Linguistic encyclopedic dictionary - Chinese language. Chinese terms of particular difficulty Chinese-Russian dictionary of terms and expressions found in periodicals

Cognitive aspect

annotation. This article highlights the problem of the relationship between thinking and the language of science, testing the hypothesis about the non-identity of forms of thinking in different cultures, expressed in language. The question is raised about the reflection of the type of thinking (in this case, spatial-figurative) in scientific terminology. The Chinese language, which has a different phonetic structure and other principles of written transmission of meanings, was chosen as the object of study. The research is carried out mainly on the material of terms included in the semantic field of “elementary particle physics” - a fairly young field of science that does not have an autochthonous scientific vocabulary. The lack of inclination of the Chinese to borrow in the form of transcription is revealed, as well as the desire to give translated scientific terms the greatest imagery and clarity, sometimes relying on the traditional picture of the world and native Chinese concepts.

Semanticsof scientific terminology in the Chinese language (based on the terms of elementary particle physics). Cognitive aspect.

Maria Rubets

Abstract. This article highlights the problem of the connection between thought and scientific language. The hypothesis of non-identity of thought-forms in different cultures, expressed in language, and the reflection of the spatial thinking in scientific terminology is tested. Author researches Mandarin language as having a phonetic system and principles of the expression of meaning a lot different from Indo-European languages. The research is concentrated primarily on the terms included in the semantic field of "elementary particle physics" (mainly the names of the particles) as it is a relatively recent field of science which had not had any roots in Chinese culture and did not have indigenous scientific vocabulary First the author describes the peculiarities of Mandarin phonetic system and syllable structure which hardly let using transcription or transliteration in producing of scientific terms, and also gives the examples of translation and transcription of some western terms and names into Chinese. The author shows different forms of the assimilation of European scientific terminology and also different methods of forming scientific terms in Mandarin language. It is shown, that the terms were translated into Chinese either by loan translation (which sometimes leads to inaccurate reflection of meaning), transcription (only for the terms derived from the names such as “boson” or “fermion”) or the descriptive expression of meaning (such as tachyon, bradyon, luxon). The last one lets produce the terms which reflect the essence of the phenomena more accurately. Also the author shows the connection between scientific terminology and the traditional world view and native Chinese concepts (like “yin” and “yang”). It is concluded that Chinese scientific language tends to be visual and descriptive as much as possible, which in a certain sense indicates the reflection of the spatial thinking in linguistic phenomena.

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Modern world science is European science: growing out of the ancient heritage and formed in the spiritual and cultural realities of Europe, it acquired those features that allowed it to become a model for the organization of science throughout the world. Its achievements were brought to many countries by missionaries, scientific works were translated into local languages, mastered and fit into the ethnic picture of the world, often quite different from the European one. These processes necessarily had to be reflected in the linguistic realities established in the scientific literature of a particular country.

The issue of borrowing by other languages ​​of terms that arose in European science becomes very interesting in connection with ideas about the non-identity of forms of thinking among representatives of different cultures. According to these ideas, some cultures are more characterized by spatial-figurative thinking, while others, on the contrary, are logical-verbal.

Advocate of cognitive evolutionary approach in epistemology I.P. Merkulov understood the spatial-figurative type of thinking with the dominance of a holistic strategy for processing cognitive information as the most ancient, archaic type of thinking, dominant even before the appearance and development of natural language. Based on data from anthropologists and linguists about the grammar and vocabulary of the languages ​​of modern primitive populations, I.P. Merkulov assumed that in the most ancient proto-languages, words acted as sound symbols that denoted the meaning of holistic perceptual images, ideas or scenarios, and were well adapted to the cognitive characteristics of archaic, predominantly spatial-figurative thinking. [Merkulov, 2005: 95] Accordingly, logical-verbal thinking, operating with ideal symbolic representations [Merkulov, 2005: 15], is more characteristic of modern, “developed” cultures: modern science goes far beyond everyday experience, operating with ideal conceptual structures and logical-mathematical formalisms [Merkulov, 2005: 17].

Doctor of Chemical Sciences P.P. Fedorov, in the article “The Intellectual Power of Primitive Man: Primitive Thinking and Modern Science,” among others, examines precisely this problem of twentieth-century science: isolation from visualization, which is often lacking in modern European-style theorists. The author calls for organizing a comprehensive study of scientific problems to pay attention to the development of scientific knowledge in cultures with other languages, in particular, with hieroglyphic writing [Fedorov, 2008].

Let's turn to Chinese culture - and we will see quite a lot of features characteristic of cultures with a spatial-figurative type of thinking. The applied nature of scientific knowledge, ideographic writing, as well as some features of the vocabulary and grammar of the Chinese language [Rubets, 2013] - all of this can be found analogues in modern primitive cultures, which allows us to say that Chinese culture has retained quite a lot of elements of the archaic type thinking.

But has science preserved it?

Of course, at present it would be too bold to say that because of a special type of thinking or language in China, the development of science in its European understanding is impossible. Modern Chinese scientists have been working quite successfully in different countries of the world; at the Institute of High Energy Physics at the Chinese Academy of Sciences in Beijing, an electron-positron collider has been operating since 1988, and after reconstruction it has become one of the most advanced in the world [People's Daily online, 2008]. In 2028, it is planned to build the world's largest lepton collider with a circumference of 52 km, with the prospect of upgrading it to a hadron collider. These and many other examples indicate that China is very highly integrated into world science.

However, science involves more than just modern equipment and laboratories. The language of science continues to play an important role in its development.

The purpose of this study is to try to detect manifestations of spatial-figurative (“archaic”) thinking in Chinese scientific terminology. To do this, it is advisable to take a field of science that appeared quite recently, and therefore has no analogues or prototypes in the history of the development of ancient sciences. Such a field of science is undoubtedly particle physics.

In the history of Chinese science, elementary particles (like atoms) were not the subject of research [Kobzev, 2011], thus, all terminology describing this area should be borrowed. Let's see whether the features of spatial-figurative thinking are reflected in the ways of borrowing scientific terminology.

The problem of naming methods in European science

Most of the generally accepted concepts used in scientific theories and in particle physics in particular are highly specialized terms, the meaning of which is opaque to a non-specialist in this field. This was mainly due to the fact that almost all of them were borrowed from other languages ​​through transcription, tracing, etc. To form new terms, as a rule, Greek or Latin roots are still used today, which is, on the one hand, some continuation of the medieval tradition of writing all treatises in Latin. On the other hand, in the 20th and 21st centuries this is done rather deliberately to facilitate the international use of scientific terms, as well as to exclude the possible insertion of additional meanings related to the sound composition and figurative content of words in the native language. In this regard, when translating scientific terms from language to language, preference is now given to transcription or transliteration, but not to translation, as was customary, for example, in Russian scientific literature back in the 19th century.

For comparison, remember the terms oxygen and hydrogen. Both words are calques of the French names oxygène, compiled by Lavoisier from the roots of the Greek language oxys - sour, and gennao - I give birth, and hydrogène, proposed by Guiton de Morveau (from the Greek. hydro - water) [Chernykh, 1999: 160, 397]. The terms oxygène and hydrogène were originally translated into Russian by V.M. Severgin in 1810 as acid solution And dam. The familiar “oxygen” and “hydrogen” began to be used in the second quarter of the 19th century [Chernykh, 1999: 160, 397]. Following this, derivative terms appeared in chemistry: o sour for kitty, O kitty, two oxide, re kitty, in which the same root is clearly present as in the word “ kitty lot." However, these compounds are related to oxygen, but not to acids (eg, hydrogen oxide is water H 2 O, carbon dioxide is carbon dioxide CO 2). The presence of extraneous meanings in scientific terms gives them in this case an extra semantic load. Over the past few decades, these terms have increasingly given way to derivatives of oxy gene: prot oxy d, oxy d, di oxy d, lane oxy d, etc. (Although the title peroxide hydrogen and is assigned in medicine to a specific drug.) There is also a tendency to use words derived from the international names of oxygen and hydrogen: oxygenation (saturation with oxygen), hydrogenated (saturated with hydrogen), etc. Thus, we can say that currently foreign Borrowings in the Russian language in the field of scientific terminology occur mostly in the form of transcription. The sound composition of European languages ​​makes it possible to reproduce words derived from Greek and Latin roots, due to the similarity of their phonetic structure. New - author's - terms that are difficult to translate into other languages ​​can simply be transcribed (cf. Heidegger's Dasein).

Let us now turn to the Chinese language, whose phonetic system is very different from the European one, and see how common borrowings in the form of transcription are.

Features of the Chinese language: phonetics, hieroglyphics - writing foreign words

To make further examples clear, it is necessary to explain what the features of Chinese phonetics and writing are.

The Chinese language has a rather rigid syllabic structure, i.e. The semantic (minimum significant) unit of language is a morpheme, equal to one syllable. Chinese phonologists, starting from the 2nd-3rd centuries, studying the phonetic structure of the language, began to isolate in a syllable the initial consonant sound - the initial (声母 shēng mǔ - lit. “mother/base of sound”) and the remaining complex of vowels and consonants following the initial - so-called finale or rhyme (韵母 yùn mǔ - lit. “mother/base of rhyme”) [Susov, 2006: 4]. Modern linguistics describes the Chinese syllable using a more complex scheme, however, in Chinese language textbooks, the division of syllables only into initials and finals is still preserved as the most integral and unchanging parts of the syllable: it is not possible to swap any sounds in the Chinese syllogomorpheme.

The Chinese language has a very limited phonetic composition. In total, in the phonetics of the Chinese language there are 23 initials (including Y and W, formed from the medials -i- and -u-) and 38 finals. Combinations of initials and finals form a total of 414 syllables. This small number is due to the fact that not all endings match each of the initials.

Closed syllables in Chinese can only end with sounds: - n, posterior lingual - ng or at - r(only in the syllable " er»).

The combination of two consonants in a row does not occur in Chinese syllables, i.e. a syllable cannot begin with two initials in a row and end with consonants other than those indicated.

In addition, not all consonant sounds of the initials of the Chinese language are characterized by palatalization, and therefore it is impossible for the Chinese to form and even pronounce such syllables as GE, KI, CHE, etc.

All of the listed features of the phonetic structure undoubtedly prevent the Chinese from resorting to transcription as the main way of borrowing foreign terms.

But is this the only obstacle?

