Illustration as a teaching method. Visual teaching methods

Research by psychologists, psycholinguists, teachers, and advertising specialists note a high degree of perception and comprehension of information with the simultaneous inclusion of all perception systems: visual, auditory, kinesthetic, i.e. when expanding the perception system.

What are individual perception systems and what are they like?

Individual perception systems in people are not evenly developed: the development of one or two systems predominates. This is due to historical life experience, the characteristics of the geographic environment, the anatomical and physiological development of the body, and the characteristics of training and education1.
It is important for a teacher to know that, to a large extent, the development of a particular system is manifested in a person’s external appearance. According to Canadian studies, it was revealed:
- people with a developed visual system are predominantly thin and tall;
- people with a developed auditory system are larger and more muscular;
- people with a developed kinesthetic system are more relaxed, more pear-like in appearance.

How can a teacher use this knowledge?

In human training and development, it is very important for a teacher to learn how to connect all systems to perceive information. Listening at school only to the teacher’s explanations (listen to what I’m telling you!) leads to concentration of perception in one system, which generally narrows the perception of information. With age, this develops into a habit, blocks the development of other systems, inclinations, abilities and inclinations of a person, leading to the appearance of hallucinations in the system that is least controlled and developed. Even using a simple test “Determining the representativeness of a system,” a teacher can diagnose students in a class, which will further help him, taking into account the individual characteristics of children, select appropriate teaching methods: verbal, visual (illustration, demonstration), practical, etc.
We hope the reader will understand the preamble, which does not quite logically fit into “Visual Methods,” but explains the pedagogical aspects of the use of not only visual, but also other teaching methods.
Some scientist-teachers (N.V. Naumchik, V.V. Davydov) do not share the concept of “visual methods”. They motivate their point of view by the fact that the substantive characteristics of these methods traditionally come down to “visuality”. Visibility presupposes, according to V.N. Naumchik, in addition to visuality, reveals the inner essence of the pedagogical process.
In presenting this topic, we remain on the traditional interpretation.

Illustration method

The illustration method provides students with the display of illustrated materials, manuals: paintings, posters, diagrams, drawings, graphs, diagrams, portraits, maps, layouts, atlases, images of information on the blackboard, etc.

Demonstration: to whom and for what

The demonstration method consists of: showing the operation of real instruments or their models, various mechanisms, technical installations, setting up experiments and conducting experiments, demonstrating processes (of various origins), design features, properties of materials, collections (minerals, art products, paintings, samples materials, etc.).
The demonstration method ensures the perception of both external forms (characteristics) and internal content not only in statics, but also in the dynamics of their flow, which is very important for students to understand the deep essence, laws, patterns and principles of their action and existence, the conditions that give rise to them.
The effectiveness of the method is achieved with the active participation of students in its demonstration, who have the opportunity to directly “measure results”, change the course of processes, set operating parameters of mechanisms, record and study the properties of materials, structures of objects, etc.
Apparently, excursions should be considered a variation of the demonstration method. An excursion can be used as a method of introducing new material, in-depth study of it, or to consolidate what has been learned. An excursion as a demonstration method provides the study of objects, processes, technologies that exist in reality (factory, factory, weather station, design office, test benches, laboratories, etc.), the study of flora and fauna (forest, field, farm, zoo, terrarium, aquarium, dolphinarium, etc.).
The demonstration method provides a comprehensive, multidimensional perception of information, promotes the development of all systems of perception in students, especially visual-sensory, which improves the quality of assimilation of educational material; acquisition of both theoretical and practical skills and abilities; develops cognitive activity and motivation for educational and research activities. Popular wisdom says: “It is better to see once than to hear a hundred times.”
Nevertheless, the method of demonstration must be skillfully combined with the word: to focus attention on what is being studied, on the main thing, to characterize the property of the object, to show its different sides; explain the purpose of the demonstration, what to keep in sight, highlight objects of observation, and perhaps use some handouts preceding or accompanying the main demonstration, making an appropriate comment.
The effectiveness of the method is achieved:
1. Involving students’ explanations in revealing the content of what is being demonstrated, carrying out comparative analysis, formulating conclusions, proposals, presenting their position, their attitude to what they saw, searching for “hidden”, “new” content in the facts, phenomena, processes, objects being studied.
2. Correct selection, i.e. coordination of the demonstrated material with the content of the lesson, its volume, the number of units demonstrated, the place and time in the structure of the lesson of the material being studied, the condition of the demonstration; teaching students how to search for and select the necessary visual aids in the process of independent homework.
3. Compliance of the demonstrated material with the psychological readiness of students to master it, taking into account age and other characteristics.

Video technique

Among visual teaching methods, the “video method” is increasingly being distinguished. With the intensive development of video equipment, it is distinguished from a demonstration method into an independent one. It is based on screen sources of information (filmoscopes, overhead projectors, overhead projectors, movie cameras, televisions, video recorders, computers, scanners, etc.). The use of video materials helps in a very short time to present a large amount of information in a compressed, concentrated form, professionally prepared for perception, helps to look into the essence of phenomena and processes inaccessible to the human eye (ultrasound imaging, spectral analysis, the influence of radioactive elements on the course of biological, chemical and biochemical processes). processes, the occurrence of fast and slow processes, etc.).
The video method is one of the powerful sources of influence on a person’s consciousness and subconscious. It can be used at all stages of training as a multifunctional method.
By maximally activating visual-sensory perception, the video method ensures easier and more durable assimilation of knowledge in its figurative-conceptual integrity and emotional coloring, significantly influences the formation of a worldview, stimulates the development of abstract-logical thinking, and reduces learning time.
The use of the video visualization method creates favorable conditions for increasing the efficiency of the entire educational process.

In pedagogy, there are many teaching methods that differ, in particular, in the role of students in the process of acquiring new knowledge. Depending on the role, methods can be passive, active and interactive. Within each of these groups, subgroups can be defined. One of the subgroups of methods, which can be included in any of the mentioned large groups of methods, is visual, which includes a variety of ways to present information.

Demonstration is the display of various visual aids, tables, pictures, diagrams, transparencies, as well as objects, conducting experiments, and the like. This method is especially often used when repeating generalizations of previously studied material, as well as when studying new ones. Verbal explanations play a big role in demonstrations. The illustration method is used on all objects - these are various models, models, fragments of films, excerpts of literary and musical works, maps, graphs, etc.

Due to the fact that the technical equipment of many educational institutions has increased, it has become possible to use projectors, video recorders, televisions, computers and other video equipment in lessons, the video method has emerged as an independent method from the large group of “visual teaching methods”. This also includes working with books and other printed sources. The method includes techniques such as note-taking, thesis, quoting, planning, annotating, reviewing, writing references, etc.

Visualization enlivens the lesson and brings lively contemplation into it. Visual teaching methods are very effective, since learning is based not on abstract images, but on specific ones that are understandable to students. Using such methods, it is possible to create in students a specific idea of an object or event.

Any teacher knows the situation when children are uninteresting and bored in class. Why is school life often so different from the bright and colorful world of childhood that accompanies a child in everyday life? It would seem that school should captivate the child, leading him along the wonderful road of knowledge into a wonderful new world, but this does not always work out.

Just don’t make hasty conclusions and say that school cannot serve as a source of knowledge, which can sometimes be seen in the media. Although sometimes such statements can be quite justified. The fact is that the school has always been characterized by a certain amount of conservatism, which did not allow the process of transferring knowledge to the younger generation to keep up with the times.

Thus, a kind of contradiction arose between the new rapid time, a characteristic feature of which was the full penetration of modern technologies into the everyday life of a person, and the routine of traditional school education, which is little receptive to any innovations.

However, it is quite possible to overcome this contradiction. Outstanding teachers of our time have been thinking about this for a long time and have made every effort to overcome this situation.

Visual teaching methods are intended to become the first link in the chain of other methods leading to the goal, which can make acquiring new knowledge accessible and exciting for children, and in such a way that boredom is out of the question. In fact, success in learning may depend not only on the methods used - you need to remember that there are simply no single universal methods suitable for all situations in life. Success can directly depend on the personality of the teacher.

Using games you can diversify the learning process and make it fun. In higher and secondary specialized educational institutions, vocational training methods are also often active and interactive, which allows one to assimilate educational material in the best possible way.

The question of methods remains very relevant, and there is simply no single answer to the question “what is best.”

Under visual teaching methods are understood as methods in which the assimilation of educational material is significantly dependent on the visual aids and technical means used in the learning process. Visual methods are used in conjunction with verbal and practical teaching methods and are intended to visually and sensorially familiarize students with phenomena, processes, objects in their natural form or in a symbolic representation using all kinds of drawings, reproductions, diagrams, etc. In modern schools, screen-based technical means are widely used for this purpose.

Visual teaching methods can be divided into three groups:

² illustration method,

² demonstration method

² video method.

Illustration method involves showing students illustrative aids, posters, tables, paintings, maps, sketches on the board, flat models, etc.

Demonstration method usually associated with the demonstration of instruments, experiments, technical installations, films, filmstrips, etc.

The goals of the visualization method in elementary school:

Enrichment and expansion of children's direct sensory experience,

Development of observation skills,

Study of specific properties of objects,

Creating conditions for the transition to abstract thinking, support for independent learning and systematization of what has been learned.

In elementary grades, visualization is used:

Natural,

Drawing,

Volumetric,

Sound,

Graphic.

Demonstration serves primarily to reveal the dynamics of the phenomena being studied, but is also widely used to familiarize oneself with the appearance of an object, its internal structure, or its location in a series of similar objects. When demonstrating natural objects, they usually start with the appearance (size, shape, color, parts and their relationships), and then move on to the internal structure or individual properties that are specially highlighted and emphasized.

The demonstration begins with a holistic perception. This method is truly effective only when an active cognitive process is carried out - children themselves study objects, processes and phenomena, perform the necessary actions, and establish dependencies.

The demonstration process should be structured so that:

All students clearly saw the demonstrated object;

They could perceive it, if possible, with all the senses, and not just with the eyes;

The necessary aspects of the object made the greatest impression on the students and attracted maximum attention.

Illustration involves the display and perception of objects, processes and phenomena in their symbolic representation using posters, maps, portraits, photographs, drawings, diagrams, reproductions, flat models, etc.

Recently, the practice of visualization has been enriched with a number of new means.

Methods of demonstration and illustration are used in close connection, complementing and enhancing the joint action. When students need to perceive a process or phenomenon as a whole, a demonstration is used, but when they need to understand the essence of the phenomenon and the relationships between its components, they resort to illustration. The effectiveness of an illustration depends on the presentation technique. When choosing visual aids and the form of illustration, the teacher thinks through their didactic purpose, place and role in the cognitive process. He also faces the problem of determining the optimal volume of illustrative material. Experience shows that a large number of illustrations distracts students from clarifying the essence of the phenomena being studied; Illustrations are prepared in advance, but are shown only at the moment when they turn out to be necessary in the course of training.

In modern primary schools, screen-based technical means are widely used to provide high-quality illustrations.

Video method is considered as a separate teaching method due to the intensive penetration of new sources of on-screen information presentation into the practice of educational institutions:

Videoscopes,

Projectors,

Cinema cameras,

educational television,

Video players and VCRs,

As well as computers with display information.

The video method successfully performs all didactic functions: it serves not only to present knowledge, but also to control, consolidate, repeat, generalize, and systematize. The teaching and educational functions of this method are determined by the high efficiency of the impact of visual images and the ability to control events.

