Three types of electoral systems. Concept and types of electoral systems

§2. Types of electoral systems

The concept of the electoral system

The electoral law of each country establishes a certain system of representation. The electoral system is a set of rules, principles and techniques established by law, with the help of which voting results are determined and deputy mandates are distributed.

The functioning of any electoral system can only be assessed in relation to the form of government, the political culture of the country, and the nature of its political parties. Therefore, electoral laws cease to meet their goals as other institutions of society and the state change. It is no coincidence that in the context of major social changes, the electoral system also changes. Thus, the electoral system has changed in Russia, the electoral system is being reformed in Italy, and electoral laws have changed in Belarus and other post-Soviet republics.

The choice of one or another electoral system entails significant changes in the balance of political forces. Thus, in France, the electoral law became the object of a fierce political struggle and was significantly changed several times depending on the existing balance of political forces. The American system corresponds to the nature of the watershed between the main trends and parties that has developed there and contributes to its preservation and even deepening. The Italian (proportional) system takes into account the more diverse political world of this country, although it no longer fully corresponds to the current balance of political forces, which necessitates reform of the electoral system.

Thus, the electoral system in each country is created depending on how they understand the interests of their party and society, what are the political traditions and culture. Therefore, politicians tend to be cautious about changes to election legislation. Violation of the balance of power in a stable society always leads to unpredictable consequences and can destabilize political life.

There are a large number of electoral systems in the world, but their diversity can be reduced to the following three types: majoritarian, proportional, mixed.

Majority system of absolute majority

This type of electoral system is based on the principle of the majority in determining the voting results (French majorité - majority). The candidate who receives the established majority of votes is considered elected.

There are two types of majoritarian systems: absolute majority and relative majority. In the first case, the candidate who collects an absolute majority of votes – 50 percent plus one vote – is considered elected. Due to the fact that it is not always possible for any of the candidates to collect more than half of the votes in the first round, a second round of elections has to be held. This practice has developed, for example, in France, where all candidates from the first round are allowed to participate in the second round, with the exception of those who received less than 12.5 percent of the votes. The one who gets more votes than any of the opponents is considered elected in the second round.

Belarus also uses an absolute majority system. Unlike France, if the first round is unsuccessful, the two candidates with the most votes advance to the second round. The one who received the greater number of votes is considered elected, provided that the number of votes cast for the candidate is greater than the number of votes cast against him. For an election to be valid, at least 50 percent of a given county's registered voters must participate.

As a rule, elections under the majoritarian system of absolute majority contribute to the formation of relatively stable party blocs, excluding the influence of small, fragmented parties. As a result, a system of large and, very importantly, interdependent political parties is formed. For example, in France, where this system has been used with a short break for more than 30 years, there are more than eight parties that actually compete for votes. In the first round, parties that are close in ideology go separately; the second round forces them to unite and confront a common rival.

One of the options for the absolute majority majority system is to hold elections with preferential voting. The voter receives a ballot with a list of candidates, in which he allocates seats at his discretion. If none of the candidates receives an absolute majority, then the votes cast for the candidate in last place are transferred to the more successful ones, and he himself is excluded from the electoral list. And this continues until one of the candidates receives the required majority of votes. This system is good because a second round of elections is not required.

Majority system of relative majority

In elections under a majoritarian system of relative majority (plural electoral system), in order to win, a candidate only needs to get more votes than any of his competitors, and not necessarily more than half. Electoral districts, as under the absolute majority system, are, as a rule, single-member, that is, only one deputy is elected from each district. Moreover, if a citizen managed to achieve only his nomination as a candidate, he would automatically become a deputy without voting. With this system, the winner only needs one vote, which he can cast for himself.

The majority system is currently used in Great Britain and countries that were once under its influence, including the United States. Thus, the territory of the United States is divided into 435 congressional districts. In each district, citizens elect one deputy to the lower house (House of Representatives), who must receive a simple majority of the votes. Votes cast for losing candidates are not counted and do not affect the distribution of congressional seats.

The political consequence of the application of the majoritarian system of relative majority is bipartisanship, that is, the presence in the country of two largest political parties constantly alternating in power. This is not so bad for the country and the stability of its political system. Bipartisanship forces parties to take a more responsible approach to solving government problems, because the winning party is given full control, and the losing one automatically becomes the opposition, criticizing the government. It is clear that it is the ruling party that bears full responsibility for the policies pursued.

Advantages and disadvantages of majoritarian systems

The main advantage of majoritarian representation is that it takes into account the opinions of the majority of voters in a particular district when forming government bodies. Elections under the majoritarian system predetermine the dominance of several large parties, which can form stable governments, which contributes to the stability of the political system of society as a whole.

The advantages of the majoritarian system entail its disadvantages, being their continuation. The main disadvantage of this system is that it does not fully express the political will of the population. Almost 49 percent of the votes may be lost, not taken into account, unless, of course, there is an overwhelming majority of the winning party. This violates the principle of universal suffrage, since votes cast for defeated candidates are lost. Voters who voted for them are deprived of the opportunity to appoint their representatives to elected bodies. Thus, an elementary calculation shows that in Belarus, in order to be elected, a candidate only needs to receive 26 percent of the votes, because if a little more than 50 percent of voters come to the polling stations and a little more than half of them vote for the candidate, then as a result he will receive only a quarter of the votes voters. The interests of the remaining 74 percent will not be represented in the elected body.

The majoritarian system does not provide an adequate relationship between the support a party receives in the country and the number of its representatives in parliament. A small party with a majority in a few constituencies will win a few seats, while a large party spread across the country will win no seats even though more voters have voted for it. A quite typical situation is when parties gain approximately the same number of votes, but receive different numbers of parliamentary mandates. In other words, the majoritarian system does not raise the question of how fully the political composition of the elected authorities corresponds to the political sympathies of the population. This is the prerogative of the proportional electoral system.

Proportional system

The main difference between a proportional system and a majoritarian system is that it is not based on the majority principle, but on the principle of proportionality between the votes received and the mandates won. Deputy mandates are distributed not between individual candidates, but between parties in accordance with the number of votes cast for them. At the same time, not one, but several members of parliament are elected from the constituency. Voters vote for party lists, in fact for one program or another. Of course, parties try to include the most famous and authoritative people on their lists, but this does not change the principle itself.