The fact is that the transcription of a foreign word is a phonetic phenomenon, which is associated with a certain concept. However, in the Chinese language, due to the problem of homophony, one spoken word can correspond to quite a few completely different concepts, and it is possible to establish which one is meant either from the context or by indicating the hieroglyph with which it is written [for more details, see Tripe, 2013]. The habit of associating concepts not so much with sound as with writing was expressed in the way the periodic table was translated into Chinese. In it, for each of the elements, its own hieroglyph was invented, composed according to the combinatorial principle: a semantic key relating the element to any of the four types of substances (金 metal, 石 stone, 气 air/gas, 水 water) + phonetic (in most cases ) a key that gives reading to the entire hieroglyph, for example:

Neon 氖 (năi): 气 (qì - gas)+乃 (năi),
- mendelevium 钔 (men) : 金 (jīn - metal, gold) + 门 (mén),
- astatine 砹 (ài) : 石 (shí - stone) + 艾 (ài), etc. [hereinafter data bkrs.info]

Undoubtedly, such a visual classification of elements is more accurate and clearer than in the West, where it is completely unclear from the name of the element whether it is a metal, a gas, a liquid or a mineral.

If we take the names of sciences that both had some beginnings in China and those that came to China from the West, we will see that the main part of them is not a transcription of Latin roots (as, for example, happened in the Russian language), but represents compound terms, in which reveals the subject of study of a particular science. For example, psychology (Greek psyche - “ science of the soul") - in Chinese 心理学 xīn lǐ xué ( heart+principle/manage+doctrine) - “the doctrine of the control of the heart” or “the doctrine of the principles of the heart.” (The heart was understood in Chinese culture as a substance responsible for all mental functions of the body [Kobzev, 2007: 114]).

The term "physics" comes from the Greek. " nature“Thus, physics is the science of nature. In Chinese, the science of physics is the study of the principles/laws of things: 物理学 wù lǐ xué ( thing+law/principle+doctrine). This name was assigned to physics in the Chinese language only after becoming acquainted with European science, since a science whose subject is the study of physical reality did not develop in China due to the lack of a concept denoting such [Eremeev, Kobzev, 2009: 154] (the word 物 wù - thing- in Chinese refers not only to inanimate objects, but also to living beings, cf. 动物 dong wù " moving thing" - animal). A subsection of physics is optics, the name of which comes from the French language, where optique(lat. optica, sunrise to Greek optikē (technē) ) means“(the art of) vision” [Shansky, Bobrova, 2001: 213] (initially optics was the study of visual perceptions (Pythagoras, Euclid, Ptolemy, Democritus, Aristotle, etc.), later the meaning of the term expanded, and it began to mean the science of light phenomena) [FES, 1983: 491]) in Chinese is called 光学 guāng xué - “ doctrine of light", which reflects the subject of science.

Rare examples of transcribing the name of a science are topology - 拓扑学 tuò pū xué (thuo phu xue) and logic, which in Chinese is called 逻辑学 luó ji xué ( luoji xue - from the word logic), however, this name also has a native counterpart: 论理学 lùn lǐ xué ( theory/judgment+principle/law+doctrine) - the doctrine of the laws of judgment.

From the above examples it is clear that in the names of sciences, the Chinese strive not so much to convey the phonetics of their European name, or to trace it, but rather to select terms that reflect the subject of science as accurately and clearly as possible, sometimes even much more accurately than European ones .

We can conclude that the Chinese strive to make terms as clear as possible, which is undoubtedly a manifestation of spatial-figurative thinking.

Let's see if this clarity is observed in physical terminology.

Particle Physics Terminology in Chinese

Let us proceed directly to the consideration of terminology included in the semantic field of “elementary particle physics”.

Let's start with the concept of "atom". Remember that the name atom comes from the Greek word meaning “indivisible.” Let's see how this concept is expressed in Chinese. Since, according to the works of A.I. Kobzev, the Chinese did not have an atomic theory, the Chinese had to translate the concept of an atom from Sanskrit into various hieroglyphs that mean something small: 微 (“subtle/smallest”), 极微 (“extremely subtle/small”, intelligible atom), 尘 (“dust/ash”), 邻虚 (“close to emptiness”), 塵塻 (“speck of dust”), and only in the twentieth century did transcriptions appear a- tun and the semantic term 原子, which is now used as the concept of “atom”. [Kobzev, 2011: 318, 324] (原 yuán - origin, original dot; primary, initial; 子 - particle). Thus, the atom is rooted in the Chinese linguistic (and scientific) picture of the world as the “original/primordial particle.”

In this regard, it is interesting how the Chinese translated the concept of “elementary particles”, since it implies objects that are not further decomposable into component parts, i.e. the same thing that was previously understood by “atom”.

The term 基本粒子 jīběn lìzi was adopted for this purpose. 基本 - means the basis, basic, root, and only in relation to physics - elementary. That is, if in Russian the name “elementary particles” is associated with something simplest, smallest, then elementary particles entered the Chinese picture of the world as “basic”, “fundamental” O"real" particles. Obviously, here the synonym for the concept “elementary” in English-language literature was taken as a translation - fundamental particles - fundamental particles (from the Latin fundo - laying the foundation[Chernykh, 1999: 326]). In Russian-language specialized literature, the terms “elementary” and “fundamental” are not equal in meaning: the latter applies only to those elementary particles that are not composite - i.e. to everyone except hadrons [Platunov, Samoletov, Buravoy, 2005: 432].

The choice of the word 粒子 lìzi is also very interesting. The character 粒 lì itself means corn, granule or grain, which suggests that the particle appears to the Chinese to be round in shape, similar to a grain.

An atom, as mentioned above, is called by the word 原子 yúan zǐ. The nucleus of an atom is 原子核 yúan zǐ hé, where 核 hé is core, lit. core, bone. Accordingly, the particles that make up core atom - nuclear they are called 核子 hé zǐ. This is an obvious copy.

Next, I will look at the Chinese names of the particles themselves. As mentioned above, the etymology of terms related to this topic is not always obvious to the Russian reader due to their Greek or Latin origin, and we have to look in dictionaries for the meaning of the generating Greek and Latin words. For example, the meanings of the roots of the words proton, neutron, electron may still be intuitively clear to us, since words with the same roots have entered the Russian language: proto type, neutral alny, electr identity. However, words such as baryon, tardyon, lepton do not evoke any associations. The Chinese, translating all these specific terms into their language, reveal the very essence of the concept, selecting analogues that would be the most indicative and visual for a native Chinese speaker.

For example, the proton (from the Greek protos - first) received the Chinese name 质子 zhì zǐ. 质zhi means the basis, essence, matter, substance. Those. "proton" is like a "particle that makes up the basis." Here we see that to introduce this concept into their language, Chinese physicists did not resort to either tracing paper or transcription.

The word "neutron" in Latin means "neither." To convey this meaning, the Chinese took the concept 中 (zhōng). This rectangle divided in half means middle(and between, in the middle, intermediate, in scientific terms meso). The derived adjective from this concept is 中性 zhōng xìng - (lit. " middleness": middle + natural property / character / gender / gender), which translates as average, intermediate, neutral, and asexual, average genus And " unisex" Here we can draw an analogy with the traditional yin-yang symbol, in which there is a white yang area (associated with the masculine) and a black yin area (associated with the feminine), and there is a border between them that separates them, and which is neither nothing else. Thus, the choice of the concept 中 to denote a particle that carries neither a positive nor a negative charge is 中子 zhōng zǐ ( middle+particle) - quite logical (see below for the connection between the positive and negative poles with yin and yang).

Electron in Chinese is called 电子 diàn zǐ. The hieroglyph 电 diàn - has the original meaning of “ lightning"(cf. 雷电 léi diàn storm (« thunder+lightning")), and later began to mean electricity. Here the Chinese used the technique of tracing, but this tracing was not from the original Greek word, but from an English derivative: initially the word “electron” was translated from Greek as “amber,” and the concept of electricity was a derivative of it. The Chinese went in the opposite direction, calling the particle that carries the charge, letters. " lightning particle"or "electric particle".

The positron, the antiparticle of the electron, is called 正电子 zhèng diàn zǐ. Here we see a tracing paper from English. names positive + -tron (electron): 电子 diàn zǐ, as stated above, is an electron, and 正zhèng is straight, positive. Thus, for the Chinese, “positron” also literally means “positive electron.”

An ion is a particle formed from an atom as a result of the loss or gain of electrons. The name is derived from the Greek. ion " going" The particle was so named by Faraday, who suggested that the electrical conductivity of solutions of alkalis, acids and salts is related to movement positively and negatively charged particles to opposite poles. In Chinese, an ion is called a "leaving particle": 离子 lí zǐ (离 lí means leave, leave (home), leave). What was the reason for choosing this name? On the English-Chinese Internet resource odict.net, a page dedicated to ion contains information about the etymology of this name in English and Chinese: Greek ion neuter present participle of ienai; 希腊语 ion [离开 的东西] ienai 的中性现在分词 [ 走 ， 离开 ] . Here we see that the verb togo translated into Chinese by the characters 走 and 离开, which have meaning leave, move in the direction from speaker, the verb to has the same meaning go(cf. I have to go- I have to go go(In terms of " leave")) as opposed to the verb to come(cf. he comes and goes - he comes and goes). Thus, when translating the name of the ion into Chinese, it was unwittingly given an additional meaning - a leaving/leaving particle.

The word "cation" - lit. " going down" (positively charged ion) has the Greek prefix kata-, meaning downward movement, descent[Bykov, 2008]. The cation has two variant names in Chinese, also not related to the etymology of the word “cation”: one of them is 正离子zhèng lí zǐ (正 - “positive” - the same character as in “positron”, indicating a positive charge particles) lit. " positive ion" A more common version of the name is 阳 离子 yá ng lí zǐ, where 阳 ​​yáng (yang) is the element of the yin-yang pair, the masculine/light/light principle, also associated in the Chinese with the positive pole (i.e. cation in Chinese - lit. " Yang ion"). The movement of cations in solutions is directed (conditionally) “down” to the cathode - the negative electrode, which, in accordance with the logic of the Chinese picture of the world, is called “ yin pole»: 阴 极 yīn jí, or, in other words, “ negative pole» 负极 fù jí (see below).

It is not difficult to guess that the anion is “ going up"[Bykov, 2008] (negative ion) will be called in Chinese 阴 离子 yī n lí zǐ - « yin ion"(yin is the feminine/dark/heavy principle, corresponding here to the negative pole). An alternative name for the anion is 负离子 fù lí zǐ, where 负 fù - (in one of the meanings) " negative", and - turn your back, contradict, violate. The positive electrode towards which Yin ions tend is called, respectively, “ yang pole» - 阳 极 yang jí (anode).

In this case, thanks to the yin-yang concept for the Chinese, the electrolysis process turned out to be presented as clearly as possible, consonant with the traditional Chinese picture of the world and not loaded with unnecessary foreign terms.