Practical teaching methods based on the practical activities of students. These methods form practical skills. Practical methods include:

² exercises,

² laboratory and practical work,

² didactic games.

Exercises- repeated performance by students of certain actions in order to develop and improve skills in academic work.

The nature and methodology of the exercises depend on the characteristics of the subject, the specific material, the issue being studied and the age of the students.

Didactics formulates a number of general rules for conducting exercises:

Making students aware of the purpose and order of the exercise;

Variety of exercises;

Systematicity of exercises;

After explaining new material, exercises are given more often;

Gradual increase in difficulty of exercises.

Immediately after learning new material, the teacher gives typical exercises in which the signs the students have learned appear most clearly and prominently. When the new material is firmly mastered by students, you can give tasks and exercises for which children use knowledge of other topics in the subject.

The effectiveness of exercises increases if children are accustomed to self-control in educational work. Properly organized exercises have great educational value. The nature of the impact of exercises on students depends on the degree of independence in their implementation. The content of the exercises is no less important.

In the elementary grades, a wide variety of writing exercises are given.

Laboratory works- one of the practical methods of teaching, which consists in students conducting experiments on the instructions of the teacher using instruments, using tools and other technical devices. In the process of laboratory work, observations, analysis and comparison of observational data, and formulation of conclusions take place. Mental operations are combined here with physical actions, with motor acts, since students, with the help of technical means, influence the substances and materials being studied, cause phenomena and processes that interest them, which significantly increases the productivity of the cognitive process.

Laboratory work can be carried out

in illustrative terms when students reproduce in their experiments what was previously demonstrated by the teacher;

in research terms, when students themselves solve the cognitive task assigned to them for the first time and, based on experiments, independently come to conclusions that are new to them.

The performance of laboratory work is accompanied by a recording of the data obtained and a graphical representation of the phenomena and processes being studied in the form of a report on the experiment performed.

Educational (didactic) games- these are specially created situations that simulate reality, from which students are asked to find a way out.

Modern didactic games in primary schools are mainly games according to the rules. The games have many features:

Activate cognitive processes;

Cultivate children's interest and attentiveness;

Develop abilities;

Introduce children into life situations;

They are taught to act according to the rules;

Develop curiosity and attentiveness;

Strengthen knowledge and skills.

A properly constructed game enriches the thinking process with individual feelings, develops self-regulation, and strengthens the child’s will. The game leads him to independent discoveries and solutions to problems.

In the educational process, only elements of a didactic game can be used - a game situation, a technique, an exercise. The general structure of the didactic game contains the following components:

Motivational - needs, motives, interests that determine children’s desires to take part in the game;

Indicative - choice of means of gaming activity;

Executive - actions, operations that allow you to realize the set game goal;

Control and evaluation - correction and stimulation of gaming activity.

Questions and tasks

1. What is the essence of each type of visual methods? Describe their positive and negative aspects.

2. Reveal the essence of each type of practical methods, their positive and negative sides.

Under visual teaching methods refers to methods in which the assimilation of educational material is significantly dependent on the visual aids and technical means used in the learning process. Visual methods are used in conjunction with verbal and practical teaching methods and are intended to visually and sensually familiarize students with phenomena, processes, objects in their natural form or in a symbolic representation using all kinds of drawings, reproductions, diagrams and etc. In modern schools, screen-based technical means are widely used for this purpose.

Visual teaching methods can be divided into three groups:

- illustration method,

- demonstration method,

- video method.

Illustration method involves showing students illustrative aids, posters, tables, paintings, maps, sketches on the board, flat models, etc.

Demonstration method usually associated with the demonstration of instruments, experiments, technical installations, films, filmstrips, etc.

The goals of the visualization method in elementary school:

Enrichment and expansion of children's direct sensory experience,

Development of observation skills,

Study of specific properties of objects,

Creating conditions for the transition to abstract thinking, support for independent learning and systematization of what has been learned.

In elementary grades, visualization is used:

Natural,

Drawing,

Volumetric,

Sound,

Graphic.

Demonstration serves primarily to reveal the dynamics of the phenomena being studied, but is also widely used to familiarize oneself with the appearance of an object, its internal structure or location in a series of homogeneous objects. When demonstrating natural objects, they usually start with the appearance (size, shape, color, parts and their relationships), and then move on to the internal structure or individual properties that are specially highlighted and emphasized.

The demonstration process should be structured so that:

All students clearly saw the demonstrated object;

They could perceive it, if possible, with all the senses, and not just with the eyes;

The necessary aspects of the object made the greatest impression on the students and attracted maximum attention.

Recently, the practice of visualization has been enriched with a number of new means.

Methods of demonstration and illustration are used in close connection, complementing and enhancing the joint action. When students must perceive a process or phenomenon as a whole, a demonstration is used, but when it is necessary to understand the essence of the phenomenon, the relationships between its components, they resort to illustration. The effectiveness of an illustration depends on the presentation method. When choosing visual aids and the form of illustration, the teacher thinks through their didactic purpose, place and role in the cognitive process. He also faces the problem of determining the optimal volume of illustrative material. Experience shows that a large number of illustrations distract students from clarifying the essence of the phenomena being studied; Illustrations are prepared in advance, but are shown only at the moment when they turn out to be necessary during the course of training.

In modern primary schools, screen-based technical means are widely used to provide high-quality illustrations.

Video method is considered as a separate teaching method due to the intensive penetration of new sources of on-screen information presentation into the practice of educational institutions:

Videoscopes,

Projectors,

Cinema cameras,

educational television,

Video players and VCRs,

As well as computers with display information.

The video method successfully performs all didactic functions: it serves not only to present knowledge, but also to control it, consolidate it, repeat it, generalize it, and systematize it. The teaching and educational functions of this method are determined by the high efficiency of the impact of visual images and the ability to control events.

Practical teaching methods based on the practical activities of students. These methods form practical skills.

Practical methods include:

- exercises,

- laboratory and practical work,

Exercises— repeated performance by students of certain actions in order to develop and improve skills in academic work.

The nature and methodology of the exercises depend on the characteristics of the subject, the specific material, the issue being studied and the age of the students.

Didactics formulates a number of general rules for conducting exercises:

Making students aware of the purpose and order of the exercise;

Variety of exercises;

Systematicity of exercises;

After explaining new material, exercises are given more often;

Gradual increase in difficulty of exercises.

In the elementary grades, a wide variety of writing exercises are given.

Laboratory work can be carried out:

- in illustrative terms when students reproduce in their experiments what was previously demonstrated by the teacher;

- in research terms when students themselves solve the cognitive task assigned to them for the first time and, on the basis of experiments, independently come to conclusions that are new to them.

Educational (didactic) games- these are specially created data of situations that simulate reality, from which students are asked to find a way out.

Modern didactic games in primary schools are mainly games according to the rules.

The games have many features:

Activate cognitive processes;

Cultivate children's interest and attentiveness;

Develop abilities;

Introduce children into life situations;

They are taught to act according to the rules;

Develop curiosity and attentiveness;

Strengthen knowledge and skills.

In the educational process, only elements of a didactic game can be used - a game situation, a technique, an exercise.

The general structure of the didactic game contains the following components:

Motivational - needs, motives, interests that determine children’s desires to take part in the game;

Approximate - choice of means of gaming activity;

Executive - actions, operations that allow you to realize the set game goal;

Control and evaluation - correction and stimulation of gaming activity.

Questions and tasks

1. What is the essence of each type of visual methods? Describe their positive and negative aspects.

2. Reveal the essence of each type of practical methods, their positive and negative sides.

Forms of organization of education in primary school: general class, group and individual

Form(from the Latin “forma”) - appearance, external outline, established order.

In philosophy form- this is the structure of some content.

Form of training organization denotes the external side of the learning process, which is associated with the number of students, time and place, as well as the order of its implementation (I.F. Kharlamov).

Scientific pedagogical research examines different points of view on the concept of “organizational forms of learning.”

Thus, I. M. Cheredov considers the form of education as a special construction that characterizes “the external side of the learning process, determined by the content, methods, techniques, means, types of educational activities, features of the relationship between the teacher and students when working on educational material.

Analyzing this pedagogical phenomenon, Yu. K. Babansky believes that the form of organization of training should be understood as the operational-activity component of training and represents the external expression of the coordinated activity of the teacher and students, carried out in an established order and a certain mode.

B. G. Likhachev understands the form of organization of education as a purposeful, clearly organized, content-rich and methodologically equipped system of cognitive and educational interaction, relations between teacher and students.

S. A. Smirnov understands the form of education as the way of organizing the activities of students, which determines the number and nature of the relationships between participants in the learning process.

The form of organization of teaching is an external expression of the coordinated activity of the teacher and students, “packaging” for content” (I. P. Podlasy).

The given definitions of the concept “form of education” indicate its complexity and ambiguity.

In the history of pedagogy there are two main forms of training organization: individual-group And class lesson.

The system of individual education became widespread in the early stages of the development of society, when the teacher taught one student, usually his successor. Gradually, individual-group learning arose, when the teacher taught a group of students of 10-15 people. Training in the group also took place individually, so the group included students of different ages and different levels of training. The duration of training, the beginning and end of classes were also individual.

In the Middle Ages, due to the increase in the number of students, the need arose for the emergence of a new form of educational organization. The group form of training has become widespread. She found her complete solution in classroom-based teaching system, developed and theoretically substantiated by Ya. A. Komensky. It assumes the presence in the group of a constant composition of students of the same age; permanent location and duration of classes, stable class schedule.

The history of school development knows various educational systems in which preference was given to one or another form of organization: individual (in ancient states), individual-group (in schools of the Middle Ages), mutual education (Belle-Lancaster system in England), differentiated education according to student abilities (Mannheim system), team training (which existed in the 20s in the Soviet school), the American “Trump plan”, according to which students spent 40% of the time in large groups (100-150 people), 20% in small groups (10 -15 students) and 40% of the time was spent on independent work.

For primary school teachers, the so-called Dalton Plan is of interest - a form of individualized education (E. Parkhurst, G. Dalton, early 20th century). Children were offered complete freedom to choose the content of their studies, alternate subjects studied, use their own time, etc.

Forms of teaching that have historically developed continue to exist in teaching practice at the present time.

Individual form of training − is used to adapt the degree of complexity of educational tasks, provide assistance taking into account the individual characteristics of the student and optimize the educational process itself.

Pair form − associated with the communicative interaction between a teacher and a pair of students performing a common educational task under his guidance.

Group form- teacher communication is carried out with a group of children of more than three people who interact both with each other and with the teacher in order to implement educational tasks.

Collective form of (general class) education- one of the most complex forms of organizing student activities, considering the training of an entire team. This form is focused on the active interaction of students, their mutual understanding, mutual learning, and cohesion.

Frontal form(“addressed to the audience”) − involves teaching a group of students or an entire class solving similar problems with subsequent monitoring of the results by the teacher.

More advanced organizational design of the pedagogical process found its expression in class-lesson system. Its outlines were proposed by the Dutch teacher D. Seal, the German professor I. Sturm, and the theoretical justification of this system was described in “The Great Didactics” by J. A. Komensky.

Lesson- a unit of the educational process, clearly limited by time frames, age composition of students, plan and curriculum of work.

Lesson is the main form of organizing current educational work. This form presents all components of the educational process: goal, objectives, content, means and methods.

