considered the “free” actions of an outstanding personality to be the main thing the spring of history's movement.

In the early 70s. the writer is again captured by pedagogical interests; he writes "ABC" (1871-72) and later "New ABC" (1874-75), for which he composes original stories and adaptations of fairy tales and fables, which made up four "Russian books for reading." For a while, Tolstoy returned to teaching at the Yasnaya Polyana school. However, symptoms of a mental crisis soon begin to appear. With the weak power over Tolstoy of traditional church faith, undermined in him by skeptical analysis from a young age, his hope for personal immortality also threatened to collapse. An acute sense of the symptoms of a social turning point in the 70s, associated with Russia’s transition to the bourgeois path of development, intensified the crisis of Tolstoy’s moral and philosophical worldview

The spirit of mournful reflection and a joyless view of modernity emanates from many pages of Tolstoy’s central work of the 70s. - the novel “Anna Karenina” (1873-77, published 1876-77). Like the novels of I. S. Turgenev and F. M. Dostoevsky, written at the same time, “Anna Karenina” is a highly problematic work, full of signs of the times, right down to the newspaper “spite of the day.” Tolstoy was increasingly losing hope of the possibility of reconciling the interests of the peasantry and the “conscientious” nobility. T. perceived disappointment in the bourgeois reforms of the 60s, which did not bring the expected social peace, tranquility and prosperity, as proof of the futility of drastic changes in general. He watches with alarm how the remnants of the patriarchal structure are collapsing under the onslaught of bourgeois progress, how morals are falling, family foundations are weakening, the aristocracy is degenerating, how the impractical eccentrics Oblonsky are selling their family forests and lands on the cheap to the moneybags Ryabinins. Tolstoy's historical optimism is shaken, but with all the greater force he seeks support and the last refuge in patriarchal morals, in the family. All attempts of Konstantin Levin, searching for the meaning of life, to understand the basics of the economy and social structure lead him to a dead end, and the only undoubted benefit after all the crises of personal feelings remains family happiness and the naive faith of the old peasant Fokanych, who “lives according to his soul, remembers God” .

Conclusion

It seems to me that in this work I was able to show that the characters of the books, their development, their inconsistency and internal struggle are imprinted by the “dialectic of the soul” of the author himself - Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy.

L.N. Tolstoy writes “speaking” literary works, conveying this or that idea in a simpler and more accessible language. His techniques are different, Tolstoy has a special approach to each character. But whatever the method of conveying the mood, emotional experiences, love and hatred of the characters or landscape being created, the essence remains the same: the author is able to convey to us something without which, perhaps, life would be incomplete.

Literature

Bursov B.I., L.N. Tolstoy. Seminary, Leningrad, 1963

Gromov, Pavel. “On the style of Leo Tolstoy “Dialectics of the Soul”” in “War and Peace”. Publisher: Leningrad: Khudozhestvennaya literatura. 1977

Tolstoy L.N.. Complete works, vol. 1-90 (anniversary edition), M. - L., 1928-58

Dialectics souls... - a writer of everyday life and masters subtle psychological analysis. ... Korolenko is characteristically realistic image people's life, attention...

Moves towards a new understanding of human character. We have already seen how in the story “” the “little things” and “details” of children’s perceptions blur and shake the stable boundaries in the character of the adult Nikolai Irtenyev. The same thing is observed in “Sevastopol Stories”. Unlike ordinary soldiers, Adjutant Kalugin has ostentatious, “non-Russian” courage. Vainglorious posturing is typical to one degree or another for all aristocratic officers; this is their class trait. But with the help of the “dialectics of the soul,” delving into the details of Kalugin’s mental state, Tolstoy suddenly notices in this man such experiences and feelings that do not fit into the aristocrat’s officer code and are opposed to it. Kalugin “suddenly became scared: he ran at a trot for five steps and fell to the ground...”. The fear of death, which the aristocrat Kalugin despises in others and does not allow in himself, suddenly takes possession of his soul. In the story “Sevastopol in August,” the soldiers, hiding in a dugout, read from the primer: “The fear of death is an innate feeling in man.” They are not ashamed of this simple and so understandable feeling. Moreover, this feeling protects them from hasty and careless steps. Pointing his “artistic microscope” at Kalugin’s inner world, Tolstoy discovered spiritual experiences in the aristocrat that brought him closer to ordinary soldiers. It turns out that (*98) in this person there live broader possibilities than those instilled in him by his social status and officer environment. Turgenev, who reproached Tolstoy for excessive “pettiness” and meticulousness of psychological analysis, said in one of his letters that the artist should be a psychologist, but secretly, and not openly: he should show only the results, only the results of the mental process. Tolstoy pays the main attention to the process, but not for its own sake. “Dialectics of the soul” plays a major meaningful role in it. If Tolstoy had followed Turgenev’s advice, he would not have discovered anything new in the aristocrat Kalugin. After all, the natural feeling of fear of death in Kalugin did not enter into his character, into the psychological “result”: “Suddenly someone’s steps were heard in front of him. He quickly straightened up, raised his head and, cheerfully rattling his saber, walked no longer with such fast steps as before.” However, the “dialectics of the soul” opened up prospects for change for Kalugin, prospects for moral growth.