Party lists can be of various types. Some countries, for example, Spain, Greece, Portugal, Israel, Costa Rica, adhere to the rules of closed or strict lists. Voters have the right to choose only a party, voting for the entire list. If, for example, there are seven candidates on the list, and the party won three seats, then the first three candidates on the list will become deputies. This option strengthens the power of the party elite, the top, since it is the party leaders who decide who will take first place on the list.

In a number of countries, another option is used - an open list system. Voters vote for the list, but they can change the places of candidates on it and express their preference (preference) for a certain candidate or candidates. An open list allows voters to change the order of the list of candidates compiled by party elites. The preferential method is used in Belgium and Italy. In the Netherlands, Denmark, and Austria, a system of semi-rigid lists is used, in which the first place won by a party is assigned to the candidate number one. The remaining mandates are distributed among candidates depending on the preferences they receive.

There is another unusual form of list called panning. This system, used in Switzerland and Luxembourg, allows a voter to vote for a certain number of candidates belonging to different party lists. In other words, a voter has the right to give preference to candidates of different parties - mixed preference. This creates favorable opportunities for the formation of pre-election party blocs.

To determine the voting results, a quota is established, that is, the minimum votes required to elect one deputy. To determine the quota, the total number of votes cast in a given district (country) is divided by the number of deputy seats. Seats are distributed between parties by dividing the votes they receive by a quota.

In a number of countries with a proportional system, there is a so-called electoral threshold. In order to be represented in parliament, a party must receive at least a certain percentage of the votes and overcome a certain threshold. In Russia, Germany (mixed systems), and Italy it is 5 percent. In Hungary and Bulgaria - 4 percent, in Turkey - 10 percent, in Denmark - 2 percent. Parties that do not pass this threshold do not receive a single seat in parliament.

Advantages and disadvantages of the proportional system

The popularity of the proportional electoral system is evidenced by the fact that ten out of twelve EU countries (the exceptions are the UK and France) use this system. It largely defines modern Western European democracy as party democracy. The proportional system is the most democratic, allowing the political sympathies of the population to be taken into account. It stimulates a multi-party system and creates favorable conditions for the activities of small political parties.

At the same time, a continuation of the mentioned advantages of the proportional system are its disadvantages. In a multi-party environment, when about a dozen or even more parties are represented in parliament, it is difficult to form a government, which, as a rule, is unstable. Thus, during the post-war years in Italy, where the combination of a multi-party system and proportionality received full expression, about fifty governments changed. For 50 years, Italy has lived without a government for more than four years, which, of course, weakens the effectiveness of democracy.

The proportional system does not allow the voter to evaluate the personal merits of the candidate, since he chooses not a person, but a party, although to some extent this contradiction is eliminated by the method of preferences. In addition, the role of small parties may significantly increase, which, in exchange for supporting larger parties, demand posts and privileges that do not correspond to their real place in the political system. This creates conditions for corruption, degeneration of parties, merging of parties with the state apparatus, defections from camp to camp, struggle for warm places, etc. The very principle of proportionality is violated.

Mixed electoral systems

The mixed system of representation combines the advantages and disadvantages of both systems - majoritarian and proportional. The degree of efficiency of a public authority elected under a mixed system depends on the nature of the combination of majoritarian and proportional elements in it.

Elections are held on this basis in Russia and Germany. In Germany, for example, one half of the Bundestag deputies are elected according to a majority system of relative majority, the other - according to proportional majority. Every voter in this country has two votes. He casts one vote for a candidate elected under a majoritarian system, and the second vote for a party list. When summing up the results, both the first and second votes of voters are counted separately. The representation of any party consists of the sum of majoritarian and proportional mandates. The elections take place in one round. The five percent electoral threshold prevents small parties from winning seats in parliament. Under such a system, the majority of mandates go to large parties, even with a slight preponderance of forces in most constituencies. This allows the formation of a fairly stable government.

Concepts of the role of a deputy

In the practical implementation of various electoral systems, the political culture of the population and the deputy corps itself plays a huge role. The current understanding of the role of the deputy and his functions is also important. The most common concepts and views on the role of a deputy include the following:

The deputy represents his party in parliament, defends and explains its political program;

The deputy represents, first of all, those voters who voted for him and his program;

A deputy represents in parliament all voters of his district, including those who voted against or abstained. It protects the general social, economic and political interests of the district;

A deputy at all levels expresses and protects the interests of the nation, the country as a whole, and each social group.

Highly qualified, honest work of people's representatives at all levels of government makes it possible to neutralize the negative aspects of the electoral system. Of course, a politician in parliament must proceed from the interests of the entire country and find the optimal degree of combination of the interests of the region and the country. It is necessary to strive to ensure that the relationship between people's representatives and voters is based on authority and trust.

The most important function of the electoral process is that such a significant political and legal factor for the authorities, for any state, as legitimacy, is determined primarily by the results of the expression of the will of citizens during voting during the election period. It is elections that are an accurate indicator of the ideological and political sympathies and antipathies of the electorate.

Thus, it seems justified to define the essence of the electoral system, firstly, as a set of rules, techniques and methods of political struggle for power regulated by law, which regulate the functioning of the mechanism for the formation of state authorities and local self-government. Secondly, the electoral system is a political mechanism through which political parties, movements and other subjects of the political process carry out in practice their function of fighting to gain or retain state power. Thirdly, the electoral process and mechanism is a way to ensure the degree of legitimacy of power necessary for the implementation of the state’s powers.

In the modern world there are two types of electoral systems - majoritarian and proportional.. Each of these systems has its own varieties.

Its name comes from the French word majorite (majority), and the very name of this type of system largely clarifies its essence: the winner and, accordingly, the owner of the corresponding elective post becomes the one of the participants in the election struggle who received the majority of votes. The majoritarian electoral system exists in three variants:

• 1) the majoritarian system of relative majority, when the winner is the candidate who managed to receive more votes than any of his rivals;
• 2) a majoritarian system of absolute majority, in which to win it is necessary to receive more than half of the votes cast in the election (the minimum number in this case is 50% of the votes plus 1 vote);
• 3) a majoritarian system of a mixed or combined type, in which to win in the first round it is necessary to obtain an absolute majority of votes, and if none of the candidates can achieve this result, then the second round is held, in which not all candidates, but only those two who took 1st and 11th places in the 1st round, and then in the 2nd round to win the election it is enough to receive a relative majority of votes, that is, to get more votes than a competitor.