Lesson typology one of the difficult didactic tasks. S. V. Ivanov, M. A. Danilov, B. P. Esipov, G. I. Shchukin distinguishes the following types of lessons depending on the didactic task:

Introductory lessons, lessons for initial familiarization with educational material;

Lessons in the formation of concepts, establishment of laws and rules;

Lessons in applying acquired knowledge in practice;

Skills lessons;

Lessons of repetition and generalization;

Test lessons;

Lessons are mixed or combined.

These types of lessons are widely used in primary schools as well.

I.P. Podlasy separately considers the lesson in understaffed an elementary school where children of different ages are taught in one classroom.

There are three main types of lessons here:

A lesson in which both classes learn new material;

A lesson in which new material is studied in one class, and in another class work is organized to consolidate knowledge and skills, repeat what has been learned, or take into account the knowledge and skills of children;

A lesson in which both classes work on repeating what was learned earlier.

Integrative lesson(from Latin “full”, “holistic”) is a lesson in which the material of several subjects is combined around one topic. This lesson is most productive for younger students, because contributes to the informational enrichment of the content of learning, thinking and feelings of schoolchildren by including interesting material that allows them to understand the phenomenon or subject of study from various angles.

Non-standard lesson is an impromptu training session with an unconventional structure. For example: lessons - competitions, business games, auctions.

Under the structure lesson implies its internal structure and the sequence of individual stages, reflecting the goal, didactic objectives and features of their practical implementation.

Excursion- this is one of the forms of educational work with children transferred in accordance with certain pedagogical tasks to enterprises, museums, exhibitions, in the field, on the farm, etc.

Depending on the didactic tasks being solved, excursions of various types are distinguished: depending on the objects of observation (natural history, local history, literary, geographical, etc.); for educational purposes (overview and thematic); in place and in the structure of the pedagogical process (introductory, or preliminary; current, final).

Recently, in primary schools, they have become widespread complex excursions. Complex excursions not only save time, but also help to combine blocks of knowledge in different subjects, subordinate to one topic. For example, an excursion interestingly combines knowledge of getting to know the world around us, music; visual activities.

Independent work didactics (I.Ya. Lerner, Yu.K. Babansky, I.P. Podlasy, etc.) characterize students as mastering scientific knowledge, practical skills, and skills in all forms of educational organization, both under the guidance of a teacher and without it.

Independent work of students is classified:

According to the didactic purpose of its application - cognitive, practical, generalizing;

By type of problem to be solved - research, creative, cognitive, etc.

By levels of problem - reproductive, productive-research, research;

According to the nature of the communicative interaction of students - frontal, group, individual; according to the place where it is performed - home, classroom.

Questions and tasks

1. Highlight the main features that characterize the form of organization of training. Give a definition of the concept “form of educational organization”.

2. Determine the factors influencing the choice of organizational forms of training.

3. Describe the features of the classroom-based teaching system, its advantages and disadvantages, its advantages over other systems.

Visual teaching methods

The role of visual methods is enormous.

Teaching methods should ensure not only that students acquire new knowledge in science lessons, but also teach them to correctly perceive, see essential features, and establish connections in the phenomena being studied. The choice of teaching methods depends on the content of the material taught, the degree of familiarity of the students with it and their life experience. This or that method helps students, firstly, to master ready-made knowledge that is presented by the teacher, secondly, to work independently under the control of the teacher, and thirdly, to work independently without outside help. On the other hand, the method also reflects the teacher’s activities aimed at managing the process of acquiring knowledge and developing the cognitive abilities of schoolchildren. In the course of this work, children learn to learn, that is, they master ways of acquiring knowledge. The same method, depending on the purpose of the lesson, the content of the educational material and the nature of cognitive activity, receives a different focus and degree of presentation. The teacher must strive to diversify the methods he uses, gradually leading students to greater independence in studying the material and applying the acquired knowledge in practice. In elementary grades, one method is rarely used during a lesson. As a rule, the method is combined with other methods or techniques. The use of visual methods in teaching is closely related to the implementation of the principle of visibility. Visualization as a teaching principle is implemented using any methods. The role of visual methods in teaching science is one of the main topics. Visual methods are the most important tools in the hands of a teacher to guide the process of teaching natural science. They are necessary to determine the physical, chemical and biological properties of substances or bodies, to disclose and explain certain phenomena occurring in nature. They allow you to organize the cognitive activity of students. They contribute to the formation in students of the ability to observe, initial concepts that are important in concretizing knowledge. This is the relevance of our work.

Visual methods can be used both when learning new material and when consolidating it. When learning new material, they are a way to form new knowledge, and when consolidating it, they are a way to practice knowledge. The study of nature through the demonstration of natural objects allows one to form fairly complete and reliable ideas about the object being studied. It is useful to combine the study of natural visual aids with visual clarity.

The use of the method of demonstrating images of natural objects and phenomena is of great importance in the study of natural science. It also allows you to form children's ideas about objects and natural phenomena. The method of studying nature through demonstration of experiments is used in cases where an object or phenomenon needs to be studied under conditions that are artificially changed or some artificial element is introduced into them. Experiments can be short-term, carried out in one lesson, but they can also be long-term. In short-term experiences, conclusions, new knowledge are formed in the same lesson, and in long-term experiments, conclusions, new knowledge are formed after a certain period of time.

The main problem of our work is to determine the effectiveness of visual methods in teaching natural science. And therefore, the object of the study will be the learning process in science lessons, and the subject will be the use of visual methods in teaching science.

Practical methods include written exercises - completing assignments in native and foreign languages, mathematics and other subjects. During the exercises

The student applies the acquired theoretical knowledge in practice. One of the specific types of training exercises are commented exercises, during which the student more actively comprehends the upcoming actions, speaks to himself or out loud, and comments on the upcoming operations. Commenting on actions helps the teacher detect common mistakes and make adjustments to students’ actions.

14.Environmental education of junior schoolchildren.

Currently, environmental education of schoolchildren is becoming a priority in pedagogical theory and practice. This is due to the difficult environmental situation on our planet: An important principle of this system is the continuity of environmental education, which means the interconnected process of learning, education and development of a person throughout his life: This is explained by the fact that children of primary school age are very inquisitive, responsive, and receptive ,. At this age, there is an active process of purposeful formation of knowledge, feelings, assessments, emotions, development of abilities and interests. Environmental education is understood as a continuous process of training, education and personal development, aimed at creating a system of scientific and practical knowledge, value orientations, behavior and activities that ensure a responsible attitude towards the surrounding social and natural environment. The goal of environmental education is the formation of an environmental culture, which is based on a responsible attitude towards the environment. Ecological culture is considered by scientists as a culture of unity between man and nature, a harmonious fusion of social needs and the needs of people with the normal existence and development of nature itself. “A person who has mastered an ecological culture subordinates all types of his activities to the requirements of rational environmental management, takes care of improving the environment, and prevents its destruction and pollution. Excursions into nature are a classic form of studying the environment. On excursions, favorable conditions are created for identifying the aesthetic value of the natural world, its scientific and educational significance, and the formation of competent behavior in the natural environment. The leading method of studying nature on excursions is observation. Here, environmental problems are solved. A new type of activity for younger schoolchildren in nature is work on the “ecological trail.” An educational “ecological trail” is a route in a park, forest park, etc., which is laid out so that it contains places of both natural nature and man-made landscape. This allows you to compare natural and transformed environments, teach children to evaluate the nature of human activity in nature. install environmental signs, pointers, hang bird feeders, lay out food for animals. Field workshops as a form of environmental education have also recently begun to be used in primary schools. Their goal is to consolidate theoretical knowledge about the environment, assess its condition, and develop practical skills to work in nature to improve its condition. Conversations with environmental content are aimed at updating children’s knowledge, expanding and deepening it, and identifying new facets of interaction between man and nature. Including information about negative and positive human activities in nature into conversations helps children develop the ability to evaluate this activity and predict its consequences. Solving environmental problems and analyzing environmental situations are also aimed at identifying environmental connections. Children's games are a reflection of life. The imaginary conditions available in the game contribute to the fact that knowledge about the world around us is not only understood, but also easily consolidated. Moral norms and rules of behavior in the environment are learned. Didactic games are games with rules. Didactic games of environmental content include games with cards such as lotto, natural material “Wonderful Bag”, quiz games such as “Flower Round Dance” or “Who Lives Where?”; Role-playing games of environmental content are based on modeling the social content of environmental activities. For example, the game “What will happen?” Simulation environmental games are based on modeling environmental reality and the substantive content of environmental activities. For example, the game “Who Lives Where?” Environmental competition games are based on stimulating the activity of participants in acquiring and demonstrating environmental knowledge and skills: crossword puzzles, projects, riddles, travel, etc.

In recent years, teachers have begun to use the project method. Extracurricular forms of environmental education include holidays - a collection of various entertainment events. The culmination of the holiday is the holding of KVN.

16.Characteristics of visual methods of teaching primary science.

B.P. Esipov believes that methods are ways of working for teachers and students, with the help of which mastery of knowledge, skills and abilities is achieved, the worldview of students is formed, and their abilities are developed. According to the definition of Yu. K. Babansky, a method is a method of orderly, interconnected activity of a teacher and students, aimed at solving the problems of education, upbringing, development in the learning process..E. Raikov compiled a binary nomenclature of methods, basing the classification on two criteria: the nature of perception of educational material and the direction of the logical process. Based on this, he identified three groups of methods: verbal, visual, motor. The use of visual methods in teaching is closely related to the implementation of the principle of visibility. However, these concepts are not identical. Visualization as a teaching principle is implemented using any methods. The function of the method of visualization is fulfilled when it becomes the main source of knowledge, methods of practical action, and developing and educating influence on the student. Visual aids are widely used in verbal methods. Visual aids in visual methods are a source of independent reasoning, generalizations, and conclusions. It is valuable that the use of these methods sufficiently increases the activity of students and their independent cognitive activity. Visualization makes it possible to eliminate verbalism in the teaching of natural history and creates good conditions for the practice of knowledge. The developmental impact of visual methods on the student is also great: they develop empirical thinking, without which the development of theoretical thinking is impossible, improve speech, observation, self-esteem and self-control skills, creative imagination, educational skills, etc. The difficulties in using visual methods are primarily related to , with the presence of the objects for study and auxiliary equipment. The study of nature through the demonstration of natural objects allows us to form fairly complete and reliable ideas about the object being studied, facilitates the formation of ideas about objects and natural phenomena that, for various reasons, cannot be studied in nature itself.

The use of the method of demonstrating images of natural objects and phenomena is of great importance in the study of natural history. It also allows you to form children's ideas about objects and natural phenomena. This is especially important in cases where it is impossible to present a natural object to children in nature in relation to this environment. The method of studying nature through demonstration of experiments is used in cases where an object or phenomenon needs to be studied under conditions that are artificially changed or some artificial element is introduced into them. Experiments can be short-term, carried out in one lesson, but they can also be long-term

Verbal learning aids.

Texts are divided into basic, additional and explanatory. The main texts convey the main information. They present facts, provide descriptions and definitions of concepts, and reveal relationships and patterns. They are represented in textbooks by stories and business articles. Additional texts are close in content to the main ones. Their content can be specific, commentary, descriptive, but it can also be more complex in comparison with the main text. Stories, proverbs, sayings, riddles, fairy tales, and popular science information are used as additional texts. Explanatory texts include dictionaries, reference information of various types, notes, etc.