Tolstoy's psychological analysis reveals infinitely rich possibilities for renewal in man. Social circumstances very often limit and suppress these possibilities, but they are not able to destroy them at all. a more complex creature than the forms into which it is sometimes driven. A person always has a reserve, a spiritual resource of renewal and liberation. The feelings that Kalugin had just experienced had not yet entered into the result of his mental process; they remained in him unembodied, underdeveloped. But the very fact of their manifestation speaks of a person’s ability to change his character if he surrenders to them to the end. Thus, Tolstoy’s “dialectics of the soul” tends to develop into a “dialectics of character.” “One of the most common and widespread superstitions is that each person has his own specific properties, that there are good, evil, smart, stupid, energetic, apathetic, etc.,” writes Tolstoy in the novel “Resurrection.” - People are not like that. We can say about a person that he is more often kind than evil, more often smart than stupid, more often energetic than apathetic, and vice versa; but it will not be true if we say about one person that he is kind or smart, and about another that he is evil or stupid. And we always divide people like this. And this is not true. People are like rivers: the water is lonely in everyone and the same everywhere, but every river is sometimes narrow, sometimes fast, sometimes wide, sometimes quiet, sometimes clean, sometimes cold, sometimes muddy, sometimes warm. So are people. Each person carries within himself the rudiments of all human properties and sometimes displays some, sometimes others, and is often completely unlike himself, remaining at the same time the same as himself.” The “fluidity of man,” his ability to make abrupt and decisive changes, is constantly in the center of Tolstoy’s attention. After all, the most important motive of the writer’s biography and creativity is movement towards moral heights, self-improvement. Tolstoy saw this as the main way to transform the world. He was skeptical of revolutionaries and materialists, and therefore soon left the editorial office of Sovremennik. It seemed to him that a revolutionary restructuring of the external, social conditions of human existence was a difficult matter and hardly promising. Moral self-improvement is a clear and simple matter, a matter of free choice of every person. Before you sow goodness around, you need to become good yourself: with moral self-improvement you need to begin the transformation of life.

This explains Tolstoy’s close interest in the “dialectics of the soul” and the “dialectics of character” of a person. The leading motive of his work will be the test of variability. A person’s ability to renew himself, the mobility and flexibility of his spiritual world, his psyche are for Tolstoy an indicator of moral sensitivity, talent and vitality. If these changes had been impossible in a person, Tolstoy’s view of the world would have collapsed and his hopes would have been destroyed. Tolstoy believes in the creative, world-transforming power of the artistic word. He writes with the conviction that his art enlightens human souls and teaches them to “love life.” Like Chernyshevsky, he considers literature a “textbook for life.” He equates writing novels to a specific practical task, which he often gives preference to in comparison with literary work.

“Dialectics of the Soul” based on the novel “War and Peace” by L.N. Tolstoy

Lesson objectives:

Educational:

1) reveal the compositional role of the philosophical chapters of the epic novel;

2) explain the main provisions of the dialectics of the soul in the novel by L.N. Tolstoy.

Developmental:

to trace the psychologism of the characters in the novel “War and Peace” by L.N. Tolstoy.

Educational:

1. nurturing a culture of mental work based on such mental operations as analysis, synthesis, grouping;

2) instilling a sense of beauty in students based on a work of art.

