Canons of human images in ancient Egyptian sculpture. Egyptian artistic canon

Sculpture in Egypt appeared in connection with religious requirements and developed depending on them. Cult requirements determined the appearance of this or that type of statues, their iconography and installation location. The basic rules for sculpture finally took shape during the Early Kingdom: symmetry and frontality in the construction of figures, clarity and calmness of poses best corresponded to the cult purpose of the statues. These features of the appearance of the statues were also determined by their location near the wall or in a niche. There were several types of canonical images of the pharaoh: walking - with his leg extended forward; calmly sitting on the throne - his hands lie on his knees; the deceased - in the guise of the god Osiris with his arms crossed on his chest, holding symbols of power - a rod and a whip. The attributes of the pharaoh were the klaft - a striped scarf with ends hanging down to the shoulders; nemes - headband; crowns - white, in the shape of a pin (symbol of Upper Egypt), and cylindrical red, with a high rounded protrusion at the back (symbol of Lower Egypt). Sometimes one crown was placed on top of another. A uraeus was attached to the bandage in the middle of the forehead - the image of a sacred cobra, the guardian of royal power on earth and heaven. The non-ceremonial headdress, khepresh, looked like a blue helmet. In the appearance of the ruler, portrait resemblance had to be combined with solemn monumentality and grandeur.

A little later, the “scribe pose” appears - a person sitting on crossed legs. At the same time, the complete stability of the figure, the generality of its artistic design and plastic accuracy in conveying the plot were achieved by enclosing the figures of the seated scribes in an imaginary triangular outline. Family groups also appear early. A number of rules were mandatory for all sculpture: straight positioning of the head, some attributes of power or profession, certain coloring: male figures were painted brick-red, female figures yellow; the hair on their upright heads was always black, and their clothes were white. The eyes were often inlaid with bronze and stones.

Placed in funeral temples and tombs, the statues personified the dead and were the receptacle of their souls, and therefore were distinguished by their portrait resemblance to them. Each sculpture was carved from a rectangular block of stone according to pre-drawn markings and then carefully finished in detail. The bodies of the statues were made exaggeratedly powerful and developed, giving the statue a solemn elation. In some cases, faces, on the contrary, were supposed to convey the individual traits of the deceased. Hence the early appearance of sculptural portraits in Egypt.

The main object of creativity of sculptors during the period of the Old Kingdom was an earthly ruler or nobleman, less often a commoner. The image of the deity was not central; usually the gods were depicted rather schematically, often with the heads of birds or animals. The sculptor's mastery of portraiture was probably facilitated by one of the means by which they tried to save the corpse from decay: sometimes it was covered with plaster. At the same time, the face looked like a plaster mask. However, since the eyes had to be open to depict the face of a living person, such a mask required additional processing. Apparently, this technique of removing a mask and casting it was used by sculptors when working on portraits. These statues depicted various aspects of the mortuary cult. Wooden statues were discovered in a number of tombs, which may have been associated with one of the moments of the funeral ritual, when the statue was raised and lowered several times.

In addition to statues of the dead, figurines of workers were also placed in the tomb, who, it was believed, were supposed to ensure the afterlife of the deceased. This leads to other requirements for sculptors - to depict people engaged in a wide variety of work. In full accordance with the general requirement of Egyptian art, a characteristic moment is chosen for each lesson, which becomes canonical for this type. The statues of the kings were clearly associated with the festival of Hebsed, as the pharaohs are depicted in the characteristic attire they wore during this festival. In contrast to the statues of gods, kings and nobles, the figurines of prisoners and servants are distinguished by a variety of positions, and often by a better interpretation. This is quite understandable, since here the sculptor was not bound by the requirements of the canon and was faced with completely different tasks. The very need to depict a person tied up or carrying some object forced the masters to look for new positions for the figures, and the requirement to reflect ethnic characteristics attracted attention to their selection and careful transfer. The same should be said about figurines of children, where the task was to show the characteristic features of a child’s body. The general rules, for example, frontality and accepted coloring, remain the same here. Statues played a large role in the architectural design of temples: they bordered the roads leading to the temple, stood near pylons, in courtyards and interior spaces. Statues that had a large architectural and decorative meaning differed from purely cult statues. They were made in large sizes and were interpreted in a general way, without much detail.