Extra-textual components are also diverse. The apparatus for organizing knowledge acquisition is presented in textbooks by a system of questions and tasks. According to D. D. Zuev, with the help of questions and assignments, “the most targeted and productive processing of textbook material in the student’s mind is achieved by activating his mental and emotional efforts in the process of independent knowledge acquisition”1. Questions and tasks included in school textbooks can be divided into groups: - questions and tasks that require the practical application of acquired knowledge; - questions and tasks aimed at reproducing knowledge, such as “Tell.” - questions and tasks that require logical comprehension of knowledge: comparison, juxtaposition, specification, establishment of cause-and-effect relationships, generalization. Tasks for conducting independent observations in nature occupy a special place in textbooks of natural science and natural history. The role of these tasks is great. The illustrative apparatus in natural science textbooks is very important. Not all objects and natural phenomena can be seen by the student in person; the school does not always have the necessary visual aids. Photographs convey the documentary nature of the object without distortion - this is precisely their value. Drawings of individual natural objects (for example, mushrooms), landscapes (autumn, winter), landscapes (tundra, steppe) help to form correct and clear ideas. These educational drawings highlight those features of objects that children need to learn. Instructional drawings play the role of a guide to action. Using them, children perform practical or laboratory work: assemble experimental instruments, models, etc.

Schemes convey the basic (main) features of an object or process. Cartoon drawings are widely used in modern textbooks. Maps are iconic illustrations. They help the formation of spatial concepts in children. The orientation apparatus includes a table of contents, signal symbols, different font selections, various conventional signs (for example, stripes, circles, exclamation and question marks), and page numbering. Using the table of contents, the student finds the text he needs. Signals-symbols help him navigate the lesson material. Font highlights and signs direct the student’s attention to the main position, rule, term, conclusion, etc. Techniques for working with text are varied. Reading the text in full makes it possible for schoolchildren to form a holistic understanding of natural objects and their interrelations. When choosing a technique, you should take into account the volume of text and children’s knowledge on this issue. Small texts can be read in full without dividing them into parts. Large articles are usually divided into logically complete parts. Selective reading is a technique that can be widely used in the classroom. In this case, it is necessary to carefully study the content of the article, select fragments for reading, think about how to highlight them in the text and introduce them into the lesson. It is advisable to use such techniques for working with text as finding answers to textbook questions, descriptions for a specific illustration, drawing up an outline for an article, highlighting the main idea, reading definitions and descriptions of concepts. Additional texts are mainly recommended for reading at home. Reading them is not required for all students.

At the next lesson, the teacher asks about what was read. Children enthusiastically talk about the new things they have learned. This arouses interest among others and encourages them not only to read the textbook texts, but also children’s books about nature. Currently, in addition to textbooks, printed notebooks are being developed. In a textbook-notebook set, the textbook plays the leading role, and the notebook helps to concretize, deepen and expand the knowledge presented in the textbook; formation of practical abilities and skills, methods of independent work. Work with a notebook in class is carried out to test knowledge and consolidate it...

27.Natural teaching aids.

The importance of using visual teaching aids in the educational process in natural science was written back in the 18th century by V. F. Zuev: A. L. Gerd, V. P. Vakhterov, Yagodovsky, M. N. Skatkin, in their works pointed out the great importance of visual aids training when introducing children to nature, verbal - textbooks, teaching aids for students; natural - collections, herbariums, living objects; images of objects and natural phenomena: planar - tables, pictures, maps; volumetric - models, dummies; audiovisual - slides, filmstrips, banners, films and videos, sound recordings. In terms of their importance in the process of teaching natural science, the leading place among teaching aids belongs to natural ones - collections, herbariums, living objects, since they are particles of nature itself brought into the classroom. This allows students to directly perceive the subject being studied, which stimulates cognitive activity, interest in the subject, and makes the learning process effective. Collections. Collections of minerals, soils and insect collections have been developed for the study of natural history. The Minerals collection presents the most common minerals and rocks. They are selected for genetic characteristics. The collection includes large samples for display and small ones used as handouts. The “Soils” collection presents samples of various types of soils in Russia. Both collections are factory made. Herbariums. Educational herbariums of cultivated and wild plants of our country have been created for primary classes. Herbariums include collections of fruits and seeds. In addition to factory-made herbariums, schools, as a rule, have home-made ones, which contain plants from their area.

Living objects of nature are indoor plants, which are selected taking into account the program and plant requirements for living conditions, as well as animals that can be kept in corners of wildlife or in a natural history classroom. Work with collection material (for example, “Minerals”) can be organized in different ways. Large samples are used for demonstration in order to form a general idea of the subject. Handouts are used to clarify and concretize ideas about it, to identify its hidden properties. In this case, students perform experiments. Then the children do it, and the teacher helps them and controls their actions. Another approach is for the teacher and students to carry out practical activities in parallel, using a work plan in the textbook or developed by the teacher and written on the board. Another option is also possible - the teacher develops his own instructions, which include instructions on what actions and in what sequence should be performed, where and how to record the results. Mineral collections are used not only in current lessons, but also in general lessons, as well as in extracurricular activities. When working with a collection of insects, the leading method is observation. When working with a herbarium, the leading form of training is practical work. To compile a profile, children can be offered the following work plan:

1. Name of the plant.2. What is this - tree, bush, grass?3. Where does it grow - in a forest, in a meadow, in a pond, in a swamp, in a field? 4. Size, shape, color of leaves, flowers, fruits, stems. Herbarium specimens or illustrations need to be compared with plants that are well known to children. When testing knowledge, schoolchildren use herbarium specimens to find parts of plants, name and show them, performing, for example, a classification task. Objects of living nature in practice are most often represented by indoor plants. When working with them, several tasks are solved: expanding and deepening knowledge about the diversity of plants, the diversity of their organs, adaptive features, and also developing practical skills in caring for plants

28.Images of objects and phenomena.

In elementary natural science, the following types of maps are used - physical maps of one’s area, Russia, hemispheres and a map of natural zones of Russia, terrain plans, as well as the atlas “The World and Man”. . Using the technique of comparing a site plan and a map based on such features as the size of the depicted territory, scale, methods of determining the sides of the horizon and symbols will help schoolchildren identify the specifics of the map, and therefore understand its essence.

The next stage is to develop the ability to read a map. To develop this skill, numerous and varied methodological techniques are used, for example, comparing a conventional sign and its image, drawing on children’s impressions from observations of relevant natural objects, showing various objects on a map on the instructions of the teacher and classmates, and telling stories about them. For example, when learning about the conventional colors that represent mountains, the teacher shows the “Mountains” table and their designation on the altitude scale, after which the children find the mountains on the map. Using a map as a source of information assumes that children already have some knowledge about the map. Another example. When getting acquainted with the map of the hemispheres, the teacher suggests comparing the scale of the physical map of Russia (1 cm - 50 km) and the scale of the map of the hemispheres (1 cm - 220 km). Schoolchildren establish that the second scale is smaller, so the map of the hemispheres shows the entire globe, but the physical map of Russia shows only our country. Volumetric teaching aids. These include models, dummies, and mock-ups. A model is a three-dimensional image of an object in a reduced form. In elementary science, various models are used. They are static, dynamic, collapsible. Dynamic models can show the principle of operation and movement. For example, the movement of the Earth around the Sun. Models are three-dimensional aids that accurately convey the shape, color, and size of natural objects. For the natural history course, dummies of vegetables and fruits are produced. They are used when introducing cultivated plants as an illustration to the teacher’s story or as a source of information.

29. Audiovisual teaching aids.

V. F. Zuev wrote about the importance of using visual teaching aids in the educational process in natural science back in the 18th century: A. L. Gerd, V. P. Vakhterov, Yagodovsky, M. N. Skatkin, in their works pointed out the great importance of visual educational means for introducing children to nature: verbal - textbooks, teaching aids for students; natural - collections, herbariums, living objects; images of objects and natural phenomena: planar - tables, pictures, maps; volumetric - models, dummies; audiovisual - slides, filmstrips, banners, films and videos, sound recordings. ES), screen-sound (ESS) and sound (ZS). The basis for identifying these groups is the method of transmitting information. Screen-based teaching aids include transparencies, filmstrips, and overhead projector banners. These aids are considered static, but it must be borne in mind that each frame has internal hidden dynamics. Transparencies are color or black and white photographs on film, less often on glass. Transparencies were the first screen medium to appear in school, but are still widely used in practice. This is due to a number of reasons. First of all, the fact that the image of natural objects in the photo is transmitted without distortion. L.P. Pressman identifies three stages of this process. The first is holistic coverage of the entire slide. The teacher names the frame and gives students the opportunity to look at it, for which they spend 1-1.3 minutes. He then comments on the details of the slide. The second stage of work is examination. It should be taken into account that the child’s eye will constantly and involuntarily make frequent movements, comparing the details with the whole. Therefore, the third stage is important - synthesis of details, return to holistic coverage after analysis. When preparing for a lesson, the teacher not only selects transparencies based on its topic and purpose, determines the sequence of their demonstration, but also draws up tasks for visual observation in such a way that children “read” all the information. A slide film, or filmstrip, is also a slide film, but located in a certain sequence on film, united by a common theme. Information in filmstrips is transmitted in two ways - using an image (visual range) and short text (subtitles). A slide film, or filmstrip, is also a slide film, but located in a certain sequence on film, united by a common theme. Information in filmstrips is transmitted in two ways - using an image (visual range) and short text (subtitles). Projector banners are also static teaching aids. However, this staticity is largely conditional. By gradually superimposing one banner on top of another, the illusion of movement and development is created. Static images acquire a certain dynamics. Children become witnesses to the developing process and can discuss each new stage during the presentation of educational material. Transparencies are used in various educational situations: when explaining new material, when reinforcing it, to check students’ independent work. Screen-sound teaching aids are distinguished by their dynamism in the presentation of material and sound design. These include films, film fragments and videos. The value of educational films is that they make it possible to introduce schoolchildren to such phenomena and processes that are difficult or impossible to see in nature: buds opening on tree branches, freezing of a river, sea surf, etc. Educational films as teaching tools have some features ( Karpov G.V., Pressman L.P., Romanin V.A.): 1) the dynamism of the image is the most significant feature of educational films from a didactic point of view. It allows us to consider phenomena in the process of movement, development, that is, most truthfully, vitally; 2) the ability to consider a phenomenon as a whole and in parts, which contributes to the formation of complete and clear ideas: 3) transfer of a large amount of information in a short time; 4) the use of animation, with the help of which you can show objects and processes that cannot be observed (the work of the organs of the human body; life inside a hive, an anthill), as well as what does not exist in reality, but is created by the human imagination (life in distant times). Of all types of educational films, the most effective is the film fragment. It conveys information in a short, concise form, which makes film clips not only effective, but also easy to use. Currently, films are gradually being replaced by videos. The stock of video films is still small, work is underway to create them. In practice, homemade videos are widely used.

A video film has its own characteristic features: 1) the ability to freeze a frame and analyze its content in detail, compare it with observations of children or other visual means; 2) return the record for clarification, specification, comparison; 3) remove the sound and create your own text instead of the narration (both teachers and children can compose); 4) simplicity and ease of use. Sound teaching aids are recordings of the voices of birds, mammals, the noise of the forest, and the surf. In addition, recordings of stories of scientists, travelers, etc. are used in lessons.

The computer has great potential for demonstrating many processes and phenomena of natural science using graphical image tools. According to researchers, computer programs help students understand and assimilate the main, essential material in the content, identify cause-and-effect relationships, and develop knowledge about the patterns that exist in nature.

30.Learning aids.