Equipment: portrait of L.N. Tolstoy; exhibition of photographic materials; illustrations based on the writer’s work; I. Tolstoy’s book “The Light in Yasnaya Polyana”; text "War and Peace"; book “L.N. Tolstoy in Russian criticism", presentation about the life and work of the writer, video film "War and Peace" by S. Bondarchuk.

Methodical techniques:teacher's lecture, teacher's story, elements of text analysis, group work, student reports, conversation on issues.

Lesson plan:

I. Teacher's lecture.

II. Student messages.

1. Work in groups.
2. Summarizing. Commenting on ratings.
3. Homework explanation.

Epigraphs for the lesson:

“Tolstoy told us almost as much about Russian life as the rest of our literature” (M. Gorky).

“Every person is a diamond who can purify or not purify himself. To the extent that it is purified, eternal light shines through it. Therefore, a person’s job is not to try to shine, but to try to purify himself” (L.N. Tolstoy).

“If only you could write like Tolstoy and make the whole world listen!” (T. Dreiser).

During the classes:

1. TEACHER'S LECTURE.

Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy (1828 - 1910) - a brilliant artist and a brilliant personality. Tolstoy left a huge literary legacy: three major novels, dozens of novellas, hundreds of short stories, several folk dramas, a treatise on art, many journalistic and literary critical articles, thousands of letters, entire volumes of diaries. And this entire legacy bears the stamp of the great writer’s tireless ideological quest.

Tolstoy L.N. was an ardent defender of the people. He showed, in particular in War and Peace, its decisive role in the historical development of society. But this was not the only characteristic of Tolstoy.

In revealing psychology, Tolstoy comes into contact with Stendhal and
Lermontov. However, Tolstoy’s “dialectics of the soul” constitutes a truly
a new word in literature. The synthesis of the epic and psychological opened
literature has enormous possibilities for aesthetic development
reality.

On the novel “War and Peace” by L.N. Tolstoy worked from 1863 to 1869. Initially, a story was conceived on a contemporary theme of that era, “The Decembrists,” of which three chapters remain. First L.N. Tolstoy was going to write about the Decembrist who returned from Siberia, and the action of the novel was supposed to begin in 1856. In the process of work, the writer decided to talk about the uprising of 1825, then pushed back the beginning of the action to 1812 - the time of the childhood and youth of the Decembrists. But since the Patriotic War was closely connected with the campaign of 1805 - 1807, Tolstoy decided to begin the novel from that time.

As the plan progressed, there was an intense search for the title of the novel. The original, “Three Times,” soon ceased to correspond to the content, because from 1856 to 1825 Tolstoy moved further and further into the past; Only one time was in the spotlight - 1812. So a different date appeared, and the first chapters of the novel were published in the magazine “Russian Messenger” under the title “1805”. In 1866, a new version emerged, no longer specifically historical, but philosophical: “All’s well that ends well.” And finally, in 1867 - another title where the historical and philosophical formed a certain balance - “War and Peace”.

Dialectics of the soul is one of the forms of psychological analysis in a work of art. Term N.G. Chernyshevsky (first appeared in literary criticism in a review of L.N. Tolstoy’s stories “Childhood” and “Adolescence” and “War Stories”).

Dialectics of the soul is a concept that denotes a detailed reproduction in a work of art of the process of origin and subsequent formation of thoughts, feelings, moods, sensations of a person, their interaction, the development of one from the other, the demonstration of the mental process itself, its patterns and forms (the growth of love into hatred or the emergence love out of sympathy, etc.).

Tolstoy's heroes experience numerous events, large and small, significant and insignificant, but each of them is meaningful in the perspective of the character's entire life. In “War and Peace,” the dynamics of personality, what the author himself called the “fluidity” of character, are conveyed with extraordinary artistic power. In the diversity and development of the properties of their nature, both the main characters of the novel and the minor, episodic ones appear before the reader. The complex emotional experiences of the characters are conveyed by Tolstoy through internal monologues, dialogues, disputes, through the so-called wordless relationships, which are expressed through gestures, external reactions, through a description of the state of a person who is alone with his thoughts and pain. Internal monologue is the most important and very characteristic of Tolstoy’s means of psychological analysis, “dialectics of the soul.” S. Zweig wrote about the writer’s completely unique type of realism, his ability to “create” a unique, “visible” artistic reality: “When you read him, it seems that you are looking through an open window into the real world.”