In the era of the Middle Kingdom, the Theban school occupied a leading position in the plastic arts. If at first it follows the principles of schematization and idealization, then the realistic direction intensifies in it: the royal statue, glorifying the power of the pharaoh, must at the same time consolidate his specific appearance in the minds of the people. To this end, sculptors use new techniques - the contrast between the stillness of the pose and the lively expressiveness of a carefully crafted face. In wooden folk sculpture, genre scenes are popular: a plowman with bulls, a boat with oarsmen, they are distinguished by spontaneity and truthfulness. Royal statues were placed in temples dedicated to the gods. Consequently, these statues were no longer hidden in the halls of mortuary temples, visited by an extremely limited group of people. Now they were monuments glorifying the living rulers of the country. The new purpose of the statues also determined their new forms. A monument glorifying a certain ruler required more attention to the individual image.

In the early period of the New Kingdom, there was a departure from the plastic innovations of the previous era: with maximum idealization, only the most general portrait resemblance was preserved. But, starting from the reign of Thutmose IV, sculptors abandoned the canonical severity of forms in favor of exquisite decorativeness: the previously smooth surface of the statue is now covered with thin flowing lines of clothing and curls of wigs and enlivened by the play of chiaroscuro. The desire to convey movement and volume increases; bodies become softer, facial patterns become more accurate. The tendency towards naturalness and realism is characteristic mainly of statues of private individuals. This tendency reaches its culmination under Akhenaten, when a complete break with the canon occurs; idealization is abandoned even when depicting the king and queen. Sculptors set themselves the task of conveying the inner world of the character, as well as achieving a realistic depiction of the human body. In the plastic art of the era of the XIX-XX dynasties, the realistic direction does not give up its position, which is manifested, first of all, in the royal portrait: there are no more exaggerated muscles, an unnaturally straight pose, a frozen gaze directed into the distance; The pharaoh appears in the image of a strong but ordinary warrior, not in ceremonial, but in everyday attire. The secular image of the king is established - not a god, but a real earthly ruler. The new style was introduced immediately and is clearly polemical in nature. The king did not want to be like the images of the former gods, which were always carried out according to the full rigor of the ancient canons, like the figures of the kings.

In the initial period of the Late Kingdom, plastic art experienced a decline. In the XI-IX centuries. BC. monumental sculpture gives way to small forms (small bronze figurines). At the end of the 9th - beginning of the 8th centuries. BC. the realistic sculptural portrait is being revived. In the Sais and Persian eras, the realistic trend competes with the revived traditionalist tendency. The images created in the court workshops of Memphis are oriented, like all ancient Egyptian art, towards eternity, therefore everything random, vain, and secondary was expelled from them. In the process of metal processing, sculptures enjoy greater freedom, and the figures are completely isolated, resting on a pedestal and having no other points of support. The arms are separated from the body, and the legs are depicted apart. All this gives the statues greater lightness, giving them a certain gracefulness. Despite idealization, portraits conveyed the unique features of a person. There was more life and movement in the images of ordinary people than in the solemn statues of rulers.

Art in Egyptian lands began to take shape thousands of years ago. Already in the era of the Old Kingdom, Egypt developed its own original style in architecture, sculpture and painting. He became a role model for subsequent generations of Egyptians.

Ancient Egypt: architecture, sculpture and painting

Religious buildings were built of stone and were distinguished by strict, large-scale geometric shapes. At first, the Egyptians built a simple form of tomb - a mastaba. Later, step pyramids appeared, which made up huge burial complexes for pharaohs and nobles. Egyptian architects built temples equipped with columns in the shape of a lotus flower or papyrus.
Sculpture and painting were an integral part. Statues and monuments fit organically into the design of tombs and temples. Massive statues of gods and kings showed the power and might of the country. Reliefs and paintings decorated tombs and palaces. They colorfully depicted human activities, scenes of everyday life, or gods and their deeds.

Sculpture and painting of Ancient Egypt

Painting, like sculpture, served to decorate the walls of tombs and religious buildings. was distinguished by its monumentality, reaching colossal sizes. Ancient artists created scenes that included people, animals and deities. Painting and sculpture perfectly complemented the architectural masterpieces of the ancient Egyptians, extolling religion and the cult power of the state.

Canons of painting in Ancient Egypt

Bright, saturated colors predominated in Egyptian paintings. Primary colors are white, red, black, blue, green and yellow. The colors retained their brightness for a long time; in addition, the drawings were covered with a layer of resin on top.
Ancient Egyptian painting obeyed certain canons that were never violated. Thus, it was customary to depict the face of a drawn person in profile, and other parts of the body in full face. The figures of people were outlined with a clear outline. It was red

Sculpture plays a vital role in the culture of the most ancient civilization on Earth. According to the ideas of the Egyptians, one of the human souls - ka - has the ability to reside in two worlds at once: the earthly and the afterlife. Hence the desire to preserve the body of a deceased person by any means (embalming and mummification), as well as the creation of a large number of sculptures that can serve as a shell for the soul “ka”.