Fermions and bosons, differing in spin, were named after the names of the physicists - Fermi and Bose, respectively. To designate them in Chinese, the family transcription was used: 费米子 fèimǐzǐ (or, alternatively, 飞米子 fēimǐzǐ) - Fermi particle and 玻色子 bōsèzǐ - Bose particle.

They did the same with the word “quark”, transcribing this initially onomatopoeic word with the hieroglyphs 夸克 (kuā kè).

The Higgs boson, whose name includes two surnames: Bose and Higgs, can be placed in the same row until the picture is completed. When transcribed, it turned out to be a long and slightly awkward name: 希格斯玻色子 xīgésī bōsè zǐ. Here, due to the phonetic features of the Chinese language, the Higgs surname acquired an unrecognizable sound: si ge sy.

These are a few examples of borrowing physical terms in the form of transcription. Please note that they arise in cases where it is not possible to bypass transcription. However, if it is possible to choose a term that clearly reflects the essence of the phenomenon, the Chinese use it.

Antiquark became 反夸克 fǎn kuā kè in Chinese, where 反 fǎn is roll over, vice versa, against. The flavors of quarks - strange, enchanted, lovely - were conveyed by the corresponding analogs of the Chinese language: 奇异 qíyì (amazing, amazing), 粲 càn (selected, shining, beautiful), 美 měi (beautiful, lovely). It is interesting that the character 味 wei, which denotes the concept of “aroma,” has the first meaning of “taste”, “taste”, thus in the Chinese language quarks are distinguished by “taste”.

Other flavors of quarks, denoted in European literature by Latin letters, received separate characters in Chinese to indicate the meaning contained in the abbreviations: U-quark (up) and D-quark (down) were named in Chinese 上夸克 and 下夸克, respectively. The spatial characters 上 (shàng) and 下 (xià) are themselves a graphic representation of top and bottom and denote corresponding concepts. B-quark (bottom) and T-quark (top), when literally translated, received very similar sounds to each other: 底夸克 dǐ kuākè and 顶夸克 dǐng kuākè.

Here again we see that a European needs additional explanations to decipher these flavor names (U, D, T, B). The Chinese do not need explanations: the meaning of the name is contained in the hieroglyph denoting this or that aroma.

Lepton (from the Greek " easy"") in Chinese - 轻子 qīngzǐ. The particle received its name in accordance with the fact that until 1975 (until the tau lepton was discovered) it was the lightest of all known particles, except for the photon [FES, 1983: 346]. The meaning of the character 轻 qīng is “ easy", which fully corresponds to the Greek root from which the name of this particle is derived, although it no longer fully corresponds to reality.

Neutrino (in Latin “neutron”) - another of the fermions - was translated as close as possible in meaning to the European term, in two versions: 中微子 zhōng wēi zǐ or 微中子 wēi zhōng zǐ. As we remember, 中子 zhōng zǐ is a neutron. 微 wēi - means "tiny" and is used as the prefix "micro-" in special terms: for example, " micro wave oven" in Chinese 微 波炉. In this case, the principles of word formation in the Chinese language allow the characters to be swapped without losing their meaning: both terms have the same meaning and are interchangeable. The most commonly used option is 中微子 zhōngwēizǐ, although the second has a right to exist. This type of word formation - compound terms with different orders of constituent parts - is also found in English, for example, charm quark ↔ charm anti quark or anti charm quark.

The name of a light particle - photon - in Chinese is also a translation from Greek: 光子 guāngzǐ (光 guāng - light).

The same thing happened with the gauge boson (gauge boson): in the word 规范玻色子 guīfàn bōsèzǐ 规范 (guīfàn) means sample, norm, standard, and with the gluon (which took its name from the word glue - glue): 胶子 jiāo zǐ (glue+particle).

Let's consider other particles:

The concept of "hypothetical particles" (particles whose existence is assumed in accordance with theory, but not experimentally proven) has also been translated quite literally: 假想粒子jiǎxiǎng lìzǐ, where 假想 (jiǎ xiǎng) - hypothesis, imagine- consists of the characters 假 jiǎ - fake, fictitious, imaginary and 想 xiǎng - think, believe.

Let's look at the graviton as an example as one of these particles. In Chinese - 引力子 yǐnlì zǐ (attractive force/gravity+particle). (引 yǐn to pull, drag + 力 lì force). That is, in this case we have before us a translation of the term, and not a tracing from the generating word: the Latin word gravitas, from which the concept of gravity is derived [FES, 1983: 138], means “heaviness”, which is why in Russian terminology its synonym in addition to “gravity” stands for the concept of “gravity”. With the discovery of the law of universal gravitation, the concept of gravity expanded and ceased to mean only “heaviness”. In the Chinese term 引力 there is no meaning of a force directed vertically downwards (which is the force of gravity), but there is a broader meaning of “pulling force”, the force of attraction - attraction. What is called gravity in Russian has an analogue in Chinese: 重力 zhòng lì (heavy + force), 地球重力 (globe + gravity) “force of gravity”, as well as the rather exotic 地心吸力 dì xīn xī lì ( lit. " suction power of the earthly heart") Here 地心 - lit. “earthly heart” - the center of the earth (core); verb 吸 in the first meaning - draw in, suck, breathe, second value - attract.

The translation of the term “sterile neutrino” is interesting. It is worth remembering here that this particle was called sterile because it does not participate in the weak interaction and does not produce related leptons (i.e. “sterility” is meant to mean sterility, neutrino eunuch), thus distinguishing it from “active "neutrino. The official Chinese equivalent to this concept is 惰性中微子 duòxìng zhōngwēizǐ, where 惰性 duòxìng means inertia. This concept in Chinese is derived in turn from the word 惰 duò - lazy, negligent, sluggish. The reason for this translation, apparently, was that sometimes in English literature the sterile neutrino is also called inert neutrino. However, on some Chinese sites there is such a version of the translation as 无菌中微子 wú jūn zhōngwēizǐ - lit. " aseptic neutrino”, which is apparently due to a too literal understanding of the word “sterile”.

The example of the names of composite particles clearly shows the fact that when translating the names of particles, the Chinese also relied on the meaning of the Greek words from which their names were derived in the West. Hadron (from the Greek " large, massive"") in Chinese 强子 qiángzǐ (强 qiáng - powerful, strong); baryon (from the Greek " heavy") - 重子 zhòngzǐ (重 zhòng - heavy).

In the case of the meson, when choosing a name for the particle, Chinese physicists, wittingly or unwittingly, put into it a little more than a simple translation. The meson (from the Greek “average”, “intermediate”) was called a meson as a sign that it is “average in mass” between an electron and a proton [FES, 1983: 404]. Apparently, due to the fact that the hieroglyph “middle” 中 was already used in the name of the neutron and neutrino, a different hieroglyph had to be selected for the meson. The Chinese translated meson as 介子 jièzǐ (介 jiè ​​- stand/be between something and something, stand in the middle, mediate). However, let us remember here that the Japanese physicist Yukawa, who predicted mesons, assumed that mesons serve as a kind of intermediate agent of interaction between nucleons in the atomic nucleus, playing the role of water in a tub in which potato-nucleons float [Uchiyama, 1986: 136]. In turn, the character 介 is also used in the word 介质 jiè zhì - (physical) Wednesday(lit. between+substance/matter). An interesting fact is that in Japanese the meson is called 中間子. The word 中間 (Japanese) average) in Chinese also exists (中间), and also means be in the middle, between, intermediate, however, the Chinese preferred to give the meson the name 介子. This may suggest that the Chinese translated the terms not from Japanese, but most likely from English, and selected the term that most accurately expresses the meaning of the particle being a “mediator.”

Hyperon (from the Greek hypér - “over”, “higher”) was so named because its mass and lifetime are greater than those of nucleons [FES, 1983: 124]. Hyperon as a result of tracing received the Chinese name 超子 chāo zǐ, in which the first hieroglyph means “to exceed”, “to go beyond” and is used as a prefix “re-” in Russian, for example, in the word “ re weight" (exceeding the prescribed weight).

In conclusion, I will give a few more terms that reflect the Chinese desire for clarity in scientific terminology:

Bradion (Greek bradys - slow, Wed bradycardia- "slow heartbeat") or tardion ( lat. tardus slow, slow), the name of which is explained in Russian as sublight particle[BNARS, 2012] (which means that it moves at a speed less than the speed of light), in Chinese it is called very clearly: 亚光速粒子 yà guāng sù lì zǐ (亚 give in/be worse/minor; under-, hypo-, sub- + 光 light + 速 speed + 粒子 particle) - « particle whose speed is lower than the speed of light" It should be noted that even the Russian translation - sublight particle- does not fully shed light on the essence of the term “bradion”, since the prefix before- in Russian it can also be used in the meaning “before”. In Chinese, such misunderstanding does not arise, since the Chinese term in this case is extremely transparent. Here you can notice that the Chinese name is not a copy of Greek or Latin, but an attempt to express the meaning.

Similarly, in Chinese the name tachyon (Greek tachys “fast”, cf. tachycardia- “rapid heartbeat”) - superluminal particle: 超光速粒子 chāo guāng sù lìzǐ - particle that "exceeds" the speed of light. The character 超 chāo "to exceed" is used here as in the word "hyperon" (超子).

Luxons (from Latin lux - daylight) - particles moving at the speed of light - in Chinese are called 光速粒子guāng sù lìzǐ - particles[possessing]speed of light. The Chinese term is again more transparent than its European counterpart, especially since even the Latin producing word does not contain the meaning speed, but there is only the root basis “light”. The name of a particle of light - a photon - is derived from the synonymous root of Greek origin photos, however, the concept of “luxon” is broader in content, because it is assigned the meaning of “massless particle,” and it includes not only photons, but also other massless particles: gluons and gravitons.

Having examined the scientific terms included in the semantic field of “particle physics”, we come to the conclusion that, using mainly English-language literature to translate scientific works and form their own scientific language, the Chinese unwittingly give scientific terms a special specificity. B O Most of the scientific terms in this scientific field appeared thanks to their translation - mainly in the form of tracing. There are certain disadvantages in this method of mastering scientific terminology, concerning, for example, those cases when the name was initially given erroneously and no longer corresponds to reality (cf. oxygen, hydrogen, lepton). In addition, when tracing the terms of the target language, cases of inaccurate translation are possible, as in the case of ion (离子).