The counting of votes cast under a majoritarian system is carried out in single-mandate electoral districts, from each of which only one candidate can be elected. The number of such single-mandate constituencies under a majoritarian system during parliamentary elections is equal to the constitutional number of deputy seats in parliament. During the election of the president of the country, the entire country becomes such a single-mandate constituency.

The main advantages of the majority system include the following:

1. This is a universal system, since using it, you can elect both individual representatives (president, governor, mayor) and collective bodies of state power or local government (country parliament, city municipality).

2. Due to the fact that in a majoritarian system, specific candidates are nominated and compete with each other. A voter can take into account not only his party affiliation (or lack thereof), political program, commitment to a particular ideological doctrine, but also take into account the candidate’s personal qualities: his professional suitability, reputation, compliance with the moral criteria and beliefs of the voter, etc.

3. In elections held under a majoritarian system, representatives of small parties and even non-party independent candidates can actually participate and win, along with representatives of large political parties.

4. Representatives elected in single-mandate majoritarian districts receive a greater degree of independence from political parties and party leaders, since they receive a mandate directly from voters. This allows us to more correctly observe the principle of democracy, according to which the source of power should be voters, and not party structures. In a majoritarian system, the elected representative becomes much closer to his constituents, since they know who they are voting for.

Of course, the majoritarian electoral system, like any other human invention, is not ideal. Its advantages are not realized automatically, but under “other things being equal” and to a very high degree of dependence on the “environment of application,” which is the political regime. So, for example, under the conditions of a totalitarian political regime, practically none of the advantages of this electoral system can be fully realized, since in this case it only serves as a mechanism for implementing the will of the political authorities, and not of voters.

Among the objective shortcomings of the majoritarian system, which are inherent in it initially, the following are usually identified:.

Firstly, under a majoritarian electoral system, the votes of those voters who were cast for non-winning candidates “disappear” and are not converted into power, despite the fact that in the total amount of votes cast in the elections, it is these “non-winning” votes that can constitute a very significant part, and sometimes - not much less than the votes that determined the winner, or even exceeding it.

Secondly, the majoritarian system is rightly considered more expensive, financially costly due to the possible second round of voting, and due to the fact that instead of election campaigns of several parties, several thousand election campaigns of individual candidates are held.

Third, in a majoritarian system, due to the possible victory of independent candidates, as well as candidates of small parties, there is a much greater likelihood of the formation of too dispersed, poorly structured and therefore poorly managed government bodies, the effectiveness of which is significantly reduced because of this. This drawback is especially typical for countries with a poorly structured party system and a large number of parties (the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine is a prime example)

Finally, opponents of the majoritarian system argue that it creates favorable opportunities for the increasing role of financial sponsors, contrary to the constitutional rights of voters. Very often local authorities are accused of using " administrative resource", i.e. in the administration’s support of certain candidates, parties, etc. Presidential elections in 2004 in Ukraine confirmed this.

The second type The electoral system is a proportional system. The name itself can largely clarify its essence: deputy mandates are distributed in direct proportion to the number of votes cast for a particular political party. The proportional system has a number of significant differences from the majority system described above. In a proportional system, the counting of votes is carried out not within a single-member district, but in multi-member districts.

In a proportional electoral system, the main subjects of the electoral process are not individual candidates, but political parties, whose lists of candidates compete with each other in the fight for votes. With a proportional voting system, only one round of elections is held, and a kind of “passability barrier” is introduced, which usually amounts to 4-5 percent of the number of votes cast nationwide.

Smaller and less organized parties are most often unable to overcome this barrier and therefore cannot count on parliamentary seats. At the same time, the votes cast for these parties (and, accordingly, the deputy mandates behind these votes) are redistributed in favor of those parties that managed to score a passing score and can count on deputy mandates. The lion's share of these “redistributed” votes goes to those parties that managed to get the largest amount of votes.

That is why the so-called “mass” (also centralized and ideological parties) are primarily interested in the proportional voting system, which focus not on the attractiveness of outstanding personalities, but on the mass support of their members and supporters, on the readiness of their electorate to vote not according to personalized, but for ideological and political reasons.

Election according to party lists according to the proportional system usually requires significantly lower expenses, but “on the other hand” in this case, between the people’s representative (deputy) and the people themselves (voters), a figure of a kind of political intermediary appears in the person of the party leader, with whose opinion the “list” deputy is forced be considered to a much greater extent than a deputy from a majoritarian district.

Mixed or majoritarian-proportional electoral system

There is also mixed or majority-proportional system, which, however, does not represent a separate, independent type of electoral system, but is characterized by a mechanical unification, the parallel operation of two main systems. The functioning of such an electoral system is usually caused by a political compromise between parties that are mainly interested in a majoritarian system and those parties that prefer a purely proportional system. In this case, the constitutionally designated number of parliamentary mandates is divided in a certain proportion (most often 11) between the majoritarian and proportional systems.

With this ratio, the number of single-member constituencies in the country is equal to half the mandates in parliament, and the remaining half of the mandates are played out according to the proportional system in one multi-member constituency. Each voter votes both for a specific candidate in his single-mandate electoral district and for the list of one of the political parties in the national electoral district. Such a system is currently in effect for elections, the State Duma of Russia and some parliaments of other countries. (Until 2005, a mixed system was in effect for elections to the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine).

Electoral systems have gone through a long evolutionary path. As a result of almost three centuries of development, representative democracy has developed two main forms of citizen participation in the formation of state authorities and local self-government: majoritarian and proportional electoral systems.

Based on them, mixed forms are also used in modern conditions.. Considering these systems, let us pay special attention to the fact that they differ not so much in formal aspects as in the political goals achieved by using these electoral systems.