Another feature of Egyptian sculpture is the strict canons (rules) by which all images were created. On the one hand, the sculpture had to be realistic enough for the soul to “recognize” its shell; on the other hand, the canon required complete symmetry in the depiction of a person, and the physique was also subject to strict rules. That is why numerous images of pharaohs, priests and gods seem to be of the same type, and the differences exist only in facial features. Departures from the rules were allowed only when depicting low-class people: officials, military personnel, etc.

The vast majority of ancient Egyptian sculptures are static. Most often, kings and gods are depicted sitting on a throne, or standing, the hands of the figures resting on their knees, or crossed on their chests, their gaze directed straight ahead. This angle created an amazing effect; it seems to the viewer that the statue is looking directly at him, no matter from what angle he looks at the sculpture. The huge eyes of the sculptures also have cult significance. The Egyptians were sure that a person's soul was in his eyes. Therefore, all sculptures were painted very carefully.

Temple sculptures of pharaohs and gods deserve special attention. Executed in strict accordance with the canon, the Egyptian kings are presented as majestic, well-built and aloof. It was possible to depict a pharaoh, a living god, only outside of time and everyday life. All standing sculptures depict the king taking a step forward (the so-called “step into eternity”), symbolically this signifies the ruler’s transition from earthly life to eternal life.

Sculptural portraits of Egyptian masters left us brilliant examples of realism and plasticity. Portraits of Nefertiti, Teye, Mikerin, Amenhotep III and others are undoubted masterpieces of ancient art. Most often, sculptural portraits are preserved parts of statues lost over the centuries.

The art of the Amarna period deserves a separate discussion. At this time, when Pharaoh Akhenaten banned the worship of the numerous gods of the Egyptians and proclaimed monotheism. At the same time, artists were allowed to deviate from the canon and depict people as they really are. Therefore, the statues and images of the rebellious pharaoh himself are radically different from the images of other rulers. Before the viewer is an ugly man, with crooked legs and a protruding belly. But the value of these images lies precisely in their historical accuracy and truthfulness.

For their sculptures, the masters of Ancient Egypt used a variety of materials: wood, alabaster, basalt, quartzite, limestone. The characteristics of each material were taken into account, helping to create unique, special, accurate and reliable images within the framework of strict canons.

The best examples of ancient Egyptian sculpture are kept in museums

Test for 10th grade

on the topic “Artistic culture of Ancient Egypt”

List the main periods in the history of artistic culture of Ancient Egypt.

(V-IV centuries BC - predynastic period;

XXX – XXVIII centuries. BC. – early kingdom;

XXVIII-XXIII centuries. BC. – ancient kingdom;

XXI – XVIII centuries. BC. – middle kingdom;

XVI – XI centuries. BC. - new kingdom;

XI - 332 BC – late time)

Tell us about the beliefs of the Egyptians.

(they felt a sense of kinship with the living creatures inhabiting the earth. In mythology, beliefs about the origin of man from animals have been preserved. The many faces of gods. There were a number of animals, birds, insects, snakes that were deified. The basis of religion is the idea of ​​​​the eternal life of man).

Sun God -

a) Osiris;

b) Zeus;

c) Hercules;

d) Ra (G)

Mummification of the human body was carried out in order to

a) so that after death the soul of a deceased person can find its body;

c) donate to the wax museum(A)

He was the first to rebel against polytheism and the magic of the priests, established the cult of the one Sun God and proclaimed the equality of all tribes and peoples before him -

a) Pharaoh Narmer;

b) Pharaoh Amenhotep IV - Akhenaten;

c) Pharaoh Tutankhamun(b)

Tell us about the features of the construction of the Djoser pyramid, name the architect of the project.

(architect Imhotep, priest, doctor. Built in 3 stages: the first 0 built a large mastaba; the second - a four-stage pyramid;

2 -

third - the eastern facade of the mastaba was raised to six steps; height – more than 60 meters)

Mastaba is

a) a small pyramid for nobles;

b) a rectangular tomb, shaped like

bench;

c) the southern outskirts of Memphis(b)

The largest structure ever built of stone:

a) the pyramid of Cheops;

b) the pyramid of Osiris;

c) Khafre's pyramid(A)

Tell us what you know about The Book of the Dead?