As has been shown, the peculiarity of the Chinese scientific language lies in its desire to visually convey the meanings of terms. Even tracing terms in the Chinese language acquire content leading to a visual perception of the essence of the objects they designate, as in the case of meson (介子) or neutron (中子). Among the non-calculated terms that fully reveal the essence of the designated phenomenon, one can recall “tachyon”, “bradion” and “luxon”. A striking example of this desire for clarity can also be the principle of hieroglyphic transmission of the names of chemical elements of the periodic table, in which the hieroglyph itself contains an indication of the type of substance to which a particular element belongs.

The most striking example of “terminological visualization” of physical phenomena is, in my opinion, the names of negative and positive ions and poles, correlated with the traditional picture of the world and the original Chinese concepts of yin and yang, thanks to which the physical process is conveyed in scientific language very clearly. Here we can recall the tendency of archaic thinking to use the language of the elements.

Thus, we can say that the specificity of the spatial-figurative type of thinking inherent in Chinese culture is also manifested in modern scientific terminology, borrowed from the language of European science.


List of sources used

Publ.: Epistemology & Philosophy of Science / Epistemology and philosophy of science. 2015. T. XLIII. No. 1, p. 112-127.

VU, insight, awareness. Beautiful Pearl uses this word to mean Illumination, Enlightenment, etc., so it is the equivalent of Japanese satori; however, the fact that he uses still other terms for enlightenment, such as Bodhi and Anuttara-Samyak-Sambodhi, as well as some Chinese translations of these terms, leads me to believe that the original illumination, which is the real purpose of this book, although identical in nature with Supreme Enlightenment, it may differ from it in degree or permanence. The common Japanese word satori also means something less than Supreme Enlightenment. In some places, Beautiful Pearl also uses VU in the less exalted sense of "to awaken" and "to become instantly aware", etc. I have used the words Awakening, Illumination, or Enlightenment wherever VU was used in its basic meaning, and Indian words with the same meaning as Bodhi wherever they appeared in the text.

DAO, way or way. In this book it is not used in its precise Taoist sense, such as the Force or Spirit that governs and embraces the universe, except in dialogues where the Taoist speaks; but is often used abstractly to refer to the Path of the Buddhas, the Path of Enlightenment, the Path of Zen, etc. It is also used in a more specific sense to refer to a method, way or way.

KYUN, shunya, Shunyata, empty, emptiness, vacuum, immaterial, immateriality. This is a fundamental concept throughout Mahayana Buddhism, although its precise definitions vary according to each school or sect. According to the Chan School, only the mind is real. It is emptiness not at all in the sense that it is a vacuum, but in the sense that it does not have its own characteristics and therefore cannot be perceived by the senses as something that has shape, size, color, etc. Phenomena are empty because they are all temporary creations of the MIND, which has the miraculous ability to produce all kinds of phenomena within itself. As mental creatures they are naturally empty, or insubstantial.

SIN, mind, heart. The term appears constantly in the text, sometimes in the sense of “his mind”, “your mind”, etc., and sometimes in the sense of MIND, which is, in fact, a synonym for Reality, the Absolute, etc. It is also used to indicate the purpose of using the mind, roughly in the sense of "thinking", "knowing", "realizing", etc. Therefore, it can mean MIND, one's mind, mental processes, thinking, thoughts, etc.; or have the basic Chinese meaning of "heart"; moreover, even when used in the sense of "mind", it largely implies the sense that Westerners understand by the word "heart". It has shades and undertones that are similar in meaning to words such as subconscious, subconscious mind, and (so to speak) soul. The character Xing can sometimes imply several meanings at the same time; the usual omission of any personal pronoun in a Chinese text is always intended to establish an identity between “our minds” and MIND.

XING, PEN XING, ZI XING, original nature, self-nature, personal nature. We are taught that we all have an identical nature, the nature of emptiness (undifferentiated immateriality). When we are Illuminated, we experience our own nature as such; we understand that we have and probably cannot have any other nature, and yet it is our own, not in the sense of mine or yours, but in the sense of belonging to everyone. At this point, the traces of selfishness from the past give way to boundless compassion for those who still think that there are things that must be gained or lost and who, therefore, fight against “you” or “him” for the sake of “I”, which is no different from the contrasted “you” or “he”.

TIN or SANVEY or SELF, samadhi, contemplation of our original nature - the Eternally Existing Mind. However, where TIN means the second of the three methods of training - discipline, concentration and wisdom - I have translated TIN as dhyana.

THI and YUN, essence and manifestation. THI is the universal substance of the mind, formless, immaterial, imperceptible. YN is its function, through it all types of phenomena are created or can be created in response to the requests of sentient people. When a person requests this YN, he can use the mind freely; he becomes capable of being fully aware of everything, remaining untainted by anything.

FA, Dharma, or dharma. Dharma can be used synonymously with the Absolute, the Law of the Universe, Buddhist Doctrine, Right Belief, Right Action, etc. Without the capital "D", dharma means any or every kind of phenomena - things, ideas, forces, constituent parts of things, infinitesimal "moments" that combine to form one instant of thought, units like atoms, of which Theravada Buddhists believe , phenomena consist, etc. to infinity. Fair Pearl uses the term FA in some of the indicated senses, as well as in its purely Chinese sense as a method or as a kind of suffix that can sometimes be omitted. In general, throughout this book, I used a capital "D" where the word meant something like the Universal Law of the Buddha's Doctrine, and a small "d" where it meant something like "things." Where necessary, I have inserted English translations in parentheses.

CHAN, or CHAN-NA, dhyana, or meditation, which means abstaining from wrong thinking, that is, from pluralistic or dualistic thinking, etc.

CHAN TING, dhyana, samadhi.

CHI and HUI, Jnana and Prajna, pure awareness and insightful wisdom. Hui is sometimes used in the sense of knowing and understanding things in the ordinary sense of these words, sometimes in the sense of Prajna, the Supreme Wisdom, which reveals to us our own nature, the emptiness (immateriality) of which is real, and at the same time makes us aware of the smallest differences in form. Beautiful Pearl sometimes uses the Indian word "Prajna" in the Chinese text, in those few cases where it becomes one of many synonyms reflecting different aspects of the Absolute, Reality.

CHIEKH TIO, liberation. Fair Pearl uses it as a synonym for Illumination, or rather to denote the natural result of Illumination; it happens suddenly, just like water, which, after being gradually heated, suddenly boils.

SHEN and FAN FU, saints and ordinary (ordinary) people. These terms are used respectively to designate those people who are Illuminated Ones and those who are not, that is, Buddhas and sentient beings, but it is clear that there is no real difference between them, since they are all of the same nature; the only difference is that SHEN, or saints, are aware of their own nature, while FAN FU, or ordinary beings, have not yet realized it.

DICTIONARY OF SANSKRIT TERMS

(Wherever Beautiful Pearl clearly deviates from the meanings given below, they can be understood from the text).

AVIDYA, primordial ignorance, ignorance of our true nature.

ANUTTARA-SAMYAK-SAMBODHI, see SAMYAK-SAMYA-BODHI.

ASAMSKRTA, not belonging to the impermanent, wu wei.

ASURA, the same as Titan or fallen angel.

ACHARYA, scholar, erudite person - an expression of respect.

BODHI, Enlightenment, complete Illumination.

BODHIKAYA, the Body of the Absolute, considered as the result of Enlightenment.

BODHIMANDALA, the place or realm where Enlightenment can be achieved.

BODHISATTVA, (1) the future Buddha, (2) a spiritual person who refused immediate entry into Nirvana in order to help others enter it, (3) a sincere follower of the Path.

Buddha (1) A person who has achieved Enlightenment, (2) synonymous with Buddhakaya or the Absolute.

BUDDHAKAYA, the Absolute, considered as the state of Buddhahood.

BHUTATHATA, the Absolute, considered as the universal womb.

VAJRA, diamond, very hard; used to mean indestructible, real, ultimate.

VAJRAYANA, a school of Mahayana Buddhism found in Tibet and Mongolia, is commonly known as Lamaism in the West, where its doctrines and practices are widely misunderstood.

VINAYA, the discipline observed by Buddhist monks.

VIRYA, diligence.

GATHA, verse, usually sacred.

GIVEN, (1) alms or gifts which are given for religious or charitable reasons, (2) concession.

DEVAKANYA, a group of minor female deities.

DHARMA, (1) Doctrine of Buddha, (2) Universal Law, (3) method or path, (4) entity of any type - thing, idea, concept, etc.

DHARMA-DHATU, the Absolute, i.e. Dharma-Sphere.

DHARMAKAYA, Dharma-Body, or the Absolute, considered as the Ultimate Reality with which Buddhas or Enlightened People are one and inseparable.

DHYANA, a deep abstraction into which wrong thoughts cannot penetrate, is translated into Chinese as Chan or Chan-na and into Japanese as Zen, from which the Chan (Zen) School of Buddhism takes its name.

KARMA, the causal process relating every action to antecedent and concomitant causes and to the results that are to follow from it.

KLESHA, pollution, passion, etc.

KSHANTI, abstinence.

MAHAPARINIRVANA, the ultimate Nirvana. (Nirvana can be achieved in this life; the final Nirvana follows after death).

MAHAYANA, one of the two great divisions of Buddhism; it is common in the more northern countries of Asia - China, Tibet, Japan, etc.

NIRMANAKAYA, the Body of Transformation, in which Buddhas and Bodhisattvas assume properties similar to those of ordinary people with the goal of liberating such people.

NIRVANA, the final state into which people enter when they become enlightened, no longer bound by the consciousness of the false ego.

PARAMITA, the means of reaching the far shore by which one enters Nirvana; there are only six of them needed for this purpose.

PRAGNA, supreme wisdom, transcendental wisdom, etc. The term is also used as a synonym for universal "substance".

PRATYEKA BUDDHA, a person who achieves Enlightenment and goes no further to preach the Dharma.

PRETA, a hungry spirit, teased by false hopes, brought by harmful karma into that sad but temporary state.

SAMADHI, a state of complete withdrawal of the mind from surroundings, the result of perfectly accomplished meditation; it consists of pure contemplation of our original nature or mind.

SAMBODHI, Supreme Enlightenment.

SAMBHOGAKAYA, the body in which Enlightened people enjoy the rewards of liberation from worldly things, and in which they can appear before other people in an unreal form.

SAMSARA, the sphere of relativity, transience and illusion in contrast to the constancy and peace of Nirvana.

SAMSKRTA, relating to the impermanent, yu wei.

SAMYAK-SAMBODHI, Supreme Enlightenment.

SIDDHI, supernatural power.

SKANDHA, component of personality; there are five of them.

SUTRA, the book containing the actual teachings of the Buddha. (The term is used only occasionally to refer to a sacred book whose authorship is not directly attributed to the Buddha.)