Let us turn to the work, in the novel by L.N. Tolstoy "War and Peace": T. II, part II, ch. 1 (Pierre's internal monologue); T. IIII, part III, ch. XXXI (internal monologue of Prince Andrei); T. IV, part I, ch. 7 (internal monologue of Nikolai Rostov) –reading and analyzing pages of a novel.

Psychological analysis can take different directions: one poet is primarily concerned with the outlines of characters; another - the influence of social relations and everyday clashes on characters; third - the connection between feelings and actions; fourth - analysis of passions; Count Tolstoy most of all - the psychological process itself, its forms, its laws, the dialectics of the soul, to express it in a certain term... Count Tolstoy's attention is most of all drawn to how some feelings and thoughts develop from others... as a feeling that directly arises from a given position or impression, subject to the influence of memories and the power of combinations represented by the imagination, it passes into other feelings, again returns to the previous starting point and wanders again and again, changing along the entire chain of memories.

II. STUDENT MESSAGES.

A student who has been prepared in advance makes a presentation.

1. Novel - epic L.N. Tolstoy's "War and Peace" in the philosopher's assessment

ON THE. Berdyaev.

Let us turn to the assessment of the novel “War and Peace” by L.N. Tolstoy, given by the famous philosopher N.A. Berdyaev. In his judgments, he noted the genius of Tolstoy as an artist and personality, but denied him as a religious thinker. “He was not given the gift of expression in words, of expressing his religious life, his religious quest.”

It has long been noted that the works of Tolstoy the artist reflected our entire life, from the tsar to the peasant. These poles are outlined, right: indeed, in “War and Peace,” for example, there is a strikingly vivid and real image of the tsar in the person of Alexander I. This is on the one hand. On the other, we have the almost speechless soldier Karataev and the peasant Akim (from “The Power of Darkness”). Between these extremes there are many characters - the aristocracy, village nobles, serfs, courtyards, men.

Tolstoy the thinker is entirely the product of Tolstoy the artist. L.N. Tolstoy is a shining example of aspiration, restless, selfless, tireless and contagious. The formulas in which Tolstoy from time to time concludes this desire, as a ready-made truth and as a moral for behavior, have changed more than once, just as they changed with his hero, Pierre Bezukhov. If you look at Tolstoy from this point of view, then all of him - throughout his long and brilliant work - is one fragile contradiction. Here, for example, is one of these formulas: “...It is good for the people who, not like the French in 1813, saluted according to all the rules of art and turned the sword over with the hilt, gracefully and courteously handing it over to the magnanimous winner, but good for the people who minute of testing, without asking how others acted according to the rules in similar caseswith simplicity and ease he picks up the first club he comes across and nails it until while in his soul feeling of insult and revengenot replaced by feeling contempt and pity..."

These words, in which the feeling of “resistance” was expressed in all its immediacy and even extremes, where even a defeated enemy has no other attitude than pity mixed with contempt.

This motive, one and never changed in Tolstoy, is the search for truth, the desire for an integral mental structure, which is given only by deep, indecomposable analysis, faith in one’s truth and its direct application to life.

Next N.A. Berdyaev points out the antinomy of Tolstoy's views. After all, on the one hand, L.N. Tolstoy is striking in his belonging to the noble life. On the other hand, Tolstoy, with the power of negation and genius, rebels against the “light” not only in the narrow, but also in the broad sense of the word, against the entire “cultured” society.

Thus, N.A. Berdyaev comes to the conclusion that the brilliant personality and life of L.N. Tolstoy bears the stamp of some special mission.

III. WORK IN GROUPS.

The teacher divides the class into two halves, gives questions to each group, and after a certain amount of time, students comment on the answer to the question given to them, quoting the text of the epic novel.

Tolstoy distinguishes two main states in the human soul: what makes a person human, its moral essence, stable and unchangeable, and unreal, what society imposes (secular etiquette, the desire for career growth and maintaining external decency). “The history of the soul” is the name of the process during which a person goes through ups and downs and, having gotten rid of unnecessary “fuss,” as a result, becomes real. Such a hero is the most important for the author, therefore Tolstoy strives to feel and show a person at the most crucial moments of his life.