Implementation of the principle of visibility in the course

"Concepts of modern natural science"

A.V. Zakharova-Soloviev

The training course “Concepts of modern natural science” (“CSE”) is currently

Currently, it is the basis of natural science education in preparation for

universities with qualified personnel in the humanities and socio-economic fields

socialities.

The course “Concepts of modern natural science” is an interdisciplinary

Narrative, covers a wide range of issues.

The practical goal of this course is to educate students not

only a natural science culture of thinking, but also a competent attitude towards

nature and living beings, i.e. “everyday” ecological culture.

According to the State Educational Standard of Higher Education

professional education to the main objectives of the discipline “Concepts of modern

natural science" include the following:

Understanding the specifics of the humanitarian and natural science components

culture, its connection with the peculiarities of thinking, the nature of alienation and the necessity

the possibility of their reunification based on a holistic view of the world around them;

Knowledge of the norms of the scientific method of mastering the world and the specifics of their manifestation in

classical and modern natural sciences;

Study of understanding the essence of a finite number of fundamental laws

nature, defining modern natural science, to which many

a number of particular laws of physics, chemistry and biology, as well as familiarization

understanding the principles of scientific modeling of natural phenomena;

Formation of a holistic idea of the physical picture of the world;

Understanding of the principles of continuity, conformity and continuity in

studying nature, as well as the need to change the adequate language of description for

as natural systems become more complex: from quantum and statistical physics to chemical

science and molecular biology, from nonliving systems to cells, living organisms,

man, biosphere and society;

Consciousness of nature, basic needs and human capabilities, possibly

possible scenarios for the development of humanity in connection with crisis phenomena in bio-

sphere, the role of natural science knowledge in solving social problems and preserving

understanding of life on Earth;

Formation of ideas about changing types of scientific rationality, about

revolutions in natural science and changes in scientific paradigms as key stages

development of natural science;

Formation of ideas about the principles of universal evolutionism

and synergetics as dialectical principles of development in application to inanimate

and wildlife, humans and society.

Thus, the goal of the discipline “KSE” is the formation of a

a clear idea of the modern picture of the world and development prospects,

knowledge of universal methods of cognition and laws of nature and society. Obviously-

but that the basis of the course is the natural sciences, which, as is known,

are the sciences of visual images.

An important role in forming a holistic picture of the world among students is played by

promotes clarity in learning.

Visual aids are used when presenting educational material, in

in the course of students’ independent activities to acquire knowledge and form

development of skills and abilities, when monitoring the assimilation of material and in other vi-

activities of both the teacher and students. Visual aids used

are in accordance with the stated didactic task, the characteristics of the educational

material and specific learning conditions.

Visibility is a property, a feature of that mental image of an object

or a phenomenon that is created by a person as a result of processes of perception, pa-

crumple, thinking and imagination; there is an indicator of the simplicity and understandability of this

times, and the clarity of the image depends on the characteristics of the individual, on the level of development

her cognitive abilities, from her interests and inclinations, from the need

and the desire to see, hear, feel a given object, to create a bright,

a clear image of a given object.

Visibility, as a rule, performs many functions:

Helps to recreate the form, essence of a phenomenon, its structure, connections, inter-

interventions to confirm theoretical positions;

Helps bring all analyzers and related

them mental processes of sensation, perception, representation, as a result

which creates a rich empirical basis for generalizing analytical thought

literary activity;

Forms visual and auditory culture;

Provides feedback to the teacher on questions asked by students

one can judge the assimilation of the material, the movement of students’ thoughts towards understanding

essence of the phenomenon.

The principle of visibility is the starting point of didactics, defining

defining the direction of work with visual material, providing for the obligatory

the usefulness of its use in the educational process.

Classical didactics established the principle of clarity, based on the fact

obvious fact that successful learning is the one that begins

with consideration of things, objects, processes and events of the surrounding action

telnosti. Visualization and, in particular, observation of natural objects, taking

ty in their natural conditions is undoubtedly of great importance and serves

the starting point of knowledge about the objective world. The visibility of learning is considered

is closely related to the activity of students.

Thus, it can be noted that visibility is the starting point

volume of training.

The theory of visibility was developed by: Ya.A. Komensky, K.D. Ushinsky and

a lot others. Subsequently, the following scientists dealt with the problem of visibility:

as R.G. Lamberg, M.N. Skatkin, I.Ya. Lerner, D.B. Elkonin, M.A. Danilov, I.T.

Ogorodnikov and many others. Currently, research in this area

carried out by A.A. Shapovalov, A.N. Krutsky.

In modern didactics, the concept of visibility refers to various

I will give perception (visual, auditory, tactile, etc.). None of the types

visual aids do not have absolute advantages over the other.

When studying nature, for example, natural

objects and images close to life. Very often there is a need

use different types of visual aids when familiarizing yourself with some and

the same questions.

Today there is a wide variety of types of visual

sti. Most often, according to the content and nature of what is depicted, three groups are distinguished:

for clarity:

Visual clarity;

Conditional graphical clarity;

Subject visibility.

It is very important to use visual aids purposefully. Place and

the role of visual material in the learning process is determined by the relationship between

activity of the student, in which this material is able to occupy a structure

place of the goal (subject) of his actions, to the activity that leads to a special

knowledge of what needs to be learned.

It is necessary to distinguish between the concept of the principle of visibility and visual me-

teaching methods.

The visual method is a way to implement this initial position.

tion and consists in building a training system using funds

visibility.

Visual teaching methods are understood as such methods in which

The extensive assimilation of educational material depends on the methods used in

the process of teaching visual aids and technical means. Visual methods

are used in conjunction with verbal and practical teaching methods

tions and are intended for visual and sensory acquaintance with phenomena,

processes, an object in its natural form or in a symbolic image with

with the power of all kinds of drawings, reproductions, diagrams, etc. Widely used

for this purpose, screen technology and computers.

Visual teaching methods can also be divided into two:

large groups: illustration method and demonstration method.

The use of visual aids not only helps students create

dents of figurative representations, but the formation of concepts, understanding of abstract

long connections and dependencies, which is one of the most important provisions of the di-

tactics. Sensation and concept are different stages of a single process of cognition.

Today there is quite a wide variety of popular science films

revealing many topics of the course: cosmological models of the universe, evolutionary

tion of living matter, etc.

An important role in the learning process belongs to technical media.

stvam (TSO).

By technical means of training (TSO) we mean such technical

devices that, themselves, not being objects of study, contribute to the

solving educational tasks and increasing the effectiveness of learning with the help of embedded

didactic (educational and methodological) materials contained in them. TSO in cognition

students carry out teaching, educational and developmental activities

function. They serve as carriers of educational information, as means of

transmission, processing and storage. TCO is responsible for transmitting messages to

formative in nature, they are used to manage and control the assimilation

students' knowledge.

The use of TSR in the learning process helps to strengthen the connection between the theoretical and

ries with practice, enhances the visibility of learning, allows the student to better

remember study material, saves study time.

Being an integral part of training aid complexes, TSOs are obliged to mention

required in combination with printed educational and visual aids, devices -

mi, models, natural objects, working models and other tra-

traditional teaching aids.

The effectiveness of technical means of education and training is determined

their compliance with specific educational goals, objectives, specific

ke educational material, forms and methods of organizing the teacher’s work and

students, material and technical conditions and opportunities.

With the help of modern technical means can be visualized

invisible objects and phenomena, particles, sound, abstract theoretical concepts

tia, i.e., a certain didactic image – a model – is created.

Visualization of images associated with the mathematical description of phenomena and

laws of physics, using modeling and reproduction methods in

animation mode of experiments in which these phenomena appear is

an indispensable element of cognition of the physical features of nature in teaching

giving a course on KSE (concepts of modern natural science). Thanks to modern

traditional computer technologies, multimedia capabilities of computers

tera, you can implement static illustration models in all details,

present these models in dynamics. Use of information computers

tern technologies (ICT) in teaching CSE contributes to improving the quality and

teacher’s work efficiency: with their help, time is saved, increases

This improves the clarity of learning and increases the accuracy of presentation of the material. Modern

Changed information technologies significantly improve the quality of the video itself.

visual information, it becomes brighter, more colorful, more dynamic. Huge

Multimedia technologies have potential in this regard.

Multimedia technologies (MT) are a set of techniques, methods

methods that allow, using technical and software

multimedia means to produce, process, store, transmit information

mation presented in various forms (text, sound, graphics, video, animation)

tion) using interactive software.

process has a complex structure and allows for maximum satisfaction

meet the information needs of participants in the educational process –

teacher and student; improves the quality of professional knowledge, skills,

skills; and also activates cognitive activity, develops the ability to

creativity, forms creative thinking of students and

teacher

Multimedia presentations can take various forms, applications

which depends on the knowledge, preparedness of the author, as well as the intended

audience. The most effective way to use presentations when conducting lectures is

tion, practical training, laboratory work, independent work,

stirovaniye. Computer models allow you to develop systems thinking in

students.

Through the use of MT, visual and written memory develops; By-

is the opportunity to see what was missed on the slides in case of a lag

from the general rhythm; information is remembered more easily and for a longer period of time;

the time required to explain a new topic and record material is reduced; increased

independence is gained in choosing what to write in the notes; easier to perceive

There are diagrams and examples.

For full-time students studying in the specialty “Philosophy”

phy”, a course of lectures “Concepts of modern natural science” was developed and delivered

knowledge” using multimedia technologies. The lectures were compiled in

Power Point presentation program that allows you to design and de-

create a set of slides (static images, photographs, drawings,

diagrams, diagrams, text fragments, as well as video fragments). Classes about

were held in a lecture hall equipped with a multimedia complex, and

also with a regular board, which allows you to combine traditional

nal and multimedia technologies.

Students noted that these lectures improved their understanding

material; fatigue during lectures was reduced due to a change in activity (listening to

writing, note-taking, studying slides, conversation).

Control testing showed that the material that was presented

students using multimedia, was learned by them much better and not

caused difficulties in answering questions on these topics.

Students also make their own presentations on topics

astronomical block: “Stars and their evolution”, “Solar system”, “Galaxy”

tics”, etc. The work of creating a presentation includes knowledge of astronomy

mia, knowledge of computer technology, the ability to analyze material and emphasize

highlight important points in the presentation of information. This type of work contributes to

helps not only to form systemic thinking, but also to educate students

commodities of information culture and creative activity, which is a priority

ny tasks of the modern education system.

With all the variety of textbooks for the course “Concepts of modern

of natural science”, the problem of their shortage should be noted. This problem

easily solves this type of aids such as electronic textbooks. Today this is the most

may be a popular form of electronic teaching aid that expands didactic

tical possibilities of a regular, printed textbook. Electronic textbook with

created for the purposes of self-education, formation of system knowledge, individual

no training.

Our university has developed and uses electronic

textbooks on KSE with a hypertext structure that allow students

it is more efficient to work there than with printed publications.

At the same time, it should be noted that global resources are not being used enough.

ball network Internet. The textbooks and teaching aids that exist today

bis on the course “KSE”, reflect mainly the formation of natural sciences

worldview and, unfortunately, do not fully correspond to modern

ny requirements of the modern educational environment. And from the global network In-

Internet could provide additional information on physics, chemistry,

biology, etc. Students use information materials with great interest

Internet resources for creating presentations and abstracts on the topics being studied

KSE course.