TATHAGATA, (1) the term used to designate Buddha, literally - Thus-Coming, He-Who-Is-So, He-Who-Is-Suchness; (2) Suchness of all Dharmas.

TRIPITAKA, the complete collection of Buddhist scriptures.

UPASAKA, a layman who lives according to certain strict rules.

HINAYANA, one of the two divisions of Buddhism; widespread in southeast Asia.

SHASTRA, a sacred treatise, and also a commentary on a sutra.

SHILA, instructions, morals observed by Buddhists.

SRAVAKA, the listener, is a person who approaches the Dharma as a result of listening to what it preaches.

Zenith, nadir and eight compass points.

Liberation from Samsara, the circle of endless births and deaths, through entry into Nirvana. However, the highest teaching of the Mahayana, as will be seen in this book, indicates that Nirvana and Samsara are one, and that the Illuminated man sees them as such.

The Chinese words are "tong wu", the first of which means "sudden" and the second is identical to the Japanese word "satori".

Deluded thoughts are those that create duality of opposites such as love and hate, the distinction between self and other, and all the countless thought processes that come from unilluminated minds.

The Pure Land (Sukhavati) is the immediate goal of countless Chinese, Japanese, Korean and Vietnamese Buddhists, who imagine it as the Buddha Land, created as a result of the compassionate vow made by Amida Buddha for the salvation of all sentient beings who believe in him. In that land, people who are not yet prepared for Nirvana are prepared by the Buddha for that ultimate stage. There are other Buddhists for whom the Pure Land is a symbol of the Dharmakaya, purified mind, etc. Although some Western Buddhists have written with disdain about the "pure-earth" form of Buddhism, there is ample evidence to suggest that its methods often lead to enlightenment. The symbols he uses represent the same truths taught by the Zen School and offer a lighter approach for certain types of people. Constant repetition of the name of Amida Buddha, together with correct mental practice, is only another way of achieving complete concentration and entering samadhi. Dr. D. T. Suzuki and other famous Zen authorities have testified to this.

Original nature, self-nature, self-nature (pen xing and zi xing) mean the same thing. Omission of words such as “your”, “his”, etc. in Chinese. helps the reader remember that the intrinsic nature of all sentient beings is the same.

The six states of a mortal being or the six realms are birth in the heavens (as gods), birth as asuras (demon demigods), birth as humans, animals, pretas (hungry ghosts) or birth in the hells. All such things are temporary conditions, although of varying duration, and none of these conditions is the true goal of the Buddhists, since even the inhabitants of the highest heavens are in danger of being thrown down again by the turning of the Wheel of Samsara.

Samsara is said to consist of three types of worlds - worlds of desire such as this; worlds of form where there is no desire; and worlds of formlessness.

Buddhakaya (Buddha's Body) is another name for Dharma-kaya - an undivided "Body", in which Buddhas and all other beings appear to be one with the Absolute. All of us have this “Body”, but are not aware of it until enlightenment.

The act of perception, being a manifestation of everyone's own nature, continues regardless of the presence of objects of perception.

"U jan" can be translated as pure, undefiled, undefiled, etc. I prefer the more literal and figurative term "unsullied" because it lends itself so well to the mirror surface analogy. A mirror can reflect all kinds of forms and still remain without a single spot, because it is completely indifferent to what it reflects. Our minds, when cleansed, become similarly immune to stains. It must be added that from the Buddhist point of view, a stain is a stain, no matter what it comes from - from what we call good or from what we call evil.

Diamond Body - another name for Buddhakaya - that “Body” that symbolizes the unity of everyone’s own nature.

This refers to primordial ignorance, the cause of all our wanderings in the circle of Samsara, in which it hides from us the fact of our Buddha Nature and leads us into the duality of love and hate, good and evil, existence and non-existence, etc. Illumination means dispelling the darkness of this ignorance.

See note 10.

A brief meaning of the words "ti" and "yong" ("essence" and "manifestation") is given in the list of Chinese words of particular difficulty that follows these notes. These two words are of great importance for understanding Chan (Zen). "Essence" is often compared to a lamp, and manifestation to its light; the first would be useless if it did not manifest itself, producing light; the latter would not exist without the former. As already explained, "essence" means the incomprehensible and indefinable Reality which is the true nature of everyone, and "manifestation" means its limitless capacity to produce any kind of energy, form, etc.

Here and there in this text I have sometimes translated "ting" as "samadhi", but the trinity of "chi ting hui" is usually translated as "discipline, concentration and wisdom."

"Purity" means much more than the moral purity which is usually meant by the word in English; it means freedom from ALL attachments and discriminations to anything; she would be corrupted by attachment to good as much as by attachment to evil.

When memories and dreams are cut off, the past and future cease to exist. The present, of course, exists in a strict sense, in comparison with the other two, but it is not the PRESENT, without thoughts regarding the past and the future. The state of mind of an Illuminated person does not depend on temporary relationships.

Literally, “awareness” of the patient ability to endure the Eternally Existing “anutpattikadharmakshanti”. This Mahayana Sanskrit term means "the patient capacity to endure, entailing absorption in the equanimous Reality beyond birth and death." The Prajnaparamita Sutra defines it as "unshakable adherence to an unwavering faith in Bhutatathata, which is free from relativity and is neither subject to creation nor destruction."

Dharmakaya is that side of Buddhas (and, you just need to realize this, understand) sentient beings, in which they do not differ from the Absolute. Hence it cannot be divided into five types. The five different names given in this text are the names of one Dharmakaya, which are given depending on the five different manifestations or five points of view.

Dharma-Nature is the usual translation of the Sanskrit term Dharmata, which refers to the nature underlying all things, and is therefore closely related in meaning, if not the same, to the word Bhutatathata. This vital Mahayana concept seems hardly known to Hinayana Buddhism.

This must of course mean the Dharmakaya, pure and simple, which is no longer looked at from different points of view.

Devakanaya, or apsara, is a type of minor goddess gifted with a beautiful voice.

The three poisons that are created by primordial ignorance are desire, anger or passion, and the individual's ignorance of his true nature. From these three poisons arise in turn all those thoughts or actions that bind us firmly to the Samsara Wheel of rebirth.

Buddhists who have turned away from the world and seek refuge in emptiness strive for a state that is not as high as the state followed by the followers of Chan (Zen), Vajrayana and some other schools - a state that does not require withdrawal from the world, but perceives the world and everything else is like Nirvana. This implies a calm contemplation of the flow of ever-changing forms, accompanied by the knowledge that none of them are real (nothing to be perceived) and a state of mind impervious to the possibility of being tainted.

Those. not with minds like blocks of wood or stone, but with minds free from making a distinction between this and that, free from concepts, notions, judgments, evaluations, likes, dislikes and everything else.

In the Chinese text, the word "chao" is used both in the meaning of "reflect", in the first analogy, and in the meaning of "to shine" in the second.

Maitreya is the name of the Bodhisattva who will become the Buddha and will guide the beings of the era immediately following ours.

The doctrine of annihilation, which presupposes a previous birth or creation of a destroyed thing, is opposed to Buddhists of all schools. The waves of the sea rise and fall without any addition or subtraction from the sea. Forms may come and go, but the wonderful essence of reality neither increases nor decreases; nothing is created or born; nothing ceases to exist.

Ignorance and everything that follows from it is exhaustible, while wisdom and the reality that becomes visible in the light of wisdom are inexhaustible.

Harmful phenomena mean those phenomena that are causally determined and therefore transitory. Beneficial phenomena are not conditioned by anything and are constant.

A leaking mind is a mind that is constantly losing truth that it cannot contain, that is, a deluded mind that still clings to the Samsara circle. The term "leakage" can also mean output, i.e. those reactions which result from the mind being tainted by attachments.

See note 17.

Mahayanists often use the term "Buddha" as being more or less synonymous with the Absolute, and it is in this sense that the Beautiful Pearl uses it; but here the word is used in the more widespread sense of the Enlightened Man who, after the Illuminations, preaches to sentient beings.

"Teaching" means preaching the Dharma according to the Scriptures; "Transmission" means preaching or communicating intuitive understandings of truths discovered by direct knowledge, and therefore independent of the Scriptures. In some cases, Transmission can occur in silence, as with the Lord Buddha, when he picked a flower and showed it to his disciples, after which Kashyapa, traditionally considered the first Chan (Zen) patriarch, smiled his understanding of the truth conveyed by this gesture.

"Yu wei" and "wu wei" are terms first used by Taoist sages; they are very difficult to translate. Activity and non-action (in the sense of intentional activity) are words that imply only one aspect of their entire meaning. Here they are used in the broad sense of “worldly” and “transcendental”, i.e. "pertaining to the realm of transitory phenomena" and "pertaining to eternal reality."

The Buddha achieved Nirvana during his Enlightenment and Parinirvana (Supreme Nirvana) at the time he left his physical body acquired before Enlightenment. The whole passage means that from the beginning of his quest to the end of his life, Lord Buddha never denied the world of phenomena and did not consider his attainment of Nirvana to be any achievement; for since Nirvana and Samsara are two aspects of one ever-existing reality, there is nothing to deny and nothing to achieve - Enlightenment is the experience of the mind that discovers who we have always been from the beginning.

Some Buddhists believe in the existence of real hells as states in which people with a lot of bad karma suffer until they are freed from their (bad) karma, but they never view them as places of eternal torment! Others view the word "hell" as a figurative expression for all the suffering in this life or any other that is the result of bad karma.

The words translated as "creation and destruction" are "whose huai", which is a translation of the Sanskrit terms "vivarta and samvarta". In the Mahayana, the cycle of existence has four stages - formation (vivarta), existence (vivarta-siddha), destruction (samvarta) and emptiness (samvarta-siddha).

Those. five types of consciousness associated with our bodily senses, intellects (manovijnana), discriminating consciousness (klista-manovijnana), which leads to thinking in terms of oneself and others, etc., and the treasury of consciousness (alapavijnana), from which seeds or embryos of other types of consciousness.

"Trikaya" means the Triple Body of the Buddha (and perhaps all sentient people). Dharmakaya is that aspect of the Buddha in which he is one with the Absolute; The Sambhogakaya, or Reward Body, is that spiritual state in which, although not specifically, the Buddha is seen as having individual characteristics (like an image in a dream); The Nirmanakaya, or Body of Transformation, is a body as concrete as the bodies of other sentient people, which the Buddha uses to complete the liberation of others. Naturally, the differences between one body and another are only relative.

“Right feeling regarding the contemplated object” is one of the many interpretations of samadhi.