1 GROUP.

Such a turning point for Pierre Bezukhov is the year 1812, especially his time in captivity. It was then, having suffered various hardships, that Pierre learned to truly appreciate life. There, having met with Platon Karataev, he comes to the conclusion that all human misfortunes arise “not because of a lack, but because of an excess.” Karataev lives in complete harmony with the whole world. He has an inherent desire to change the environment, to remake it in accordance with some abstract ideals. He feels part of a single natural organism, lives easily and joyfully, which significantly influences Pierre Bezukhov’s worldview. Thanks to Plato and other soldiers, Pierre joins folk wisdom and achieves inner freedom and peace.

Of all the heroes of the novel “War and Peace,” it is Bezukhov, in our opinion, who can be called a truth-seeker. Pierre is an intellectual person, looking for answers to the main moral, philosophical, social questions, trying to find out what the meaning of human existence is. Tolstoy's hero is kind, selfless, selfless. He is far from material interests, because he has an amazing ability not to be “infected” by meanness, greed and other vices of the society that surrounds him. And yet, only the feeling of belonging to the people, the awareness of a common national disaster as a personal grief opens up new ideals for Pierre. Soon Bezukhov finds long-awaited happiness next to Natasha, whom he secretly loved all his life, even from himself.

GROUP 2.

A deep internal rebirth occurs with Andrei Bolkonsky. Andrey's conversation with Pierre on the ferry, the meeting with the old oak tree, the night in Otradnoye, his love for Natasha, the second wound - all these events cause dramatic changes in his spiritual state. Similar changes occur with Natasha Rostova, and with her brother Nikolai, and with Maria - all of Tolstoy’s favorite heroes go a long way before getting rid of everything artificial that they had, and finally finding themselves.

Prince Andrei goes to the War of 1805 because he is tired of small talk, he is looking for something real. Volkonsky, like his idol, Napoleon, really wants to find “his Toulon.” However, the dream and real life are noticeably different, especially when Prince Andrei finds himself on the battlefield. Andrei Volkonsky, like Napoleon at the Battle of Arcoli, picked up the banner on the field of Austerlitz and led his troops. But this flag, in his dreams so proudly fluttered above his head, in reality turned out to be just a heavy and uncomfortable stick: “Prince Andrei again grabbed the banner and, dragging it by the pole, fled with the battalion.” Tolstoy also denies the concept of a beautiful death, so even the description of the hero’s wound is given in a very harsh form: “As if, with a strong cue, one of the nearby soldiers, as it seemed to him, hit him in the head. It was a little painful, and most importantly, unpleasant...” War is meaningless, and the author does not accept the desire to become like Napoleon, the man who decided it. This is probably why the already wounded Prince Andrei, lying on the battlefield, sees a high, clear sky above him - a symbol of truth: “How come I haven’t seen this high sky before? And how happy I am that I finally recognized him. So, everything is deception, everything is deception, except this endless sky.” Prince Andrei refuses his chosen path, glory and the symbol of this glory - Napoleon. He finds other values: the happiness of simply living, seeing the sky - being.

The hero recovers and returns to the family estate. He goes to his family, to his “little princess”, from whom he once fled and who is about to give birth. However, Lisa dies during childbirth. Andrei's soul is in turmoil: he suffers from guilt in front of his wife. Prince Andrei confesses to Pierre: “I know only two real misfortunes in life: remorse and illness. And happiness is only the absence of these two evils.” Under Austerlitz, the hero understood the great truth: infinite value is life. But misfortune in life can be not only illness or death, but also a restless conscience. Before the battle, Prince Andrei was ready to pay any price for a moment of glory. But when his wife died, he realized that Toulon was not worth the life of a loved one. After a conversation on the ferry with Pierre Bezukhov about the meaning of existence, about the purpose of man, Andrei finally feels that he is open to people. Apparently, this is why Natasha Rostova appears in his life, whose natural inner beauty is capable of reviving Bolkonsky’s soul with new feelings.

It seems to us that dissatisfaction with oneself is inherent in all talented and extraordinary people. It is in this continuous internal struggle of thoughts and feelings, in the tireless search for the meaning of life, in the dreams of activity useful for the entire people that the spiritual beauty of Tolstoy’s heroes turns out to be. In my opinion, it is no coincidence that the novel has an open ending, because the writer ends the epic with Nikolenka Bolkonsky’s dream, in which he sees himself, Uncle Pierre and his deceased father at the head of the “right” army. And who knows, perhaps Nikolenka and Bezukhov’s children are just as painfully searching for their path in life as their parents.