· Majoritarian electoral system characterized by the fact that The candidate (or list of candidates) who receives the majority of votes required by law is considered elected to a particular elective body.

Most are different . There are electoral systems requiring an absolute majority (this is 50% + 1 vote or more). Such an electoral system exists, for example, in Australia.

Majority system of relative majority means that the one who gets more votes than each of his opponents wins the election .

The majoritarian electoral system is called “first-to-finish system.” They also talk about her - "winner takes all."

Currently This system operates in four countries - USA, Canada, UK, New Zealand .

Sometimes both types of majoritarian systems are used simultaneously. For example, In France, when electing members of parliament, the absolute majority system is used in the first round of voting, and the relative majority system in the second round.

In a majoritarian system, as a rule, direct ties arise and strengthen between the candidate (hereinafter deputy) and voters .

Candidates are well aware of the state of affairs in their constituencies, the interests of voters, and are personally acquainted with their most active representatives. Accordingly, voters have an idea of ​​who they trust to express their interests in government bodies.

It's obvious that Under a majoritarian system, elections are won by representatives of the stronger political movement in the country. In turn, this contributes to the ousting of representatives of small and medium-sized parties from parliament and other government bodies.

The majoritarian system contributes to the emergence and strengthening of the tendency to become in the countries where it is used, two- or three-party systems .

· Proportional electoral system means that mandates are distributed strictly in proportion to the number of votes cast.

This system is more widespread in the modern world than the majority system.. In Latin American countries, for example, elections are held only according to the proportional system. .

When using a proportional electoral system, the goal is to ensure broad and proportional representation of political parties, as well as social and national groups in government bodies. .

This system promotes the development of a multi-party system . She used in Australia, Belgium, Sweden, Israel and many other countries.

Just like the majority the proportional system has varieties . There are two types of it:

· proportional electoral system at the national level. In this case, voters vote for political parties throughout the country. Electoral districts are not allocated;

· proportional electoral system based on multi-member constituencies. In this case Deputy mandates are distributed based on the influence of political parties in electoral districts.

Majoritarian and proportional electoral systems have their advantages and disadvantages . Let's look at them in more detail.

To the number positive properties of the majoritarian electoral system refers to what is in it the possibilities of forming an efficient and stable government are laid down.

The fact is that it allows large, well-organized political parties to easily win elections and create one-party governments .

Practice shows that the authorities created on this basis are stable and capable of pursuing solid public policy . Examples from the USA, England and other countries demonstrate this quite convincingly.

However The majority system has a number of significant disadvantages. In a majoritarian system, only the fact that a candidate receives a majority of votes matters for the distribution of parliamentary mandates. The votes given to all other candidates are not taken into account and in this sense are lost.

Interested forces can manipulate the will of voters in a majoritarian system . In particular, significant opportunities lie within the “geography” of constituencies .

As experience shows, The rural population votes more traditionally compared to the urban population. Interested political forces take this circumstance into account when forming electoral districts . As many electoral districts as possible are allocated with a predominance of the rural population.

Thus, The shortcomings of the majoritarian electoral system are very significant. The main one is that a significant part of the country’s voters (sometimes up to 50%) remains unrepresented in government.

The advantages of the proportional electoral system include the fact that the government bodies formed with its help present a real picture of the political life of society and the balance of political forces.

She provides a feedback system between the state and civil society organizations , ultimately contributes to the development of political pluralism and multi-party system.

However the system in question has very significant disadvantages . (Example Italy, which uses this system: since 1945, there have been 52 governments ).

The main disadvantages of this system can be reduced to the following.

Firstly , With a proportional electoral system, difficulties arise in forming a government . Reasons: lack of a dominant party with a clear and solid program; creation of multi-party coalitions, including parties with different goals and objectives. Governments created on this basis are unstable.

Secondly , The proportional electoral system leads to the fact that political forces that do not enjoy support throughout the country receive representation in government bodies.

Third , with a proportional electoral system due to the fact that voting is carried out not for specific candidates, but for parties, The direct connection between deputies and voters is very weak.

Fourthly,Since under this system voting goes for political parties, this circumstance contributes to the dependence of deputies on these parties. Such lack of freedom of parliamentarians can negatively affect the process of discussing and adopting important documents.

The disadvantages of the proportional system are obvious and significant. Therefore, there are numerous attempts to eliminate or at least mitigate them. This left a visible imprint on the proportional electoral systems themselves..

World practice shows that if majority systems are relatively the same, then all proportional systems are different .

The proportional system of each country has its own specifics, which depends on its historical experience, established political system and other circumstances.

Although all proportional systems have as their goal the achievement of proportional representation, this goal is realized to varying degrees.

In accordance with this criterion Three types of proportional electoral systems can be distinguished.

1. Systems that fully implement the principle of proportionality;

2. Electoral systems with insufficient proportionalism;

3. Systems that, although they achieve proportionality between votes cast and mandates received, nevertheless provide for various barriers to the penetration of representatives of certain political forces into parliament.

An example is the electoral system of Germany. Here, candidates from a political party that does not receive 5% of the votes within the entire country do not enter parliament. This “electoral meter” is also used in a number of other states.

As already emphasized, Electoral systems have come quite a long way in their development. During this process (in the post-war period) the formation of a mixed electoral system began, that is, a system that should incorporate the positive characteristics of both majoritarian and proportional electoral systems.

The essence of the mixed electoral system is that a certain part of the deputy mandates is distributed in accordance with the principles of the majoritarian system. This contributes to the formation of a sustainable government .

Electoral system in the Russian Federation

Electoral system is a set of rules, techniques and processes that ensure and regulate the legitimate formation of representative state bodies of political power. The electoral system is the channel through which the process of forming the entire system of representative power is carried out - from local bodies to the president of the country. Political processes are formed under the influence of factors external to them (economic, social, spiritual, etc.); the very existence of elections and electoral systems is determined by the level of socio-economic development of society. Depending on the specific historical characteristics of each country, its legislation determines one or another electoral system. Electoral systems have gone through a long evolutionary path. As a result of almost three centuries of development, representative democracy has developed two main forms of citizen participation in the formation of government bodies - majoritarian and proportional electoral systems. Based on them, mixed forms are also used in modern conditions. Applying each of them to the same voting results may give different results.