“Basically fickle” is the translation of the difficult term “wu chu pen.” Since objects do not have their own individual nature, they are impermanent; they appear temporarily, only in response to concomitant causes arising, and cease when those causes cease. Thus, everything takes root in impermanence, including the concept of Trikaya. The true essence and nature of Trikaya refers to the permanent, in which the concepts of "three" and "bodies" are not valid.

The real Buddha-Body, of course, is not a BODY at all and is not divisible into two or three. This is Reality, Formlessness, the Unconditioned, the Dharmakaya with the other two kaya(s) absorbed by it.

In fact, we have never been separated from the real Buddhakaya, but we cannot realize this while we are blinded by illusion.

Here the term "Buddha" is synonymous with "Buddakaya". Absolute.

See note 36.

The five skandhas are said to be the components of what appears to be our ego. Their Sanskrit names are Rupa, Vedana, Sanyana, Samskara and Vijnana. Form means any form, mental or material, that enters the field of our consciousness. Sensation means instantaneous awareness of those forms through which we “take them into ourselves.” Then follows the perception of their different nature, which leads to impulses (acts of will) based on our assessment of each form as good or bad, pleasant or unpleasant. Awareness is the name given to the sum of those mental activities and individual mental characteristics that arise and are maintained as a result of this process.

Those. those influences that inflate passions - gain and loss, slander and exaltation, praise and ridicule, sadness and joy.

On the advice of my friend, the late Pun Indat, I corrected what appears to be an error in the printed block by changing "lin shou-chun shen" to "lin-na shou-sheng". In any case, the meaning is quite clear from the context.

See note 7.

The list of ten vices varies slightly in different Mahayana texts. However, there are always three defects of the body, four of speech, and three of the mind. Differences typically occur within the category of speech defects.

The negative approach to the ten virtues indicates that when higher stages of the path are reached, clinging to virtue is as much of an obstacle as clinging to vice.

This refers to the middle of that place in the book, which (indicated by the number 7.

Those. thoughts concerning the Buddha, Dharma, Sangha, (rules of conduct, alms and merit. Although some (Teachers advise their students to entertain those thoughts as often as possible, eventually they must be discarded (along with all other types of conceptual thinking.

Abstinence from thinking does not mean dullness (like a trance, but it means a sparklingly clear state (of the mind), in which the details of all phenomena are aware, however, without (judgment or attachment.

In other words, we have always, from the very beginning, been potential Buddhas.

The difference between an Illuminated person and an unilluminated one is not a difference in nature, but only success or failure in understanding the nature common to all.

According to the Mahayana, Nirvana and Samsara (the state in which we are subject to contamination by klesha) are inseparable. Therefore there is no such thing as leaving Samsara in order to enter Nirvana.

"Samadhi of universality", if translated more literally, would be the samadhi of one action. In this one action the capabilities of the body, speech and mind are combined. So the general idea is the idea of ​​sticking in one direction. This is samadhi, leading to the realization that the nature of all Buddhas is identical.

Perception does not stop, only there is no longer any division between the perceiver and the process of perception or the process of perception and the object of perception.

The expression "the rest of the Buddhas" reminds us that if we could see ourselves as we really are, we would know that we too are Buddhas.

Bodhikaya, Buddhakaya and Dharmakaya are synonyms, any of which can be used in the most appropriate context. Literally Bodhikaya means Body of Enlightenment.

Kali Yuga is the name given to the current era, namely the era of decline of our understanding of Dharma.

Rahula is the son of Buddha Shakyamuni, who is sometimes considered the creator of esoteric Buddhism.

"Ultimate" here and in previous places is used in the sense of "absolute" - a term which Fair Pearl uses sparingly for fear that it will be understood as the opposite of "relative" and thus create dualistic thinking.

Here it is a reminder that emptiness is not nothing, but a miraculous entity, devoid of its own characteristics, and yet capable of manifesting in any kind of form.

This is a reference to those passages in the Diamond and Lotus Sutras that speak of Buddhas who prophesy the future attainment of Buddhahood for their disciples. For example, Buddha Dipamkara predicted the achievement of Buddhahood by Shakyamuni.

A reference to the fundamental Ch'an dogma taken from the Diamond Sutra, which states that the Tathagata achieved nothing with his Enlightenment and that he had no Dharma to preach. This means that Enlightenment, instead of changing our state, reveals to us what we have always been; and that the inner truth of Dharma cannot be expressed in words. Therefore, the Tathagata used relative truths for the sake of unenlightened people.

Chien Chow, now called Chien Ou, is located in Phu Ken Province.

“Go and rest” is a Chan idiom meaning “you should focus your thoughts on rest.” The Chan formulation contains the idea of ​​“Going to yourself,” so the saying is a direct reference to the mind.

The moon symbolizes Enlightenment, and the water in the pond symbolizes one's own nature. The meaning of this is: “How can one catch Enlightenment?”

Here, as many times, the word "Tathagata" is used with a double meaning, or at least with a meaning that has one of two interpretations, since they are equivalent to each other: 1 - Shakyamuni Buddha (Gautama) as the embodiment of Suchness; 2 - Suchness itself or the Absolute.

The Master points directly to the Mind, which is all-encompassing and omnipresent.

Fa Ming confused the Chinese equivalent of the word Siddham (Sanskrit alphabet) with the term meaning Sarvathasiddhu (the person who has realized every desire, also called Shakyamuni).

There are three sections of the Buddhist Canon: 1 - sermon attributed to the Buddha himself; 2 - monastery rules; 3 - commentaries, philosophical and metaphysical works composed by others.

The question was calculated to catch the Beautiful Pearl, since there is not one in ten thousand Buddhists who knows or cares about the answer. Amitabha Buddha is seen as a symbol of Infinite Compassion and Limitless Light; he was rarely considered as a historical figure. Beautiful Pearl's immediate response demonstrates his enormous erudition. The Chan Masters were not without books from the very beginning, just as some people in the West seem to have a penchant for thinking. They cannot do without books when they need the right amount of prior knowledge to transcend the scriptures by direct experiential knowledge. Not surprisingly, Fa Ming was amazed by the unexpected erudition demonstrated.

The three poisons are: (wrong) desire, anger and ignorance. The three general commandments are: 1 - a formal set of five, eight and ten precepts, common to all Buddhist schools; 2 - everything that needs to be done out of compassion; 3 - everything that needs to be done for the liberation of sentient people. 2 and 3 can also be seen as a continuation of each of the ten precepts in 1. For example, by not killing, we show compassion and do not interfere with life moving towards liberation.

The Northern Chan School, which declined in China several centuries after the establishment of the Chan School, believed in gradual Enlightenment. The Southern Chan School, also known as the Hui Neng School, or the Southern School, emphasizes the sudden nature of Enlightenment, and this is precisely the central thesis of the Beautiful Pearl teachings.

When an Illuminated person eats or sleeps, unlike a layman who allows himself the pleasure of making distinctions, he makes no distinctions.

This refers to people who know the sutras by heart but neglect practice and training.

The mind IS the Buddha, but we must not GRAB to anything, for clinging to truth draws us into the dualism of its exclusive opposite. Those who have achieved silent recognition of their own nature do not retain the concept of the existence or non-existence of this or that. The term "devils", which is stronger than all the terms used to describe other categories of lost people, perhaps means that to come so close to the truth and then go astray is worse than being simply stupid and ignorant.

A Chan idiom referring to those who are indifferent to external (forms) and do not seek them.

Buddha, Dharma and Sangha are taken together to denote the Buddha, Doctrine and Monastic Order; for some they are the designation of the Absolute, the Universal Law and the order of Bodhisattvas and Arhats; but to the initiated, like the Beautiful Pearl, they signify the Three Aspects of the One Truth.

This is the main sutra of the Hua Yen (Kegon) School.

The meaning of the Ch'an idiom is: "Examine what has kept you here so long; go and take care of your minds!"

Those. just walk and focus your thoughts on peace.

Literally: "...The Gate of Prajna, which reveals the emptiness of the three-wheeled condition of all alms (given)."

The One Means of Expression is the Means of Expression of the Buddha, as opposed to the three means of expression of Sravakas, Pratyeka Buddhas and Bodhisattvas.

Those. I have given up all attachments to being in some place, or my mind does not adhere to anything - so where can I be able to gather people?

If he understood himself, he would thus divide his indivisible whole into subject and object. The master did his best to teach the visitor, but the latter was unable to extract deep meaning from his words.

The Vimalakirti Nirdesha Sutra relates this to the incident when Subhuti, one of the Buddha's disciples, knocked on Vimalakirti's door and asked him for food, Apsaka speaks the same words to educate his visitor. Typically, Buddhist monks avoid heretics to keep themselves from drowning in heresy; they praise those who give alms and consider them masters of the “spheres of happiness”; they cling to the idea that those who donate to monks will never fall into the three evil states of existence; they honor the Buddha and protect the Dharma; and they join the Order in the hope of achieving liberation. On the simple level of relativity, all these ideas and actions are wonderful, but they are relativity. The development of a universal mind, which alone can enable them to achieve their goal, is beyond such dualities. Vimalakirti's words mean that he considers Subhuti advanced enough to begin to rise above all concepts involving duality; for otherwise he will never reach the goal in his search for Bodhi. The six heretics are the six senses; although they constantly mislead us, we should not run away from them to find the Absolute somewhere else. In other words, we must realize the Absolute from the very middle of relativities and opposites.

Those. due to attachment to the reality of the ego and its objects. The question was asked with reference to what was said in that part of the text, which is designated under the number 19 “Necessary Gates to Truth”.

After the ascension of the Prince of the State of Chi to the throne, the minister appointed by him ruled the people so poorly that the situation quickly deteriorated. The new minister appointed in his place first cursed the prince with the words mentioned here, and then served him faithfully and restored prosperity to the country.

Link to an excerpt from the Vimalakirti Nirdesh Sutra - “Manchushri said to Vimalakirti: “We have all talked about entering the non-dual Dharma Gate to Enlightenment. Good Person, right now you are shedding light on the Entry of Bodhisattvas into the non-dual Dharma Gate. "Vimalakirti remained silent. Then Manjusri praised him, saying: “Excellent! Perfect! That which cannot be expressed in spoken or written words is the true entrance to the non-dual Dharma Gate."

There are ten stages by which Bodhisattvas progress towards Buddhahood.

The Vinaya Master discriminated and could not understand what those who realized the Wisdom of the Buddha understand.

Asamkheyya kalpa means innumerable eternities. It is sometimes said that a Bodhisattva needs three of these to develop into a Buddha.