IV. SUMMARIZING. COMMENTING ON RATINGS.

L.N. Tolstoy writes “speaking” literary works, conveying this or that idea in a simpler and more accessible language. His techniques are different, Tolstoy has a special approach to each character. But whatever the method of conveying the mood, emotional experiences, love and hatred of the characters or landscape being created, the essence remains the same: the author is able to convey to us something without which, perhaps, life would be incomplete.

Tolstoy created turning points in the seemingly calm lives of the heroes (Natasha, Andrei Bolkonsky, Pierre) in order to rid them of the artificial, alien. By showing the true faces of the characters, their sincere motives and experiences, the writer showed his personal attitude towards people and what a real person should be. His heroes were in a constant, complicated search for themselves and a sincere life; they had to fight for this right not only with others, but also with their own contradictory psyche. Through destruction, struggle and loss, Tolstoy saved them from the superficial and empty, thus showing how the history of the formation of their souls proceeded.

The writer L.N. Tolstoy depicts the inner world of this or that person, the hero of his work, in his own way. By discovering the “dialectics of the soul,” Tolstoy moves towards a new understanding of human character. With its help, delving into the details of a person’s mental state, he notices in him experiences and feelings that are beyond the control of anyone else. Lev Nikolaevich, like no one before him, gave examples of artistic depiction of moving, developing events and “fluid”, complex, contradictory, living human characters. Unlike many other writers, Tolstoy does not give complete, exhaustive characteristics of the characters at the beginning of the work. The image of the hero, his portrait and, most importantly, character, are given by the writer in motion, gradually consisting of traits and signs that appear in how the hero acts, what he says and thinks, and what impression he makes on others. Tolstoy was fascinated by the depiction of the very process of the spiritual life of the heroes, by showing the “dialectics of the soul.”

V. EXPLANATION OF HOMEWORK.

2. Individual tasks - messages (brief retelling with elements of analysis):

A) Rostov and Bolkonsky - the spiritual and moral peculiarity of families; b) Image of the Patriotic War of 1812. on the pages of the novel.

Dialectics of Tolstoy's soul

Question 30

ʼʼChildhood.Adolescence.Youthʼʼ

Trilogy ʼʼChildhood. Adolescence. Youth' is the first published work of Leo Tolstoy. It was this that brought the writer wide fame and recognition as a new, bright talent in literature. The extraordinary power of Tolstoy’s talent was immediately noticed by Turgenev, who, after reading the first part of the trilogy, wrote: “Here, finally, is Gogol’s successor, not at all like him, as it should be.” Indeed, already in his first book, Tolstoy showed all the main features of his talent: deep psychologism, attention to the moral movements of the heroes and, most importantly, the principle of “dialectics of the soul,” as N.G. Chernyshevsky called it. The combination in one work of so many striking distinctive features of the writer’s style determined that even a century and a half after its publication, the “Childhood” trilogy. Adolescence. Youth is perceived by the reader as a surprisingly modern work.

Very often, literary critics and simply readers call this book the autobiography of Tolstoy himself. Indeed, many events from the life of the author, his family and friends are reflected in the content of the work. At the same time, Tolstoy’s plan was not at all to tell with historical accuracy about his childhood and adolescence, but to embody in the life story of Nikolenka Irtenyev the features of the “epochs of life” of all people in general and each person in particular. This is confirmed by the words of Tolstoy himself: when the first part of the trilogy entitled “The History of My Childhood” was published in Sovremennik, Tolstoy wrote that the title “contradicts the idea of ​​the essay”: “Who cares about the history of my childhood....”

Tolstoy's hero, Nikolenka Irtenyev, is a person from any time. Of course, the historical features of the time in which he lived leave a certain imprint on his soul and character. But in general, in my opinion, Tolstoy shows growing up, the formation of a human personality. For this reason, a hero like Nikolenka Irtenyev could live in ancient Greece, in the Middle Ages, and in the distant future. That's why the trilogy ʼʼChildhood. Adolescence. Youth is still relevant in our times.