Electoral system of the Russian Federation- this is the procedure established by laws and other regulations for elections to government bodies of the Russian Federation, constituent entities of the Federation, local government bodies, as well as officials.

Legal basis of the electoral system constitutes a set of relevant legal norms contained in the Constitution of the Russian Federation, in the constitutions and charters of the constituent entities of the Federation, as well as in the federal laws “On the elections of deputies of the State Duma of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation” (05.18.2005), “On the elections of the President of the Russian Federation” (10.01. 2003), “On the basic guarantees of electoral rights and the right to participate in a referendum of citizens of the Russian Federation” (06/12/2002), etc.

When carrying out elections in The legislative (representative) body uses a mixed electoral system, combining elements of the majoritarian and proportional systems. S.i.s. combines the advantages of majoritarian and proportional systems and to a certain extent eliminates or compensates for their disadvantages. According to the Federal Law of June 24, 1999 “On the election of deputies of the State Duma of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation,” half of the composition of this Chamber is elected in single-mandate constituencies, according to the absolute majority majority system. The second half is elected according to party (federal) lists, which run in a single federal electoral district, and mandates between them are distributed according to a proportional system. When using S.i.s. Each voter is given two votes: one in a single-mandate electoral district, the other in a federal electoral district. Votes are counted separately (for candidates in single-mandate constituencies and for federal lists) according to the methodology defined by the above-mentioned Law.

PROPORTIONAL ELECTORAL SYSTEM- a system of proportional representation of parties and movements in parliament, based on the fact that each party or movement receives a number of mandates in parliament or other representative body proportional to the number of votes cast for their candidates in the elections.

PIP is used during elections of deputies of the State Duma in a federal electoral district and is used where the number of seats received by a political party or movement, bloc is proportional to the number of votes cast for federal party lists nationwide or within one or more multi-member electoral districts, into which the state is divided. This system is used in parliamentary elections in Spain, Italy, Germany, Israel and a number of other countries in combination with the majoritarian system or in its pure form. In the Russian Federation, such a system was first used in 1993 during elections of deputies to the State Duma.

In accordance with P.i.s. The distribution of deputy mandates is carried out as follows:

1) the sum of votes cast for federal lists of candidates of electoral associations that received 5% or more of the votes is divided by 225 (the number of deputy mandates distributed in the federal electoral district). The result obtained is the first electoral quotient (in foreign electoral practice this quotient is called an electoral quota);

2) the number of votes received by each federal list of candidates participating in the distribution of deputy mandates is divided by the first electoral quotient. The integer part of the number obtained as a result of division is the number of deputy mandates that the corresponding federal list of candidates receives.

MAJORITY ELECTORAL SYSTEM- a system for determining election results, according to which the candidate who receives the statutory majority of votes is considered elected in the electoral district. M.i.s. is most used in the formation of parliaments.

According to M.I.S. elections were held for half of the deputies of the State Duma of the first and second convocations. When developing a new law on the election of deputies to the State Duma of the third convocation, the President of the Russian Federation insisted that deputies be elected exclusively in single-mandate constituencies. However, the legislator did not agree with this approach, preferring the existing situation. Currently, most subjects of the Russian Federation use M.I.S, while few of them prefer a mixed electoral system. M.i.s. It is also used primarily in elections of representative bodies of local self-government.

Dignity M.i.s. in its effectiveness (elections in all cases end in the victory of one of the candidates), personification, i.e. each deputy is elected in his personal capacity (the voter votes not for a list of candidates, but for a specific candidate), in direct connection between the elected deputy and voters (which makes it possible for the deputy to be elected at the next election). Disadvantages include low representativeness, or representativeness, of the winning deputy, loss of votes from voters who voted for the losing candidate. It turns out that the more candidates are nominated in the elections, the fewer votes the winner needs to get.

There are M.i.s. absolute and relative majority. In addition, the so-called M.i.s. is used. qualified majority.

According to the majoritarian electoral system absolute majority The candidate for whom the absolute number of votes was cast (50% + 1) is considered elected. This system for determining election results is used during the elections of the President of the Russian Federation. In accordance with the Federal Law of December 31, 1999 “On the Election of the President of the Russian Federation” (Article 72), a candidate for the position of President of the Russian Federation who received more than half of the votes of the voters who took part in the voting is considered elected. The number of voters who took part in the voting is determined by the number of ballot papers found in the ballot boxes. Under a majoritarian electoral system qualified majority To win the election, you need to get a fixed or certain number of votes (25%, 30%, 2/3 of the votes of voters participating in the elections).

Majoritarian electoral system relative majority is a method of voting in which the candidate for whom more votes were cast than each of the candidates competing with him received is considered elected. In accordance with the Federal Law of June 24, 1999 “On the election of deputies of the State Duma of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation” (Article 79), the candidate who received the largest number of votes of voters who took part in the voting is recognized as elected in a single-mandate electoral district. If the number of votes received by the candidates is equal, the candidate registered earlier is considered elected. At M.i.s. absolute and qualified majority voting is carried out in two rounds, and with M.I.S. relative majority - in one round.