This meditation corresponds to the "Perfect Training" of the Tien Thai School and is taken from the Nagarjuna Shastra on the Prajnaparamita Sutra: it explains the doctrine set forth in this shastra of "One Mind and the Three Aspects of Wisdom." The practice is intended for those with sharp roots (high degree of spirituality). It teaches that the contemplation of one aspect of wisdom implies the simultaneous contemplation of all three of its aspects. The three characteristics of illusory existence - creation, retention and destruction - thus turn into the three aspects of wisdom. The same result is achieved through the Tien-Tai triple meditation training of emptiness, unreal and middle. This "Perfect Training" of the Tien Thai School is opposed to the gradual methods of those schools which make distinctions between different aspects and stages of Truth.

Chi Che is the Fourth Patriarch of the Tien Thai School.

The questions show that the one asking them has gone so far in understanding that immaterial things can be big and small at the same time; otherwise the second question would not have followed the answer to the first; but the Beautiful Pearl wanted to destroy all the duality inherent in such thinking. Prajna is omnipresent, but it is not thought of in terms of space.

That sutra relates that Upasaka Vimalakirti asked several Bodhisattvas who visited him to tell about the means by which they entered the non-dual Dharma Gate. When they explained how they did this by destroying dualistic concepts, such as those that create "I" and "other than me", Manjusri opined that the entrance to that door was to have "no words, no speech" , no guidance, no knowledge, and no questions or answers regarding all dharmas (phenomena, doctrines, etc.), whatever it is."When Vimalakirti's turn came, he remained silent, not saying anything. Thus Bodhisattvas used words and speech to bring out non-duality or Absolute Reality; Manchushri revealed it through the absence of words and speech; Thus, by revealing it while maintaining complete silence, Vimalakirti destroyed the duality of words and speech, on the one hand, and the concept of their absence, on the other.

Pen ti (basic essence) and chi yung (manifestation of purpose) are terms that mean approximately the same as (essence) and yung (purpose).

Presented here is the Ch'an teaching, which consists first of uniting the two names into one indivisible whole, and then of destroying the concept of the One, allowing one to overcome the last subtle attachment in order to realize the Absolute, which is neither one nor many.

The name of this commentary comes from the name of the monastery in which Tao Yin, the commentator, lived.

The three insights are possibilities that arise from the Buddha's universal insight that everything that happened in past lives is happening now and will happen in the future. These are the various lists of the six transcendental possibilities - these are those siddhis that arise as a by-product of continuous right meditation, but which some people mistakenly (and riskily) select for the main goal.

There are many stories of divine responses; their purpose is to persuade people to recite sutras regularly and practice good deeds.

In China, according to the knowledge of Feng Shui, or geomancy, the position of ancestral graves significantly influenced the future of descendants.

The dry, unfertilized stage of wisdom (i.e., unfertilized by the Buddha's Truth), otherwise called worldly wisdom, is the first of ten stages common to the three Means of Expression.

There are some Mahayanists who shun the world as a manifestation of evil, and who develop forms of meditation that lead to what is very similar to emptying the mind.

The Master has destroyed the dualities implied by "to do" and "not to do", "right" and "wrong", in order to reveal the Absolute Dharma-kaya, which is incomparable, inconceivable and indivisible.

When teaching their students, Chan Masters usually directly pointed out the mind that is troubled by worldly feelings and passions, and what surrounds them. Depending on the circumstances, this was done through speech, silence, gestures, expressions, etc.

Quote from the Vimalakirti Nirdesh Sutra. Vimalakirti addresses these words to Manjushri. “Inconsistency” is translated here as “wu chu” (non-commitment).

"Seed nature" or "germ nature" means the nature which can sprout and develop from the nature which is its essence.

"Dharani" means absolute control over good and evil passions and influences.

That. a ring of fire obtained from circling a torch.

Those. for ordinary purposes.

Those. what the Master said just now in relation to the mind, which is neither within, nor without, nor between them, is very clear.

Everyone's mind is essentially the mind of a Buddha and can truly achieve Buddhahood by purifying oneself from worries and attachments.

The Great Sutra, or Great Book, is another name for Mind or Wisdom.

The Sixth Indian Patriarch Michaka chanted the following gatha when he transmitted the Dharma to the Seventh Patriarch

Vasumitra:

No mind, no awareness

Whereas what can be realized is not Dharma.

Only when the mind has become unreal,

The dharma of all minds can be truly understood.

Chinese terms of particular difficulty

BLUE, consciousness, heart. The term appears constantly in the text, sometimes in the sense of “his consciousness”, “your consciousness”, etc., and sometimes in the sense of CONSCIOUSNESS, which is actually synonymous with Reality, the Absolute, etc. It is also used to indicate the purpose of the use of consciousness, roughly in the sense of "think", "know", "realize", etc. Therefore, it can mean CONSCIOUSNESS, one's consciousness, mental processes, thinking, thoughts, etc. .; or have the basic Chinese meaning of "heart"; moreover, even when used in the sense of "consciousness", it largely implies the meaning that Westerners understand by the word "heart". It has shades and undertones similar in meaning to words such as “subconscious”, “mind operating on a subconscious level”, and (so to speak) “soul”. The character Xin can sometimes imply several meanings at the same time; the usual omission of any personal pronoun in a Chinese text is always intended to establish an identity between “our consciousnesses” and CONSCIOUSNESS.

FA, Dharma, or dharma. Dharma can be used synonymously with the Absolute, the Law of the Universe, Buddhist Doctrine, Right Belief, Right Action, etc. Without the capital "D", dharma means any or every kind of phenomena - things, ideas, forces, constituent parts of things, infinitesimal "moments" that combine to form one instant of thought, units like atoms, of which Theravada Buddhists believe , phenomena consist, etc. to infinity. Huihai uses the term FA in some of the indicated senses, as well as in its purely Chinese sense as a method or as a kind of suffix that can sometimes be omitted. In general, throughout this book I have used a capital letter "D" where the word meant something like the Universal Law of the Buddha's Doctrine, and a small "d" where it meant something like "things." Where necessary, I have inserted English translations in parentheses.

DAO, way or way. In this book it is not used in its precise Taoist sense, such as the Force or Spirit that governs and embraces the universe, except in dialogues where the Taoist speaks; but is often used abstractly to denote the Path of the Buddhas, the Path of Enlightenment, the Path of Zen, etc. It is also used in a more concrete sense to denote a method, way or path.

U, insight, awareness. Huihai uses this word to mean Illumination, Enlightenment, etc., so it is the equivalent of Japanese satori; however, the fact that he uses still other terms for enlightenment, such as Bodhi and Anuttara-Samyak-Sambodhi, as well as some Chinese translations of these terms, leads me to believe that the original illumination, which is the real purpose of this book, although identical in nature with Supreme Enlightenment, it may differ from it in degree or permanence. The common Japanese word satori also means something less than Supreme Enlightenment. In some places Huihai also uses Wu in the less exalted sense of "to awaken" and "to become instantly aware", etc. I have used the words "Awakening", "Illumination", or "Enlightenment" wherever U is used in its basic meaning, and Indian words with the same meaning as Bodhi wherever they appear in the text.

JIE TO, liberation. Huihai uses it as a synonym for Illumination, or rather to denote the natural result of Illumination; it happens suddenly, just like water, which, after being gradually heated, suddenly boils.

CHAN, or CHAN-NA, dhyana, or meditation, the essence of which is abstinence from wrong thinking, that is, from pluralistic or dualistic thinking, etc.

DIN, or SANVEY, or SELF, samadhi, contemplation of our original nature - the Eternally Existing Consciousness. However, where DIN means the second of the three methods of training - discipline, concentration and wisdom - I have translated DIN as dhyana.

CHAN DING, dhyana, samadhi.

KUN, shunya, shunyata, empty, emptiness, vacuum, immaterial, immateriality. This is a concept fundamental to all Mahayana Buddhism, although its precise definitions vary according to each school or sect. According to the Chan School, only consciousness is real. It is emptiness not at all in the sense that it is a vacuum, but in the sense that it does not have its own characteristics and therefore cannot be perceived by the senses as something that has shape, size, color, etc. Phenomena are empty because everything they are temporary creations of CONSCIOUSNESS, which has the wonderful ability to produce all kinds of phenomena within itself. As creatures of consciousness, they are naturally empty, or immaterial.

TI and YN, essence and manifestation. TI is a universal substance of consciousness, formless, immaterial, imperceptible. YN is its function, through it all types of phenomena are created or can be created in response to the requests of sentient beings. When a person requests this YN, he can freely use consciousness; he becomes capable of being fully aware of everything, remaining untainted by anything.

XIN, EN XIN, ZI XIN, original nature, self-nature, individual nature. We are taught that we all have the same nature, the nature of emptiness. When we are Illuminated, we experience our own nature as such; we understand that we have and probably cannot have any other nature, and yet it is our own, not in the sense of mine or yours, but in the sense of belonging to everyone. At this point, the traces of selfishness from the past give way to boundless compassion for those who still think that there are things that must be gained or lost, and who, therefore, fight against “you” or “him” for the sake of “I”. , which is no different from the contrasted “you” or “he”.

ZHI and HUI, Jnana and Prajna, pure awareness and insightful wisdom. Hui is sometimes used to mean knowledge and understanding of things in the ordinary sense of these words, sometimes in the sense of Prajna, the Supreme Wisdom, which reveals to us our own nature, the emptiness of which is reality, and at the same time makes us aware of the smallest differences in form. Huihai sometimes uses the Indian word "Prajna" in the Chinese text, in those few cases where it becomes one of many synonyms reflecting different aspects of the Absolute, Reality.

SHEN and FANFU, saints and ordinary (ordinary) people. These terms are used respectively to designate those people who are Illuminated Ones and those who are not, that is, Buddhas and sentient beings, but it is clear that there is no real difference between them, since they are all of the same nature; the only difference is that SHEN, or saints, are aware of their own nature, while FANFU, or ordinary beings, have not yet realized it.

author Dvorkin Alexander Leonidovich

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author Kartashev Anton Vladimirovich

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From the book Essays on the History of the Russian Church. Volume II author Kartashev Anton Vladimirovich

The beginning of a special history of the Old Believer schism The leaders of the stubborn opposition after the council of 1667 were exiled to the North Pechora region, to the so-called. Pustoozersky Ostrog. They were: archpriests Avvakum and Lazar, deacon Fyodor and monk Epiphanius. The conditions of exile were patriarchal,

From the book Essays on the History of the Russian Church. Volume II author Kartashev Anton Vladimirovich

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Chinese terms of particular difficulty XIN, consciousness, heart. The term appears constantly in the text, sometimes in the sense of “his consciousness”, “your consciousness”, etc., and sometimes in the sense of CONSCIOUSNESS, which is actually synonymous with Reality, the Absolute, etc. It also applies

O.V. Josan

Orenburg State University

Scientific supervisor: I.I. Prosvirkina, Doctor of Pedagogical Sciences, Professor

Chinese is becoming a very popular language to learn and is likely to become the second most popular language (after English) in the coming decades. Chinese is one of the 6 official languages ​​of the United Nations. According to statistics, every fifth person in the world speaks Chinese.