For example, the server of the American Geodetic Society

(http://www.agu.org/) contains a wealth of information about the earth's crust,

atmosphere, oceans, etc. The server http://spaceart.com/ contains many photos

graphs and illustrations on cosmology (solar system, stars, planets, asthe-

roids, comets). Very interesting natural science sites are

http://www. nature. com, http://www. nature. ru, http://www. sciencefirst - hand . ru, etc.

It should also be noted that KSE is one of the leading disciplines

block of general mathematical and natural science disciplines of the federal

component of GOS VPO, intended for computer testing, with a

I certify educational programs of universities and check the level of knowledge of students

dents. Internet testing technology, assessment system and rehearsal

On-line testing is described in detail on the website http://www. fepo. ru.

Thus, it can be noted that the use of modern visual

new methods (multimedia, Internet) in teaching CSE helps to increase

quality of training of qualified specialists, effectiveness of training

tions, teacher productivity: with their help, visibility increases

training efficiency, the accuracy of presentation of the material increases, and time is saved.

A very important point is: solving the problem of lack of literature and

teaching materials; flexible student work schedule, and most importantly study

discipline “Concepts of modern natural science” is becoming more modern

varied and interesting in form and rich in content.

List of used literature:

1. Pedagogy: Textbook. Benefit for students/VA Slastenin, I.F. Isaev, A.I.

Mishchenko, E.N. Shiyanov.-4th ed.-M.: School press, 2002.- 512 p.

2. Chernilevsky D.V. Didactic technologies in higher education:

Textbook allowance For universities.-M.: UNITY-DANA, 2002.- 437 p.

3. Semenova N.G., Boldyreva T.D., Ignatova T.N. Multimedia influence

technologies on cognitive activity and the psychophysical state of learning

developing // Bulletin of OSU. No. 4. – Orenburg, 2005. – P.34 – 38.

4. Kodzhaspirova G.M., Petrov K.V. Technical training aids and

methodology for their use. - M.: Academy, 2001. - 256 p.

5. Vasilyeva I.A., Osipova E.M., Petrova N.N. Psychological aspects

you application of information technologies // Questions of psychology. - 2002. -

6. Kalyagin I., Mikhailov G. New information technologies and educational

technology // Higher education in Russia. - 1996. - No. 1.

7. Mikhailovsky V.N., Khon G.N. Dialectics of the formation of modern

scientific picture of the world. - L.: Leningrad State University, 1989.

8. Zankov L.V. Visualization of learning // Pedagogical encyclopedia in

4 volumes. T. 3 / Chapter. Ed. I.A. Kairov. – M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1966.

In short.

9. Steinov G.N. Didactic abilities of computer teachers

programs and their implementation in educational technology. Guidelines

for students and trainees of engineering and pedagogical faculties in special-

030500 “Vocational training”. - M.: MSAU im. V.P. Goryachkina,

1994. - 41 p.__

The role of visual teaching methods in the formation of cognitive activity of children of primary school age

In the modern world, environmental problems (environmental problems) have become of paramount importance. The aggravation of the environmental situation dictates the need for intensive educational work to develop environmental consciousness and a culture of environmental management among the population. Primary importance is attached to the environmental education of the younger generation.

A number of official documents have appeared in our country, which emphasize the need to form a system of continuous environmental education, starting with preschoolers: Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation “On measures to improve environmental education of the population,” 1994; Resolution “On environmental education of students in educational institutions of the Russian Federation”, 1994. In 2000, the project “Strategies for environmental education in the Russian Federation” was developed, in which an entire section is devoted to preschoolers and primary schoolchildren.

The goals declared in the Concept of Sustainable Development of Russia can only be achieved through education. That is why it highlights the section “Environmental education, greening of public consciousness,” which especially emphasizes the importance of developing, by all available means, an ecological worldview of Russian citizens, primarily children.

The main content of environmental education is the formation in a child of a consciously correct attitude towards natural phenomena and objects. It is based on a sensory perception of nature, an emotional attitude towards it and the study of the characteristics of life, growth and development of individual living beings, some biocenoses, knowledge of the adaptive dependencies of the existence of living organisms on environmental factors, relationships within natural communities. The cognitive activity of children plays an important role in this.

The transformation of the cognitive sphere that occurs at primary school age is extremely important for further full development. Many children of primary school age have insufficient development of attention, memory, and the ability to regulate mental actions. At this age, there is a transition from visual-figurative to verbal-logical, conceptual thinking. Attention is still poorly organized, has a small volume, is unstable and poorly distributed. Children of primary school age have a well-developed involuntary memory, recording vivid, emotionally rich images and events of their lives. Since cognitive processes function interconnectedly, the impact on memory, attention and thinking will be reflected in the cognitive activity of a primary school student. Taking into account the psychological characteristics of children of this age, the formation of cognitive activity will be facilitated by the use of visual teaching methods in the classroom: observations, demonstrations, illustrations, as they arouse interest, provide the opportunity to use various types of activities, and develop various psychological processes of the child.

The problem of developing the cognitive activity of younger schoolchildren has been the focus of attention of teachers for a long time. Ya.A. Komensky, K.D. Ushinsky, D. Locke, Rousseau J-J defined cognitive activity as students’ natural desire for knowledge. Pedagogical reality proves every day that the process of learning and education is more effective if the child shows cognitive activity. This phenomenon is recorded in pedagogical theory as the principle of “activity and independence of students in learning” (Babansky Yu.K.).

Modern domestic researchers have studied the characteristics of cognitive activity and ways of activating it in primary schoolchildren. These are Markova A.K., Lozovaya V.I., Telnova Zh.N., Shchukina G.I. and others. Cognitive development is a complex process. It has its own directions, patterns and features. A child is by nature an inquisitive and explorer of the world (N.N. Poddyakov).

Visual teaching methods are teaching methods in which the assimilation of educational material during the learning process depends on the use of visual aids and technical means.

Visual teaching methods must be used when working with children of primary school age. This rule follows from the psychological characteristics of the attention of a primary school student.

Visual teaching methods include observation, illustration and demonstration. Thanks to observation, it is possible to arouse students’ interest in the life around them and teach them to analyze natural and social phenomena, as well as teach them to concentrate on the main thing and highlight special features. Thanks to the demonstration, students’ attention is directed to the significant, and not accidentally discovered, external characteristics of the objects, phenomena, and processes under consideration. Illustrations are especially useful when explaining new material.

Today, there are programs with an environmental and biological orientation that reflect the search for methods to improve the environmental culture of students. The programs, with the goal of developing skills in study, research, and conservation of wildlife, are diverse in topic, and are both theoretical and applied, practical, experimental and research in nature. Based on the program for a circle of zoologists from the collection “Nature Explorers” for out-of-school institutions and secondary schools (Moscow 1983) and the experience of the St. Petersburg Zoo, the “Young Zoologist” program was created, most suitable for additional education of children of primary school age (Annex 1).

The program of additional education for children “Young Zoologist” is focused on the formation of cognitive activity in children through the constant and systematic study of living nature by children. Without well-thought-out teaching methods, it is difficult to organize the assimilation of program material. That is why it is necessary to improve those methods and means of teaching that help to involve students in cognitive search, in the work of learning: they help teach students to actively, independently obtain knowledge, stimulate their thoughts and develop interest in the subject.

The formation of cognitive activity in primary school age with targeted teaching activities has a positive effect on personality development. The educational program for additional education for children “Young Zoologist” is experimental.

It takes into account the peculiarities of the natural and climatic conditions of our region. The harsh climate does not provide the opportunity for practical work in nature - excursions, observations, field research in winter. In this regard, the role of knowledge of nature through the use of visual teaching methods is increasing. The content of the program provides for a visual and sensory familiarization of children with phenomena, processes, objects in their natural form (mini-zoo animals) and the perception of objects, processes, phenomena in their symbolic representation using posters, maps, portraits, drawings, diagrams, etc. , which significantly facilitate the process of concept formation.

The foundations of ecological culture are laid at an early age, when a child first enters the world of knowledge about nature. Children's future attitude towards nature will largely depend on whether they realize its value and how deeply aesthetic and moral attitudes towards natural objects will be cultivated. Forming a responsible attitude towards nature in children is a complex and lengthy process. The effectiveness of environmental education and upbringing of children depends on the level of development of children’s cognitive activity.

However, many teachers encounter in their practice the intellectual passivity of children. The reasons for the observed intellectual passivity of children lie in the limited intellectual impressions and interests of the child. At the same time, being unable to cope with a simple task, children quickly complete it when the task is translated into practical activity or a game. The use of visual and didactic material allows children to expand and systematize their knowledge of what cannot be observed in nature, establish cause-and-effect relationships, and think abstractly.

In his practical activities, every teacher should strive to ensure that students are active in the classroom. With the correct selection of didactic material on the topic and age of children, it is possible to develop not only certain knowledge, but also the cognitive activity of students.

The opportunity to expand the knowledge base in the field of wildlife, to identify children’s aptitudes and abilities for the types and forms of research, practical, and experimental activities can be implemented within the framework of the program of the children’s association of zoological direction.

The educational program “Young Zoologist” provides for the development of cognitive activity in classes, varied in methodological solutions, using visual didactic aids and observations of living objects.

The traditional use of visual aids is due to their advantages over natural objects. They help to go beyond the range of phenomena accessible to direct observation and show what is remote geographically, in time, or simply invisible to the naked eye of a child.

Visual aids can be used to teach children about the growth and development of animals. The static nature of the images in the pictures allows us to consider how baby animals grow, what conditions ensure the normal course of this process, and what is the role of the mother (Appendix 2). Children seem to observe the growth and development of wild animals, which is almost impossible to organize in natural conditions.

The use of visual methods allows children to be introduced to the diversity of the animal world, because children become acquainted not only with specific animals, but also gain generalized knowledge about individual groups (domestic, wild, forest, etc.) (Appendix 3).

When looking at paintings, i.e. In the process of indirect acquaintance with animals, the formation of realistic ideas in children is easier if a special technique is used - introducing a measure and comparing the animal with it, for example, in comparison with the height of a person. The work carried out showed that visual aids can be used in different ways. Each picture can be viewed separately. In this case, students get to know in detail one or another side of the animal’s life. Simultaneous examination of several pictures united by some content allows children to form generalized ideas about the diversity of the animal world.

The content of the program includes classes in which modeling of natural objects is used. Models of individual animals are most accessible for children to perceive and understand. For example, when studying the external structure and lifestyle of a hydra polyp, a model of a freshwater hydra polyp, made by the students themselves from yarn, is used. The model allows you to demonstrate not only the features of the external structure of the animal, but also its methods of movement and reaction to irritation (Appendix 4, Appendix 5).

The use of visual and didactic aids is an important means of developing in students a variety of ideas about nature, in particular about the relationship between animals and their environment, and the role of humans in their lives. They successfully complement observations of nature and significantly expand the range of phenomena that are accessible to children’s knowledge.

During unification classes, various methodological techniques are used to facilitate the assimilation of knowledge: implementation of diagrams showing the relationship of concepts and their classification; the use of pictorial and schematic clarity, often in the form of dynamic visual diagrams. A special role is given to video, film and filmstrips, which provide a dynamic picture of natural phenomena and allow one to observe the structural features, behavior, and habits of living objects. The concretization of concepts is ensured by the widespread use of natural visual aids in classes: herbariums and collections, but the main place is given to the observation of animals.