Democratic free elections to government bodies and elected bodies of local self-government of the Russian Federation are the highest direct expression of power belonging to the people. The state guarantees the free expression of the will of citizens in elections by protecting democratic principles and norms of electoral law. A citizen of the Russian Federation participates in elections on the basis of universal, equal and direct suffrage by secret ballot. Participation of a citizen of the Russian Federation in elections is voluntary. No one has the right to influence a citizen of the Russian Federation in order to force him to participate or not participate in elections, as well as to influence his free will. A citizen of the Russian Federation living outside its borders has full voting rights. Diplomatic and consular institutions of the Russian Federation are obliged to provide assistance to a citizen of the Russian Federation in the exercise of electoral rights established by law. A citizen of the Russian Federation who has reached 18 years of age has the right to vote, and upon reaching the age established by the Constitution of the Russian Federation, federal laws, laws and other regulatory legal acts of legislative (representative) bodies of state power of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, to be elected to government bodies in elective bodies local government. A citizen of the Russian Federation can vote and be elected regardless of gender, race, nationality, language, origin, property and official status, place of residence, attitude to religion, beliefs, or membership in public associations. Citizens declared incompetent by a court or citizens held in places of deprivation of liberty by a court sentence do not have the right to elect or be elected. The minimum age of a candidate is 21 years for elections to legislative (representative) bodies of state power of constituent entities of the Russian Federation, 30 years for elections of the head of the executive body state power (President) of a constituent entity of the Russian Federation and 21 years old when electing the head of local government; the period of compulsory residence in the specified territory is more than one year. Voters participate in elections in the Russian Federation on equal terms. A voter votes directly in elections in the Russian Federation for a candidate (list of candidates). Voting in elections in the Russian Federation is secret, that is, excluding the possibility of any control over the will of the voter. The voter lists include all citizens of the Russian Federation who have active voting rights on voting day. The voter list is compiled by the precinct election commission separately for each polling station based on information submitted in the prescribed form by the head of the local administration. The lists of registered voters are updated by the head of the local administration as of January 1 and July 1 of each year. The specified information is sent to the relevant election commissions immediately after the appointment of the election day. The basis for including a citizen of the Russian Federation in the list of voters at a specific polling station is his residence in the territory of this polling station, determined in accordance with the federal law establishing the right of citizens of the Russian Federation to freedom of movement, choice of place of stay and residence on the territory of the Russian Federation. A citizen of the Russian Federation may be included in the voter list at only one polling station. The grounds and procedure for compiling voter lists are established in the relevant federal laws, laws and other regulatory legal acts of legislative (representative) bodies of state power of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation. To conduct elections, electoral districts are formed on the basis of data provided by executive bodies of state power and local government bodies. The boundaries of electoral districts and the number of voters in each electoral district are determined by the relevant election commission and approved by the relevant representative body no later than 60 days before election day. Polling stations are formed to conduct voting and count votes. Polling stations are formed by the head of the local administration in agreement with the relevant election commissions, taking into account local and other conditions, in order to create maximum convenience for voters based on no more than 3,000 voters at each station and no later than 45 days before election day. The boundaries of polling stations should not cross the boundaries of electoral districts. In hospitals, sanatoriums, rest homes and other places of temporary stay of voters, in hard-to-reach and remote areas, on ships sailing on election day, and at polar stations, polling stations may be established at the same time, and in exceptional cases - no later than less than five days before election day; such polling stations are included in the electoral districts at the place of their location or at the place of registration of the ship. Military personnel vote at general polling stations. In military units, polling stations may be formed in cases established by federal laws, laws and other regulatory legal acts of legislative (representative) bodies of state power of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation; at the same time, access to the voting premises must be provided to all members of the election commission, observers, candidates and their proxies. Lists of polling stations indicating their boundaries and addresses of precinct election commissions must be published by the relevant election commission in the local press no later than 40 days before election day. Voting in elections in the Russian Federation is held on one of the weekends. Precinct election commissions are required to notify voters about the time and place of voting no later than 20 days before the day of voting through the media. A voter who, for one reason or another, will be absent from his place of residence for one reason or another within 15 days before election day and will not be able to come to the polling station where he is included in the voter list, must be given the opportunity to vote early by filling out a ballot in premises of the district or precinct election commission. The election commission is obliged to ensure the secrecy of voting, exclude the possibility of distortion of the voter's will, ensure the safety of the ballot and take into account the voter's vote when establishing the voting results. Voting is carried out by the voter placing on the ballot paper any sign in the square (squares) relating to the candidate (candidates) or the list of candidates in whose favor the choice was made, or to the position “against all candidates (lists of candidates)”. Each voter votes personally; voting for other persons is not allowed. Ballot papers are issued to voters included in the voter list upon presentation of a passport or other document proving their identity. The precinct election commission is obliged to provide all voters with the opportunity to participate in voting, including persons who, for health reasons or other valid reasons, cannot come to the voting premises. For these purposes, the precinct election commission must have the required number of portable ballot boxes, which is determined by the decision of the district election commission. An application for the opportunity to vote outside the polling station must be confirmed by the voter in writing upon the arrival of members of the precinct election commission. Members of the precinct election commission who travel on applications receive, against signature, ballot papers in a quantity corresponding to the number of applications. The number of voter applications, used and returned ballots is noted in a separate act. Data about voters who voted outside the voting premises are additionally entered into the list. Ballot papers are filled out by the voter in a specially equipped booth or room in which the presence of other persons is not allowed. A voter who is unable to fill out a ballot on his own has the right to use the help of another person who is not a member of the precinct election commission or an observer. The ballot paper must contain the seal of the precinct election commission or the signatures of at least two of its members. The voter confirms receipt of the ballot by signing in the voter list. Voters place completed ballots in ballot boxes, which must be in the field of view of members of the precinct election commission and observers. Votes are counted by voting members of the precinct election commission based on the ballot papers submitted by voters. When counting votes, the precinct election commission shall invalidate ballot papers from which it is impossible to determine the will of voters, as well as ballot papers of an unknown form. In order to eliminate the possibility of falsification of voting results, the counting of votes begins immediately after the end of voting time and is carried out without interruption until the voting results are established, of which all members of the precinct election commission, as well as observers representing candidates, electoral associations, and foreign (international) must be notified. ) observers. Based on the original protocols of precinct, territorial (district, city and other) election commissions, by adding up the data contained therein, the district election commission, in accordance with federal laws, laws and other regulatory legal acts of legislative (representative) bodies of state power of the subjects of the Russian Federation, establishes the election results by constituency. Voting members of the district election commission determine the election results in person. A protocol on the election results for the electoral district is drawn up, which is signed by all present voting members of the district election commission. The district election commission recognizes elections as invalid if violations committed during voting or establishing voting results do not allow one to reliably determine the results of the expression of the will of voters. At the request of any member of the district election commission or observer, the district election commission provides them with the opportunity to familiarize themselves with the protocol on the election results and make a copy of it in the premises of the district election commission. A copy of the protocol is certified by the district election commission. The establishment of voting results and election results in election commissions of all levels is carried out in the presence of observers representing candidates and electoral associations, as well as foreign (international) observers. When signing the protocol on election results, members of the district election commission who do not agree with the contents of the protocol have the right to draw up a special opinion attached to the protocol. All documentation of election commissions of all levels, including ballot papers, is subject to storage for the periods established by federal laws, laws and other regulatory legal acts of legislative (representative) bodies of state power of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation. In this case, the established storage periods for election ballots cannot be less than one year, and protocols of election commissions - less than one year from the date of announcement of the date of the next elections. The voting results for each polling station, the election results for the electoral district in the amount of data contained in the protocol of the relevant election commission and directly lower election commissions must be made available for review to any voter, candidate, observer and representative of the media. http://www.lawpravo.com

The entire electoral process consists of a number of interconnected stages enshrined in legislation. This is, firstly, the compilation of voter lists, which are presented for public review and additional clarification no later than 20 days before the start of the elections.