In modern conditions of studying the Chinese language, a system of work to enrich vocabulary as one of the aspects of teaching a foreign language acquires special importance for students. The process of mastering a dictionary is very labor-intensive and plays a huge role in the development of students’ speech skills, which is why the method of enriching students’ speech when learning foreign languages, in particular Chinese, is so relevant for teachers and methodologists.

When working to enrich speech, it is necessary to remember that the vocabulary of the Chinese language has its own characteristics, which are associated with a number of factors. Firstly, the Chinese language is an isolating type of language, which is characterized by its own methods of word formation. Secondly, the Chinese word is always ambiguous. Thirdly, the meaning of a Chinese word is determined by the word’s place in a sentence, its lexical environment, as well as the presence of various kinds of function words. Fourthly, the vocabulary of the Chinese language is filled with “cultural meanings”. Students, as a rule, when learning new Chinese words, associate them with the corresponding Russian words. But in different languages, words are not always equivalent, which makes it difficult to enrich students’ speech with Chinese words. In this regard, the choice of methods for enriching students’ speech when learning Chinese is very important.

When enriching speech when learning Chinese, the student must:

a) understand and remember the word, its meaning, sound and graphic forms;

b) choose this particular word to solve a specific communicative task in a specific communication situation;

c) be able to use it in speech in combination with other words.

Thus, enriching speech is not just learning new words and hieroglyphs, but awareness and assimilation of the connections between them in the language - grammatical, semantic, cultural, etc.

We propose enriching the speech of pupils (students) with Chinese words in the following way:

Semantization, which we introduce: the representation of the hieroglyph, its phonetic sound, the disclosure of possible meanings, depending on the place in the sentence and on the “cultural fullness”;

Primary consolidation;

Analysis of words in various contexts;

Development of skills and abilities to use vocabulary in various types of speech activity.

Let us dwell in more detail on semantization. This is a system of actions associated with revealing the meaning of a word in the process of becoming familiar with new material. Currently, science knows several methods of semantization, such as semantic definition, structural-semantic motivation, translation method, comparison with a word known to the student, visibility, context and others. The choice of the method of semantization should be determined by the stage of training, the age characteristics of the students, the specifics of the vocabulary being semantized, etc.

One of the most time-efficient and universally applicable is the transfer method. However, according to modern methodologists, it should not be the main method of semantization. This is due to the fact that literal translation followed by “memorization” of meanings, good knowledge of the language system and mastery of translation skills do not provide students with practical use of languages ​​in various communication situations.

Since such specific and narrowly focused vocabulary as economics is studied, as a rule, by students who already have a certain vocabulary and knowledge of the lexical meanings of economic terms in their native language, then, in our opinion, in this situation it is possible to use the translation method without the use of lexical interpretation of translated words. For example:

会计 – accountant 经济 – economist 资本 – capital At the same time, a practical approach to mastering grammar is very important, as a result of which the material is grouped in accordance with topics and situations that implement the content of the sphere of communication chosen for training (in this case, economics). The basis of the classes will be sentence models and texts on relevant topics. Subsequently, in order to consolidate the material covered, it is advisable to perform exercises aimed at testing knowledge of the learned vocabulary and the correctness of its use. Non-translation methods of semantization of the economic vocabulary of the Chinese language include visual, when different types of visual aids contribute to the disclosure of meanings, for example, semantic maps. The drawing up of such maps takes place in class with the joint work of the teacher and students. Students first recall all the familiar words, the teacher will add new ones to their list and help classify them. In this way, the goal of integrating existing knowledge with new knowledge is achieved. For example:

Pictures also help visualize vocabulary:

It must be remembered that in the Chinese language there are words that reflect realities that are not typical for our economy and culture, as well as specific terms that are used only in a certain area. To fully comprehend them at the semantization stage, you can use “semantic lattices”: Such a semantic lattice is open, that is, students can add additional information to the table. In addition, it can be used for further work on vocabulary. Drawing up such semantic maps, blocks, and lattices reveals to students the associative connections of words. Another way to create visual supports for studying Chinese vocabulary is the method of component analysis (CA). It lies in the fact that the meaning of a word is represented as a set of semantic components, which should be minimal and sufficient to derive the meaning of the word. To determine the component representation, you can use dictionary definitions from explanatory dictionaries of the Chinese language. Component analysis of Chinese vocabulary has its own national specifics. The Chinese language has a syllabic nature, many words in it are formed by compounding, which led to a special position in the word-formation structure of the word and the often encountered phenomenon of a transparent internal form. For example: 钱财 – property, property. Consists of 钱 – money and 财 –
wealth.价钱 – price. Consists of 价 - price and 钱 - money. It is easy to guess that both of these words contain 钱. This suggests that these terms are in one way or another related to money. 保险 – insurance. Consists of 保 – to protect and 险 – difficult, risky. It is quite logical: to insure - “to protect against risk.” 风险 – risk (风 – wind, behavior (in this case) + 险 – difficult, risky. These words also have a common word 险, which indicates that they belong to “risk” .Let's consider another way of semantization of vocabulary - comparison with a word known to students. It consists in transferring the lexical meaning of a familiar synonym or antonym to the word being semantized. As a result of this, students create a general idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe lexical meaning of a new word for him, since between synonyms and antonyms there is no complete identity. For example, students came across the word 贷款 (credit). It can be explained using the word 债务 (debt, indebtedness). Such an interpretation provides an understanding of the text, but does not create a complete understanding of the semantics of the word 贷款. Thus, when choosing a technique for semantizing vocabulary In the Chinese language, it is necessary to take into account the purpose of semantization: whether an unfamiliar word is introduced into active speech or the task is to give the most general idea of ​​the word. It is also necessary to take into account the students’ existing vocabulary. The Chinese language is very closely related to the culture of China, so this aspect is very important when studying vocabulary. In our opinion, when studying the economic vocabulary of the Chinese language, it is necessary to use a set of methods, the basis of which will be the translation method. At the same time, it is important to create conditions under which students would have the opportunity, from the very beginning of learning new words, to use them to express their thoughts. It is in this case that the word and its meaning become subjectively significant for the student. List of used literature

1. Lutsenko, E.A. Lexical units of the Chinese language expressing space (based on the philosophical treatise “Zhuang Tzu”) / E.A. Lutsenko, I.I. Prosvirkina // Bulletin of Orenburg State University. –2013. – No. 11(160). – pp. 156-161.

Pryadokhin M.G., Pryadokhina L.I.
"Ant", Moscow, 2002
A Concise Dictionary of Chinese Language Difficulties. Educational dictionary-reference book.
The dictionary is a universal reference book on the normative use of Chinese lexical and grammatical means and on the stylistics of the Chinese language. Designed for teachers and students of universities and secondary schools teaching Chinese.
Over 200 most common words in Chinese which may cause difficulties for students.

Format: PDF
Size: 16.7 MB

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DEPOSITFILES
A Concise Dictionary of Chinese Language Difficulties

Chinese-Russian Russian-Chinese dictionary of computer vocabulary

A.M. Rozvezev
M.: AST: East-West, 2007
Dictionary includes about 6000 computer vocabulary terms. The publication stands out from the traditional range of dictionaries of this kind by its simplicity of presentation of lexicographic material, the presence of translation in both directions and transcription for all Chinese words. To make working with terminology easier, the dictionary includes some particularly common jargon and slang. The dictionary makes it possible not only to easily use a computer, but also expands the stock of terms in computer science and computer technology.

Format: PDF
Size: 36.98 MB

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Chinese-Russian Russian-Chinese dictionary of computer vocabulary
depositfiles.com

This practical dictionary of Chinese language. Designed for students starting to learn Chinese.
The dictionary includes 800 Chinese characters and 69 with different pronunciations, as well as commonly used words and phrases with these hieroglyphs, taken mainly from everyday speech.
Chinese characters, words and phrases are placed in Chinese transcription (pinyin) and provided with a translation into Russian.
You can search the dictionary using phonetic or key index.
There are a lot of interesting applications, such as a Brief Table of the Dynasties of China, a Table of Weights and Measures, the Administrative Division of China, 24 seasons of the agricultural year, the sequence of writing Chinese characters, etc.

Format: PDF
Size: 77.5 MB

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Basic Chinese dictionary. 800 hieroglyphs

Youth slang, dialectisms, jargon, professionalisms, criminal expressions, curses, colloquial expressions.
Authors: Li Shujuan, Yan Ligang
Publisher: Oriental Book, 2009

Dictionary contains about 1500 words and expressions urban slang of modern China, selected on the basis of prevalence and relevance in recent years. Words and expressions are arranged in the dictionary according to the pinyin phonetic transcription principle in the following order: hieroglyphic notation; transcription; translation options into Russian; examples of use (in hieroglyphic notation) and options for their translation into Russian. It should be noted that the translation of the sentences is as close as possible to the Chinese original.
The dictionary is intended for students, teachers, translators, as well as for anyone interested in modern Chinese.

Format: DjVu (255 pages)
size: 8.6 MB

Chinese-Russian dictionary of terms and expressions found in periodicals

Huang Yu
Beijing: Foreign Language Literature Publishing House
2003

The dictionary contains terms and expressions on a wide variety of topics found in periodicals.

Format: PDF
Size: 17.6 MB

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Chinese-Russian dictionary of terms and expressions found in periodicals
turbobit.net | hitfile.net

Chinese-Russian dictionary of scientific and technical terms. 32,000 terms
V.N. Zozulya, A.S. Kozubov et al. Ed. Prof. V.S. Kolokolova
Moscow, 1950

IN Chinese-Russian dictionary of scientific and technical terms contained about 32,000 terms related to mathematics, physics, chemistry, astronomy, geology, mineralogy, biology, agriculture, soil science, meteorology and some branches of technology. When compiling the dictionary, scientific and technical periodicals, individual monographs on various branches of science and technology, as well as a number of English-Chinese industrial dictionaries published in the PRC were used.
The dictionary is compiled according to the graphic system adopted in the USSR. In addition to 60 groups, a 61st group has been introduced, containing terms starting with letters of the Latin or Greek alphabet, numbers, etc. The dictionary is accompanied by an index and a table of simplified hieroglyphs prepared by S. N. Sitnyuk.