A person is born, grows, matures, becomes a person. And in general, this process is no different from the one Tolstoy described in his book. Absolutely the same as before, in childhood for all children the closest and most beloved people are their relatives. In adolescence or adolescence, love and trust in loved ones begin to be replaced by such qualities as arrogance, vanity, and a thirst for independence; and in youth the real development of personality begins, as described by Tolstoy.

“Dialectics of the soul” in L. N. Tolstoy’s work “Youth”

Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy's story “Youth” with extraordinary sincerity, depth, trembling and tenderness conveys the moral quest, awareness of one’s “I”, dreams, feelings and emotional experiences of Nikolai Irtenyev. The narration is told in the first person, which brings us even closer to the main character. There is a feeling that it is Nikolenka who opens his soul, his inner world to you, talking about the events happening in his life, about his thoughts, moods and intentions. “Youth” is written in the form of autobiographical prose. In my opinion, this is what made it easier for Tolstoy to paint a picture of the internal movements of a person. After all, Lev Nikolaevich, according to Chernyshevsky, “extremely carefully studied the types of life of the human spirit in himself.”

At the beginning of the story, Nikolai explains at what moment the time of youth begins for him. It comes from the time when he himself came up with the idea that “the purpose of a person is the desire for moral improvement.” Nikolai is 16 years old, he is “involuntarily and reluctantly” preparing to enter the university. His soul is filled with thoughts about the meaning of life, the future, and the purpose of man. He tries to find his place in the surrounding society, strive to defend his independence. Overcome the “habitual” views, the way of thinking with which you constantly come into contact. “It seemed so easy and natural to me to break away from everything that had happened, to redo it, to forget everything that had happened, and to start my life with all its relationships completely again, that the past did not burden me, did not bind me.”

Nikolai is at that age when a person most fully feels himself in the world and his unity with it and, at the same time, awareness of his individuality. At the university, Irtenyev becomes a person of a certain social circle, and his inquisitiveness, tendency to introspection, analysis of people and events acquires an even deeper character.
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He feels that the aristocrats who are one step higher treat him with disrespect and arrogance, just as he treats people of lower origin. Nikolai becomes close to the student commoners, although he was irritated by their appearance, manner of communication, mistakes in language, but he “anticipated something good in these people, envied the cheerful camaraderie that united them, felt attracted to them and wanted to get closer to themʼʼ. He comes into conflict with himself, since he is also attracted and attracted by the “sticky morals” of a secular lifestyle imposed by an aristocratic society. He begins to be burdened by the awareness of his shortcomings: “I am tormented by the pettiness of my life... I myself am petty, and yet I have the strength to despise both myself and my life”, “I was a coward at first... - I’m ashamed...,”, “... I chatted with everyone and I lied for no reason..., “I noticed in this case that I still had a lot of vanity.”

I consider Nikolai capable of moral development. The very purpose of man is moral development, which he set as his goal, his penchant for introspection speaks of his rich internal inclinations, his desire for self-improvement, truth, goodness and justice. This is evidenced by his disappointment in his comme il faut. “So what was the height from which I looked at them... Isn’t all this nonsense? - sometimes it began to occur to me dully under the influence of a feeling of envy of the camaraderie and good-natured, youthful fun that I saw in front of me.

Friendship with Dmitry Nekhlyudov plays a huge role in revealing the dialectics of Nikolai Irtenev’s soul. It is through conversations with his friend that the young man begins to understand that growing up is not a simple change in time, but a slow formation of the soul. Their sincere friendship is an extremely important consequence of both strict moral demands and high mental soars, “when, rising higher and higher into the realm of thought, you suddenly comprehend all the immensity of it....”

L.N. Tolstoy, using the example of Nikolenka Irtenyev, depicts not only the influence of the environment, but also repulsion from it, overcoming the familiar, the stable. It is expressed not in the form of conflict, but in the form of the gradual formation of one’s own view of the world, a new attitude towards people. Describing in detail the thoughts and feelings of a young man, the writer shows the capabilities of the young hero, the capabilities of a person in his confrontation with the environment, his spiritual self-determination.

Nikolai is at that age when a person most fully feels his unity with the world and, at the same time, realizes his individuality. At the university, Irtenyev becomes a person of a certain social circle, and his inquisitiveness, tendency to introspection, analysis of people and events acquires an even deeper character.