Secondly, the formation of election commissions, polling stations and constituencies. The Central Election Commission of the Russian Federation and the election commissions of the constituent entities of the Federation work on a permanent basis. The Central Election Commission manages the activities of other commissions for elections at the federal level and the holding of a federal referendum, distributes airtime between candidates, manages financial resources allocated from the state budget for the conduct of elections, develops instructions and gives explanations regarding other elections, and also performs other functions. functions directly related to the organization and conduct of elections.

Thirdly, the nomination and registration of candidates for deputies of representative bodies and for elective government positions. Groups of voters (initiative groups) have the right to nominate candidates; electoral associations or blocs of associations; citizens with voting rights (self-nomination and nomination of other citizens); labor collectives and meetings of voters (in elections to local government bodies). Registration of candidates or a list of candidates of an electoral bloc (association) is carried out in the relevant election commissions. To register, it is necessary to collect a certain number of signatures established by law in support of a candidate (list of candidates) or to pay a special electoral deposit. The amount of the deposit and the procedure for its payment are determined by law. In the elections of the President of Russia, the payment of an electoral deposit instead of a list of signatures in support of a candidate for this post is not allowed.

Fourth, pre-election campaigning of candidates, carried out in the form of speeches on radio and television, publications in newspapers and magazines, holding meetings and meetings with voters, processions, rallies and demonstrations, etc. The legal deadline for the start of pre-election campaigning is from the date of registration of the candidate; ends one day before voting day. 3 days before the start of voting, it is prohibited to publish any kind of forecasts, results of sociological surveys, or other research materials related to elections in the media. All expenses associated with the election campaign are reimbursed only from the election fund of the candidate or association. According to the law, every candidate in the election campaign must be given equal conditions.

Fifth, voting and determining the election results. Voting in elections is usually held on a calendar day off. Citizens of Russia vote with ballots at the time specified by law at polling stations. The exception is for sick and disabled people who are unable to independently come to the polling station and for this reason vote at home.

When voting, a certain percentage of voter turnout is established, at which the election is considered valid. The highest percentage of voter turnout is established in elections to the State Duma and in elections of the President of Russia. It constitutes 25 and 50% of the total number of voters, respectively.

The counting of votes cast for a particular candidate is carried out at polling stations by members of the precinct election commission. The voting results are recorded in a protocol, which is submitted to higher election commissions. The final election results are determined depending on which type of electoral system provided for by law (majority or proportional) is used in any given election.

Types of Electoral Systems

Let's consider the electoral system in the narrow sense of this term, ᴛ.ᴇ. How a method of distributing seats in a government body between candidates based on the results of voting by voters.

Based on their origin, all electoral systems can be divided into three large categories:

1. Electoral systems that appeared evolutionarily. English-speaking and Scandinavian countries have a long history of free elections and their electoral systems have existed for about a century.

2. Electoral systems that emerged as a result of changes in the constitutional order several decades ago. The electoral systems of France, Germany, Italy and Austria are based on constitutions that were created after the Second World War.

3. Electoral systems that have recently emerged following the establishment of a new constitutional order. Today, Spain, Portugal, and Greece hold elections on an alternative basis, but the country’s electoral system, which recently introduced the principle of free choice, is not able to immediately institutionalize it fully. Post-Soviet countries, incl. and Ukraine.

Modern democracies use a wide range of different electoral systems (there are about 350 of them), each of which has its own inherent advantages and disadvantages. This diversity is determined by historical and cultural characteristics, as well as political goals. As noted by R. Taagepera and M.S. Shugart, compared to other elements of the political system, electoral rules are easier to manipulate, they allow you to create advantages for several large parties and negate the role of small parties or, on the contrary, give the latter the right to parliamentary representation.

As a rule, electoral systems are various modifications of two basic types: majoritarian And proportional.

Majoritarian system. Fundamentally majoritarian system is based on the majority principle (the candidate who receives the majority of votes is considered the winner of the election). The electoral districts here are single-member, ᴛ.ᴇ. One deputy is elected from each district. The majority system has its own variations.

At majoritarian system of relative (simple) majority The candidate who received more votes than any of his rivals is considered elected. The system is simple because ensures the victory of one party (candidate) even with a minimal advantage. But it may happen that a minority of voters will vote for the winning party (the remaining votes will be taken by other parties), and the government that this party will form will not enjoy the support of the majority of citizens. In analogy with horse racing, this system is sometimes called “winner takes all.” Today this system is used in the USA, Canada, Great Britain, New Zealand, etc.

Majority system of absolute majority assumes that the elected candidate is the one who received more than half of the votes of the voters who took part in the voting (50% plus one vote).

In world practice, there are several varieties of this system:

· two round system. If none of the candidates receives more than 50% of the votes, a second round of elections is held, in which, as a rule, two candidates who have achieved the best results participate, which allows one of them to receive a majority of votes (absolute or relative). Such a system is used, for example, when electing the president of Russia, and in the second round the candidate only needs to receive a relative majority of votes;

· alternative voting is used in elections to the lower house of the Australian Parliament. In a single-member district, a voter votes for several candidates, marking their preference for the voter with numbers (1, 2, 3, etc.) against their names (ranked voting). If no candidate receives an absolute majority, the candidates with the lowest first preferences are excluded from further counting and the votes cast for them are transferred to the second preference candidates. Candidates with the fewest first and second preferences are then eliminated. Redistribution of votes occurs until one of the candidates receives the absolute number of votes.