(the afterlife journey to the afterlife court is described in detail. Chapter 125 contains the text of the acquittal speech. There is a special appeal to the heart).

Tell us what you know about the Pyramid Texts?

(they were written with green paint - the color of life on the walls of the tombs. The happy life of the ruler, who entered the circle of the gods and went to heaven, was described in detail).

The Sphinx is

a) the sacred image of Khafre in the form of a lion with the head of a pharaoh;

b) the image of a goddess with a human head and the body of a snake;

c) a monument to Helops in the form of a marble sculpture(A)

What canonical attitudes developed in Egyptian sculpture. Give examples.

(standing or sitting people in stately poses with their left leg extended forward with their arms pressed to their torso or folded on their chest. Similarity with the original. Pieces of alabaster were inserted into the eye sockets and a precious stone was placed instead of the pupil. For example, Prince Rahotep and his wife; scribe Kaya) .

According to the canon of Egyptian fine art, artists depicted the human figure on a plane:

a) only in profile;

b) only in front;

c) turned simultaneously in front and profile(A)

3 -

Tell us about the theater and music of Ancient Egypt.

(mysteries were played out in cities. Activities dedicated to the God Osiris, his life, death, and resurrection were very popular. Good defeated evil - the main idea of ​​the mystery. The priests were the actors).

Name the musical instruments used by the Egyptians.

(lute, drum, noise instruments)

The capital is

a) stucco decoration on the wall of a building;

b) depiction of the actions of the pharaoh during his life on the walls of the tombs;

c) the crowning part of a column or pillar(V)

According to the ancient Egyptians, man had three souls:

the first soul is...(has the appearance of a person from whose body it was separated);

second soul -...(represented as a bird with a human face);

third soul -...(in the form of a sunbeam)

4 –

ANNOTATION

This test can be carried out in the 10th grade in order to check the mastery of the material after studying the section “Artistic Culture of Ancient Egypt” according to the program of L. Rapatskaya.

If necessary, tasks can be divided into two options.

The test is completed throughout the lesson (45 minutes).

CULTURE OF ANCIENT GREECE

Test 1.

The Lion Gate relief is the only example of monumental sculpture from the Aegean culture period. Name the structure where the Lion Gate was installed:

a) palace at Knossos; b) “Royal Villa” in Agia Triada; c) fortress in Tiryns; d) palace-fortress in Mycenae.

The underground premises of the Knossos palace of King Minos were called: 1) Architrave; 2) Minotaur; 3) Hades; 4) Labyrinth

Test 3.

The most famous attraction of the Palace of Knossos: 1) round sculpture; 2) colonnade; 3) fresco painting; 4) floor mosaics.

Test 4.

Ceramics are products made from fired clay. Indicate where this name comes from:

a) from the name of the tool for making pottery; b) from the name of the material from which the products were made; c) from the name of the place where pottery production was carried out; d) on behalf of the master of this craft; e) from the name of one of the pottery products.

Test 5.

Songs in honor of Dionysius were called: 1) theoricon; 2) Dionysius; 3) dithyramb; 4) edging

Test 6.

The wedding song of the ancient Greeks was called: 1) cantata; 2) chorale ; 3) epithalamus; 4) troparion

Test 7.

During the 5th century. BC. an ensemble of the Athenian Acropolis is being created, which includes: a) the Parthenon - the temple of Athena the Virgin; b) Propylaea - the main entrance to the Acropolis; c) temple of Nike Apteros (wingless Victory); d) the Erechtheion temple, dedicated to Athena, Poseidon, and King Erechtheus. Indicate which of these structures were created by the architects Callicrates and Ictinus

Test 8.

The Erechtheion temple had three different porticoes, one of which was the portico of the caryatids. Why did this portico have this name? Find the correct answer among the options given to you:

a) due to the arrangement of the columns of the portico in the form of a square; b) in connection with the sculptural image of standing female figures, which served as support for the beams of the portico; c) in connection with the female figures decorating the pediment of the portico; d) in connection with the sculptors of women standing in front of the entrance to the temple from the portico.

Test 9.

In the 4th century BC. In Halicarnassus, a structure is being created, which is a 24-step pyramid about 50 meters high, topped with four horses - a quadriga. What kind of building is this? Choose the correct answer:

a) altar of Zeus; b) sanctuary of Athena; c) the tomb of King Mausol; d) temple of Poseidon.

Test 10.