Dialectics of Tolstoy's soul - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Dialectics of Tolstoy's soul" 2017, 2018.

L.N. Tolstoy is known not only as a brilliant writer, but also as an amazingly deep and subtle psychologist. Roman L.N. Tolstoy's "War and Peace" opened a gallery of immortal images to the world. Thanks to the subtle skill of the writer-psychologist, we can penetrate into the complex inner world of the characters, learning the dialectics of the human soul.

The main means of psychological depiction in the novel “War and Peace” are internal monologues and psychological portraits.

The image of Pierre Bezukhov is one of the most important in the novel. The author introduces us to his hero from the very first pages of the work, in the salon of Anna Pavlovna Scherer. Contemporaries noted a noticeable similarity between the character and the author. Indeed, Pierre Bezukhov expresses many of the writer’s cherished thoughts. But they should not be identified in everything.

The image of Pierre Bezukhov, like the images of Natasha Rostova and Andrei Bolkonsky, is presented in dynamics, that is, in constant development. Leo Tolstoy focuses on the sincerity, childish gullibility, kindness and purity of his hero’s thoughts. Pierre willingly and even joyfully submits to someone else's will, naively believing in the benevolence of those around him. He becomes a victim of the selfish Prince Vasily and an easy prey for the crafty Masons, who are also not indifferent to his condition. Tolstoy notes: obedience “did not even seem to him to be a virtue, but happiness.”

One of the moral errors of the young Bezukhov is the unconscious need to imitate Napoleon. In the first chapters of the novel, he admires the “great man,” considering him the defender of the gains of the French Revolution; later he rejoices in his role as a “benefactor” and, in the future, a “liberator” of the peasants; in 1812 he wants to rid people of Napoleon, the “Antichrist.” The desire to rise above people, even dictated by noble goals, invariably leads him to a spiritual dead end. According to Tolstoy, both blind obedience to someone else's will and painful conceit are equally untenable: at the heart of both is an immoral view of life, which recognizes the right of some people to command, and the obligation of others to obey.

Young Pierre is a representative of the intellectual noble elite of Russia, who treated the “close” and “understandable” with contempt. Tolstoy emphasizes the “optical self-deception” of the hero, alienated from everyday life: in the everyday he is not able to consider the great and infinite, he sees only “one limited, petty, everyday, meaningless.” Pierre's spiritual insight is the comprehension of the value of an ordinary, “non-heroic” life. Having experienced captivity, humiliation, seeing the seamy side of human relationships and high spirituality in the ordinary Russian peasant Platon Karataev, he realized that happiness lies in the person himself, in “satisfying needs.” “... He learned to see the great, eternal and infinite in everything and therefore... threw down the pipe into which he had been looking through people’s heads,” Tolstoy emphasizes.

At every stage of his spiritual development, Pierre painfully resolves philosophical questions that “cannot be escaped.” These are the simplest and most insoluble questions: “What is bad? What well? What should you love, what should you hate? Why live, and what am I? What is life, what is death? What force controls everything? The intensity of moral searches intensifies in moments of crisis. Pierre often experiences “disgust for everything around him,” everything in himself and in people seems to him “confused, meaningless and disgusting.” But after violent attacks of despair, Pierre again looks at the world through the eyes of a happy man who has comprehended the wise simplicity of human relationships.

While in captivity, Pierre for the first time felt a feeling of complete merging with the world: “and all this is mine, and all this is in me, and all this is me.” He continues to feel joyful enlightenment even after liberation - the entire universe seems reasonable and “well-ordered” to him. Tolstoy notes: “now he made no plans...”, “could not have a goal, because he now had faith - not faith in words, rules and thoughts, but faith in a living, always tangible God.”

While a person is alive, Tolstoy argued, he follows the path of disappointments, gains and new losses. This also applies to Pierre Bezukhov. The periods of delusion and disappointment that replaced spiritual enlightenment were not the moral degradation of the hero, but the hero’s return to a lower level of moral self-awareness. Pierre's spiritual development is a complex spiral, each new turn takes the hero to a new spiritual height.

In the epilogue of the novel, Tolstoy not only introduces the reader to the “new” Pierre, convinced of his moral rightness, but also outlines one of the possible paths of his moral movement associated with the new era and new circumstances of life.

Psychologism of the novel "War and Peace"