· The majority system of qualified majority is used extremely rarely, when support of 2/3 or 3/4 of the total number of votes cast is required (found application in Chile when electing members of Parliament).

Proportional system involves voting on party lists, which means the allocation of a multi-member district (the district is the entire territory of the country) or several districts. This is the most common system (Latin American countries, Belgium, Sweden, etc.). The meaning of this system is essentially that each party receives a number of mandates in parliament proportional to the number of votes cast for it. Despite all its democracy, this system has one drawback. It guarantees the representation of even small parties, which in parliamentary or mixed forms of government creates problems with the formation of a government. This becomes possible when none of the parties has an absolute majority in parliament or cannot create one without entering into a coalition with other parties. In many countries, they are trying to smooth out this shortcoming, as well as excessive fragmentation of parties, by introducing an “electoral threshold” (barrier) - the smallest number of votes, which is extremely important for the election of one deputy. Usually in different countries it is 2-5%. For example, in Russia this threshold is 5% of votes.

There are many options for proportional voting systems.

· system with a national party list (Israel, the Netherlands). Voting takes place throughout the country within a single national district;

· a system with regional party lists involves the formation of several districts (Austria, Greece, Spain, Scandinavian countries, etc.);

· closed list system: the voter votes for a party and cannot express his preference for an individual candidate on the party list. Candidates on the party list are ranked in descending order of importance, and those at the bottom of the list have a lower chance of winning;

· an open list system allows you to vote for a party and express preference for one of its candidates, ᴛ.ᴇ. voters can change the order of candidates on the list (preferential voting). This is done in various ways: the voter puts a cross next to the names of the candidates he would like to see (Belgium); enters the names of candidates on the ballot (Italy); ranks candidates by degree of preference (Switzerland, Luxembourg), etc.

There is no ideal electoral system. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages.

Proponents of using traditional varieties majoritarian voting systems among its main advantages highlight the following:

· direct connection between voters and the candidate for deputy;

· weeds out parties that are small in their influence from government bodies;

forms a parliamentary majority;

· contributes to the establishment of a stable two-party system;

· leads to the formation of a one-party, but effective and stable government.

TO significant shortcomings Critics of the majoritarian system include the following points:

· does not reflect the real balance of political forces in the country and does not ensure their adequate representation in parliament. This primarily applies to the single-round voting system, when the winning party is the candidate who received less than half the votes from those participating in the election. But even if one side gets 52%, the problem remains - 48% of voters will be deprived of representation. There are cases when up to 2/3 of the votes cast for unsuccessful candidates “disappear.” Such a situation can act as a source of potential political conflicts and contribute to the intensification of non-parliamentary methods of struggle on the part of the losing side;

· creates disproportions between the votes cast and the mandates received. For example, in 1997 ᴦ. in the parliamentary elections in Great Britain, Labor received 64% of the mandates, while only 44% of voters voted for them, the Conservatives received, respectively, 31% of the votes and 25% of the mandates, and the Liberal Democrats received 17% of the votes and only 7% of the seats;

· the possibility of regional (local) interests prevailing over national interests;

· leads to an increase in the cost of the electoral process, while holding the second round is extremely important.

TO positive aspects proportional systems elections include the following:

· provides more adequate representation of political forces;

· allows for representation of minorities (for example, ethnic, religious);

· stimulates the creation of parties and the development of political pluralism.

Wherein the proportional system has weaknesses:

· weak connection between the candidate and voters;

· dependence of the deputy on the party faction in parliament;

· generates a large number of rival factions in parliament, which negatively affects the stability of the latter’s work;

· promotes the formation (under parliamentary and mixed forms of government) of coalition governments, which are sometimes less effective and stable than one-party governments;

· Potentially increases the influence of the party elite in the formation of electoral lists, especially if a closed list system is used.

In a number of countries (Germany, Bulgaria) they are trying to find a compromise between the two election systems and use various options mixed system, which involves a combination of elements of proportional and majority systems.

For example, in Russia, during elections to the State Duma, half of the deputies (225 people) are elected according to the majoritarian system of relative majority, and the second half - on the basis of the system of proportional representation of political parties in the federal electoral district. A closed list system is used.

In political science, the issue of the influence of voting systems on the configuration of the country's party system and the nature of inter-party relationships is actively discussed.

Western political scientist R. Katz, having conducted research in Great Britain, Ireland and Italy, came to the following conclusions:

· proportional representation encourages parties to display more ideological and radical positions on political issues than under a system of relative majority;

· in two-party systems, the ideological positions of the parties gradually become closer;

· Parties competing in small constituencies will be predominantly oriented toward leader personalities and patronage, while parties competing in large constituencies will tend to be issue-oriented.

French political scientist M. Duverger He came up with a pattern that is called " Duverger's law"According to this law, the majoritarian system of relative majority contributes to the formation of a two-party system (alternating two major parties in power). This is explained by the fact that voters will strive for the “useful” ( strategic) voting, ᴛ.ᴇ. voting for large parties that have a chance of success, understanding that votes cast for small parties will be “wasted.” This reveals a kind of “psychological effect” of the electoral system. Small parties are either doomed to constant defeat, or are forced to unite with one of the parties - the parties of the “favorites”. The two-round majoritarian system favors the emergence of numerous and relatively stable parties that depend on each other. Proportional representation contributes to the formation of a multi-party system, consisting of independent and stable parties with a rigid structure. The pattern noted by Duverger is not absolute and requires exceptions.

However, the following conclusions can be drawn:

1. The electoral system is a set of electoral procedures provided for by law and related to the formation of government bodies.

2. The electoral system operates on the principles of universality, equality and secret ballot. At the same time, the electoral legislation provides for a residence qualification and an age limit. The age limit is different for active (the right to choose) and passive (the right to be elected) suffrage. In addition, some countries (Austria, Belgium, the Netherlands) provide for compulsory voting.

3. Electoral systems are divided into three basic types: majoritarian, proportional, mixed.

Types of electoral systems - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Types of electoral systems" 2017, 2018.