In the classical period of the culture of Ancient Greece, such sculptures were created as a) “Doriphoros”, b) “Athena and Marsyas”, c) “Olympian Zeus”, d) “Discus thrower”, e) “Wounded Amazon”, f) “Athena Promachos”, g) “Diadumen”, h) “Athena Parthenos”, i) “Hera”, j) “Athena Lemnia”. Find among the listed works the works of the sculptor Polycletus

Test 11.

In the 4th century BC. in Greek sculpture, majesty, clarity and harmony are replaced by dramatic pathos, lyricism and grace. Such magnificent works are created as a) “Maenad”, b) “Resting Satyr”, c) “Apollo Belvedere”, d) “Hermes with the Child Dionysus”, e) “Tombstone of a Youth”, f) “Aphrodite of Knidos”, g) “Apoxiomen”, h) “Apollo killing lizards.”

Indicate which works belong to the sculptor Praxiteles.

Test 12.

The sculptural canon was the first to formulate: 1) Miron; 2) Phidias; 3) Polykleitos; 4) Praxiteles.

Test 13.

The founder of the tragic genre, the “father of tragedy” is considered: 1) Aeschylus; 2) Sophocles; 3) Aristophanes; 4) Euripides

Test 14.

The father of domestic comedy is: 1) Aeschylus; 2) Xenophon; 3) Aristophanes; 4) Thucydides

CULTURE OF ANCIENT ROME

Test 1.

In Etruscan architecture, an essential element of a city house was the atrium, which was: a) dome structure made of wedge-shaped beams; b) main entrance to. house; c) the main room of the house with a hole in the roof and a swimming pool; d) a covered gallery connecting the premises of the house.

Test 2.

Etruscans in the 7th-6th centuries. BC. Sculptural images of the head or figure of the deceased were made on funeral urns and sarcophagi. Which of the following materials was used by the Etruscans to make funeral urns and sarcophagi?

a) marble; b) granite; c) terracotta; d) bronze.

Test 3.

During the period of the Roman Republic, a sculptural image of the togatus type developed, which represented: a) relief images of government officials; b) a sculptural image of noble Romans; c) the image of a Roman dressed in a toga; d) sculptural portraits in the spirit of the Etruscan cult of veneration of ancestors.

What is togatus? Choose the correct answer.

Test 4.

The science of all sciences in Rome was considered (elk): 1) military affairs; 2) philosophy; 3) rhetoric; 4) jurisprudence

Test 5.

In 81, one of the best triumphal arches was erected in Rome, which is a twenty-meter marble structure, decorated with a bronze sculptural group depicting the emperor and the goddess of victory on a chariot drawn by four horses. Indicate in honor of which emperor this arch was erected: a) Vespasian; b) Augusta; c) Titus; d) Tiberius; d) Nero.

Test 6.

Among the squares of imperial Rome, the Forum, built in 109-113, stood out for its grandiose size. An equestrian statue of the emperor was erected in the Forum Square and a thirty-meter column named after him stood. Indicate in honor of which emperor this Forum was created, a column and an equestrian monument were installed on it:

a) August; b) Vespasian; c) Trajan; d) Nero; d) Caligula.

Test 7.

In 211--216. In Rome, Emperor Caracalla erected one of the largest structures. What kind of building was this? Select from the following:

a) Pantheon; b) aqueduct; c) thermal baths; d) basilica.

Test 8.

By order of Emperor Hadrian, in 125, a temple of all gods - the Pantheon - was erected on the Campus Martius, which had an original design, original proportions and interior lighting solutions. The “Eye of the Pantheon” represents a) the entrance to the building, b) an opening in the wall, c) a hole in the dome ceiling; d) a system of dome holes.

Around 170, the famous equestrian statue was created of the Roman emperor - “a philosopher on the throne”, who wrote in his diary: “The time of human life is a moment, its essence is an eternal flow, sensation is vague, the structure of the whole body is perishable, the soul is unstable, fate -. mysterious, fame unreliable.” To which emperor was this equestrian monument erected?

a) Konstantin; b) Flavia; c) Marcus Aurelius; d) Octavian Augustus?

Russian poets have repeatedly turned to the works of the greatest poets of the “golden age” of Roman poetry, Virgil, Horace, and Ovid. Thus, A.S. Pushkin in his poems “To Baratynsky” and “Chaadaev” mentions the name of one of these poets, and in the first chapter of “Eugene Onegin” Pushkin writes:

What happened to him from childhood

And labor, and torment, and joy,

What took the whole day

His melancholy laziness, -

There was a science of tender passion,

Which Nazon sang.

What is the full name of the great Roman poet whom A. S. Pushkin mentions in his works?

Publius Ovid Naso