Particular attention is paid to the deductive approach in studying new material: children apply theoretical knowledge about environmental patterns to solve problem situations and explain phenomena observed in nature. Based on an understanding of cause-and-effect relationships in nature, the dependence of the state of a living organism on the conditions in which it is located, sympathy, grains of moral responsibility for its life, and willingness to help arise. The emotional attitude of children towards their pets can be used as the basis for developing empathy for living nature, admiration for it, and a caring attitude towards it.

The effectiveness of the use of experience is manifested, first of all, in the development of children’s cognitive activity - intellectual feelings arise from satisfying the need to learn new things. Students successfully conduct research activities.

The “Young Zoologist” program can be used by additional education teachers, primary school teachers, leaders of after-school groups, i.e. in those institutions where there is a transition from traditional familiarization with nature to solving issues of environmental education of children.

The program is variable, so it can be used to work with children with disabilities or older preschoolers.

The issues of developing the cognitive activity of a primary school student are relevant and important for every teacher, because The activity and desire of children to acquire new knowledge depends on the level of its development.

Teaching methods. Classification of teaching methods

Method (from the Greek word metodos - literally the way to something) means a way to achieve a goal, a certain ordered activity.

A teaching method is a way of orderly interconnected activities of a teacher and students, activities aimed at solving the problems of education, upbringing and development in the learning process.

Teaching methods are one of the most important components of the educational process. Without appropriate methods of activity, it is impossible to realize the goals and objectives of learning and to achieve students’ assimilation of certain content of educational material.

The concept of “method,” as is known, is used primarily in a broad general methodological sense, when talking about the method of dialectical materialism, which is opposed to the idealistic, metaphysical method of knowing reality. Only the method of dialectical materialism is a truly scientific basis for the objective description and effective application in practice of all other methods of human activity, in particular teaching methods.

Soviet pedagogy has accumulated a rich arsenal of teaching methods. All of them can be divided into several groups, applying a certain principle of approach to their identification. Since teaching methods have a number of aspects and can be considered in different aspects, it is quite natural that there are several approaches to their classification.

Methods are divided according to the sources of transmission and the nature of perception of information into verbal, visual and practical (S. I. Perovsky, E. Ya. Golant).

Depending on the main didactic tasks implemented at this stage of training, methods are divided into methods of acquiring knowledge, developing skills, applying knowledge, creative activity, consolidating, testing knowledge, abilities, skills (M. A. Danilov, B. P. Esipov).

In accordance with the nature of the cognitive activity of students in mastering the content of education, methods such as explanatory-illustrative (information-receptive), reproductive, problem presentation, partial search, or heuristic, and research are distinguished (M. N. Skatkin, I. Ya. Lerner).

Classifications are proposed that combine teaching methods with corresponding teaching methods: information-generalizing and performing, explanatory and reproductive, instructive-practical and productive-practical, explanatory-motivating and partially searching, motivating and searching (M. I. Makhmutov).

Increasingly, approaches to classifying teaching methods are being used simultaneously according to sources of knowledge and logical justifications (N. M. Verzilin), according to sources of knowledge and the level of independence of students in educational activities (A. N. Aleksyuk, I. D. Zverev, etc.)

V. F. Palamarchuk and V. I. Palamarchuk proposed a model of teaching methods that combines sources of knowledge, the level of cognitive activity and independence of students, as well as the logical path of educational knowledge.

A classification that examines four aspects of methods: logical-substantive, source, procedural and organizational-managerial, was proposed by S. G. Shapovalenko.

The presence of different points of view on the problem of classifying methods reflects the natural process of differentiation and integration of knowledge about them. A multilateral, integrated approach to characterizing their essence is becoming increasingly clear.

In modern conditions, real opportunities have matured for generalizing and systematizing ideas about teaching methods based on the methodology of a holistic approach to activity.

Since in Soviet psychology it is now generally accepted to consider thinking as a living human activity, which has the same fundamental structure as practical activity (A. N. Leontiev), it seems necessary when describing teaching methods to directly proceed from the theory of human activity.

K. Marx in “Capital” considers the labor process as a human activity, in which elements of mediation, regulation and control are identified. Accordingly, activities in the learning process should be carried out using such methods (methods) that combine in unity the organization of actions to mediate educational information, regulation of the individual’s activity, primarily through various methods of stimulating it, as well as operational control over the progress of activity.

With a holistic approach, it is necessary to distinguish three large groups of teaching methods:

1) methods of organizing and implementing educational and cognitive activities; 2) methods of stimulation and motivation of educational and cognitive activity; 3) methods of monitoring and self-monitoring of the effectiveness of educational and cognitive activities.

Each of the three groups of methods reflects the interaction between teachers and students. The teacher’s organizational influences are combined here with the implementation and self-organization of students’ activities. The stimulating influence of the teacher leads to the development of learning motivation in schoolchildren, that is, internal stimulation of learning. The controlling actions of teachers are combined with self-control of students.

Each of the main groups of methods can in turn be divided into subgroups and the individual methods included in them. Since the organization and the process of carrying out educational and cognitive activities involve the transmission, perception, comprehension, memorization of educational information and the practical application of the knowledge and skills obtained in this process, the first group of teaching methods must include methods of verbal transmission and auditory perception of information (verbal methods: story , lecture, conversation, etc.); methods of visual transmission and visual perception of educational information (visual methods: illustration, demonstration, etc.) methods of transmitting educational information through practical, labor actions and tactile, kinesthetic perception of it (practical methods: exercises, laboratory experiments, labor actions, etc.)

The selection of verbal, visual and practical methods cannot be considered justified only in external terms from the point of view of information sources. It also has a certain basis in the internal plane through the characteristics of forms of thinking.

The process of educational cognition necessarily involves the organization of comprehension of educational information and its logical assimilation. Therefore, it is necessary to identify subgroups of methods for organizing inductive and deductive, as well as reproductive and problem-search activities of students.

Perception, comprehension and application of knowledge can occur under the direct guidance of the teacher, as well as during the independent work of students. From here it is possible to highlight methods of independent work, keeping in mind that other teaching methods are implemented under the guidance of a teacher. Each subsequent subgroup of methods is manifested in all previous ones, and therefore they now talk about the mandatory use of methods in certain combinations with the dominance of one of their types in a given situation.

So, we have shown possible subgroups of methods that are included in the first group, ensuring the organization and implementation of educational and cognitive activities in the educational process.

(...) The proposed classification of teaching methods is relatively holistic because it takes into account all the main structural elements of activity (its organization, stimulation and control). It holistically presents such aspects of cognitive activity as perception, comprehension and practical application. It takes into account all the main functions and aspects of methods identified by pedagogical science at a given period, without discarding any of them. But it does not simply mechanically combine known approaches, but considers them in interrelation and unity, requiring the selection of their optimal combination. Finally, the proposed approach to the classification of methods does not exclude the possibility of supplementing it with new private methods that arise in the course of improving the learning process in a modern school. Before moving on to the characteristics of individual teaching methods, it should be noted that each method can be imagined as consisting of a set of methodological techniques. On this basis, methods are sometimes defined as a set of methodological techniques that provide solutions to learning problems. This definition, being correct in the aspect under consideration, still does not reveal the activity essence of teaching methods, and therefore at the beginning of the chapter we gave a definition of teaching methods as ways of interaction between teachers and students to achieve learning goals. But the above does not reduce the usefulness of identifying in each specific case those methodological techniques that make up any method. Therefore, in the future, when characterizing various methods, we will note the methodological techniques included in them. Although it should be noted that the problem of more complete identification and analysis of teaching methods is one of the most pressing in the general problems of didactic research.

Let's move on to a more detailed description of all the main groups of teaching methods in secondary schools.

Visual teaching methods

Visual teaching methods can be divided into two large groups: methods of illustration and demonstration.

The illustration method involves showing students illustrative aids: posters, maps, sketches on the board, paintings, portraits of scientists, etc.

The demonstration method is usually associated with the demonstration of instruments, experiments, technical installations, and various types of preparations. Demonstration methods also include showing films and filmstrips. This division of visual aids into illustrative and demonstrative has historically developed in teaching practice. It does not exclude the possibility of classifying certain visual aids as both illustrative and demonstration methods. This applies, for example, to displaying illustrations through an epidiascope or overhead projector.

When using visual methods, the following techniques are used: showing, providing better visibility (screen, tinting, lighting, lifting devices, etc.), discussing the results of observations, demonstrations, etc.

In recent years, practice has been enriched with a number of new visual aids. New, more colorful geographical maps with plastic coating, albums of illustrations on history, literature, and geographical atlases with photographs taken from satellites were created. The practice of teaching included LETI devices and overhead projectors, which make it possible during the daytime, without darkening the classroom, to show drawings, diagrams, drawings made by the teacher on transparent film. In the lessons, sketches began to be used on sheets of Whatman paper using wide felt-tip pens, which made it possible to reveal the dynamics of the phenomenon being studied, gradually illustrating all its necessary stages one after another. Finally, many schools are equipped with daytime movie screens, where a movie camera is installed in the laboratory room and shows the film on frosted glass placed above the blackboard. All these tools have found particularly wide application in the classroom teaching system.

Modern didactics requires the most rational options for using visual aids to achieve a greater educational and educational effect. It guides teachers towards the use of visual teaching methods in such a way as to simultaneously be able to develop students’ abstract thinking.

The use of the method of demonstrating educational films has become quite common in teaching practice. Film libraries have been created in all cities and large areas, which, upon requests from teachers, send the necessary film. The list of basic educational films is now reflected in school curricula, which makes it much easier for teachers to choose them. In the educational process, both full films on the topic, as well as film fragments and film loops are used. Film fragments are devoted to individual issues of the relevant topic. Film clips usually demonstrate closed processes, for example, the process of operation of a model of an internal combustion engine, the process of takeoff, flight and landing of an aircraft, etc. Practice shows that when studying a new topic, film fragments and film clips are especially useful. Full films on the topic are effectively used to reinforce the entire topic. Of course, it is possible to fragmentarily use complete films while studying a new topic, which is what many teachers try to do.

When preparing to use a film in the educational process, the teacher must preview it, draw up the main questions that will be posed to students during the demonstration, and isolate fragments that will be shown at the appropriate moment in the lesson. It is useful to outline the places where cues will be given that focus attention on the most important thing. Finally, it is necessary to outline a plan for the final conversation on the film.

Use of educational television. A new visual method that has come to schools in the last decade is the massive use of educational television. Numerous educational television films have been created for secondary schools, technical schools and universities, and educational television programs are also broadcast. Programs for upcoming programs on Central Television are published in the Teacher's Newspaper, reproduced by teacher training institutes and made available to teachers. Taking this into account, schools draw up a schedule of training sessions and provide for them to be held in the appropriate classrooms.

The expansion of the use of television will be facilitated by video recorders, which make it possible to record a television program and repeat it to clarify any difficulties that have arisen and deepen the understanding of the issues being studied. The construction of cheaper VCRs has now been completed, which will become available to every school.

The connection between visual and verbal methods

The peculiarity of visual teaching methods is that they necessarily involve, to one degree or another, a combination with verbal methods. The close relationship between words and visualization follows from the fact that the dialectical path of cognition of objective reality presupposes the use of living contemplation, abstract thinking and practice in unity. The teaching of I.P. Pavlov about the first and second signal systems shows that when understanding the phenomena of reality, they must be used in conjunction. Perception through the first signal system must organically merge with the manipulation of words, with the active functioning of the second signal system.

L. V. Zankov studied several basic forms of combining words and visibility: through the word, the teacher guides the observation, which is carried out by students, and students extract knowledge about the appearance of an object, its directly perceived properties and relationships from the visual object itself in the process of observation;

through the medium of words, the teacher, based on the observation of visual objects carried out by schoolchildren and on the basis of their existing knowledge, leads students to comprehend and form connections in phenomena that cannot be seen in the process of perception;

Students receive information about the appearance of an object, its directly perceived properties and relationships from the teacher’s verbal messages, and visual aids serve as confirmation or concretization of verbal messages;

starting from the observation of a visual object carried out by schoolchildren, the teacher reports on such connections between phenomena that are not directly perceived by students, or draws a conclusion, combines, generalizes individual data. Thus, there are various forms of connection between words and visuals. It would be a mistake to give any of them complete preference, since depending on the characteristics of the learning objectives, the content of the topic, the nature of the available visual aids, as well as the level of preparedness of the students, it is necessary in each specific case to choose their most rational combination.

Conditions for the effective use of visualization

There are several methodological conditions, the fulfillment of which ensures the successful use of visual teaching aids: 1) good visibility, which is achieved by using appropriate paints in the manufacture of lifting tables, backlight screens, raters, signs, etc.; 2) clearly highlighting the main thing when showing illustrations, since they sometimes contain distracting moments; 3) detailed thinking through the explanations (introductory, during the demonstration and final) necessary to clarify the essence of the demonstration phenomena, as well as to summarize the learned educational information; 4) involving the students themselves in finding the desired information in a visual aid or demonstration device, setting them problematic tasks of a visual nature.

In conditions of demonstration of chemical, physical and other technical installations, it is necessary to strictly adhere to safety rules, which are clearly defined by the relevant instructional documents. Practical teaching methods cover a very wide range of different types of student activities. When using practical methods, the following techniques are used: setting a task, planning its implementation, managing the implementation process, operational stimulation, regulation and control, analyzing the results of practical work, identifying the causes of shortcomings, adjusting training to fully achieve the goal.

Practical methods include written exercises - completing assignments in native and foreign languages, mathematics and other subjects. During the exercises, the student applies the acquired theoretical knowledge in practice. One of the specific types of training exercises are commented exercises, during which the student more actively comprehends the upcoming actions, speaks to himself or out loud, and comments on the upcoming operations. Commenting on actions helps the teacher detect common mistakes and make adjustments to students’ actions.

The second large group of practical methods consists of laboratory experiments. In recent decades, front-line laboratory work, educational workshops in physics, chemistry, biology and other subjects have become firmly established in school practice. Frontal experiments and observations are increasingly penetrating school life, which, in comparison with frontal laboratory work, do not occupy the whole lesson, but only a small part of it and serve as introductory exercises leading to the assimilation of the theoretical part of a new topic.

Practical methods also include performing work tasks in workshops, training and production workshops, and student teams. These tasks may be educational in nature. These include all work in educational workshops to develop skills in working with paper, cardboard, wood, metal, using various tools, operating machines and mechanisms, and working with “Constructor” type sets. Teaching methods are used in which students carry out production tasks of enterprises.

Practical methods also include exercises performed by students with sound recording and sound reproducing equipment. A special type of practical teaching methods consists of classes with teaching machines, simulator machines and tutors. These machines usually involve programming educational material, dividing it into doses, selecting test questions for each dose, reinforcing the answer or asking new leading questions.

Practical methods are used in close combination with verbal and visual teaching methods, since practical work on performing an exercise, experience, or labor operation must be preceded by an instructional explanation from the teacher. Verbal explanations and illustrations usually accompany the process of performing the exercises, and also complete the analysis of its results.

16. Teaching methods

16.1 The concept of teaching methods, their classification

The teaching method is a way of orderly interrelated activities of the teacher and students, aimed at solving educational problems (Yu.K. Babansky).

The teaching method is a system of purposeful actions of the teacher that organizes the learning activities of students, leading, in turn, to the achievement of learning goals (I.Ya. Lerner).

In defining the concept of “teaching method,” the main thing is the method of activity, which is revealed as a system of actions leading to the goal. Remember: there is teaching and learning. Therefore, it is more correct to talk about the goals and actions of the teacher (teaching) and the goals and actions of the student (learning), which are interconnected. And therefore, some didactics believe that the teacher’s methods correspond to the student’s methods, that is, the methods are binary in nature, they do not exist one at a time, but in pairs (M.I. Makhmutov). Most didactics, however, describe the method as a system of united actions between teacher and student. Knowledge and choice of teaching methods in practice is of primary importance, because it determines didactic actions and operations leading to achieving the goal. There is no strictly scientific classification of teaching methods in didactics, since science cannot yet find one basis for identifying all methods.

Therefore, there are several classifications for various reasons. Here are the most developed ones.

2. By the nature of cognitive activity

Explanatory and visual (reproductive)

Problem Statement

Partially search (heuristic)

Research

3. For didactic purposes

Methods for learning new knowledge

Methods for consolidating knowledge

Control methods.

4. By place in the activity structure

Yu.K. Babansky proposed to classify methods based on the structure of activity. It highlights the elements of organization, regulation, and control. Accordingly, according to Yu. Babansky, there should be three groups of methods according to their place in the structure of training:

1. methods of organizing and implementing educational activities,

2. methods of its stimulation and motivation,

3. methods of monitoring and self-monitoring of educational activities.

Each group has a set of methods. Thus, in the 1st group there are methods according to the above classifications. In the 2nd group - methods of forming motives, in particular, didactic games. In the 3rd group - methods of oral, written, laboratory and practical control and self-control. The main teaching methods are described below.

16.2 Teaching methods by source of knowledge

16.2.2 Visual methods

The source of knowledge is an image, a visual representation of the object of study in the form of diagrams, tables, drawings, models, instruments. Visual methods include: illustration - display and organization of cognitive activity based on the exhibited object (static); demonstration - display of dynamic models, instruments that allow one to observe processes, measure them, and discover their essential properties.

The use of visual methods is combined with verbal ones, based on the connection of the first and second signal systems. Functions of visual methods: provide perception of the subject of study; form an idea about it; - create conditions for mastering the essential characteristics of the observed phenomenon, not limited to external, insignificant features. In other words, visibility through perception and representation should lead to the formation of concepts, laws, and theories. If this does not happen, visibility inhibits the formation of knowledge and the development of thinking.

Visual

VISUAL METHOD 88 must be understood much more broadly, not even in the sense of sensory perception, but as exercise, the development of independent work skills, which is why, strictly speaking, the very term “visibility” can be considered not to correspond to the actual content of this concept. Finally, one cannot fail to mention visualization as applied to verbal perception, when this verbal material is presented in a vivid form that evokes visual images in the listener. T. arr. in a broad sense, N. m. covers both the use of visual aids in the proper sense of the word, such as: drawing, table, slide, model, dummy, preparation, and the use of things and objects that are around us in nature and in everyday life, for training purposes. In this direction, excursion sweeping, which is essentially one of the types of N.M., becomes of great importance. in its broadest sense. N. m. finds its complete expression in museum exhibitions, where there are extensive collections of visual aids. The research method, in which students deal not only with a book in Smyslov for independent study, but also with certain labor processes (in particular, the independent creation of visual aids - collecting and processing plants, collecting data and drawing up diagrams, etc.) is also based on the widespread use of the visual method. History N.m. quite old. N. m. was used in teaching in ancient Greece and even earlier in Egypt. Heraclitus, one of the founders of dialectics, said: “The eyes are better witnesses than the ears.” Quintilian (2nd century AD) also advocated for clarity. The era of feudalism, marked by the oppression of the church, brought dead scholasticism in place of clarity. The word becomes higher than real ideas and knowledge of things. With the birth of commercial capitalism, which was reflected in the Renaissance and humanism, shifts occurred in pedagogy. Rabelais was the first in his famous novel “Garhaptua and Pantagruel” to assign a large place to visualization, and in particular to the excursion method, in the system of new pedagogical views. Following Bacon, who with his inductive philosophy put observation in the first place, the greatest teacher of this turning point, Jan Amos Komenek (1592-1670), spoke out. In his “Great Didactics,” he laid the foundation for bourgeois pedagogy; he put visibility in the first place; in this book he gives examples of the use of N. m. Not limiting himself to theoretical provisions about N. m., he created the book “The World in Pictures” (Ornisplctus), in which he gave the first example of the application of II. m. in textbooks. Following him, the English philosopher Locke came out as champions of N. m. (he said: “It would be completely useless and uninteresting for children to tell them about such things, about which they have no idea; knowledge about specific things is not acquired from sounds and words, but from the things themselves and their images") and Jean-Jacques Rousseau in his famous novel "Emile or on Education", where he acts as an ideologist of the petty bourgeoisie of the pre-revolutionary era. Rousseau goes further and raises the question not about images, but about objectivity; the study of living nature comes to the fore (Rousseau even rebelled against the globe and map in teaching geography). The next stage in the history of the issue of natural science is associated with the ideas of Pestalozzi, Froebel and other German teachers. In his book “Like Gertrude. teaches his children” (1801) Pestalozzi said: “Visibility is the basis of all knowledge; all learning is based on observation and experience.” Froebel added another element of activity to the elements of contemplation, thus expanding the concept of visualization as an exercise of the organ of vision and muscular sense; Any visual aid must be made by the student himself. Among other active conductors of N. m., we should also mention Bazedov (from the group of so-called “philanthropists”) and Herbert. The Russian school, which remained under the yoke of classicism until the last years of tsarism and was far from life and nature, carried out scientific art on an extremely limited scale. A group of teachers in the 60s who actively developed the issues of N.M. (in particular for the Ushinsky lower school) could do relatively little under the existing conditions of the regime. The use of memory before the revolution was predominantly purely demonstrative in nature and was expressed in visual illustrative clarity, due to which sensory perception, although expanded in comparison with verbal perception, still remains passive. This explains the reaction that has arisen among modern teachers regarding the use of visual aids. Already at the First All-Russian Congress of Natural Science Teachers in Petrograd in 1921, there was a sharp protest against visual aids. “We are not talking about promoting visibility and expanding the use of visual aids, but about moderating the ardor in this direction, so as not to distort or diminish the importance of the excursion. and laboratory research methods of teaching, do not replace nature and its enormous educational value with dead rubbish and manuals.” - “The use of visual aids is closely related to demonstrative teaching techniques. They are intended only for looking at them; they are, by their very essence, correctives to verbal learning. They ignore other senses and do not allow the exercise of motor abilities.” Therefore, “get out of school all models, diagrams, schematic tables and drawings.” - “The principle of visualization has outlived its time and must give way to independent, creative work in the study of the surrounding nature” (report by V. F. Natali). However, undoubtedly this excess was caused by the one-sided use of N. m. in the old school and, as a result, an incorrect understanding of its essence. When in the old school the excursion method had almost no use at all and the study of living nature was replaced by the contemplation of flowers in a drawing or in a finished herbarium, and apiaries in a box under glass, such N. m., of course, was no good. But N.m. is by no means limited to showing drawings. Indeed, in research work, elements of clarity play a big role. Along with this, the nature of the use of visual aids is of great importance. The view seems absolutely correct: “First of all, such aids should be necessary material, a supplement to what direct study of natural objects cannot provide. Secondly, many manuals can illuminate “and resolve those details that, for one reason or another, may not be sufficiently clear and understandable on natural objects” (Ulyaninsky). Thus, the requirements for N. m. can be formulated as follows: 1) N. m. should be based on objectivity, i.e., the study of natural things, and not their images. Only if familiarization with the subject of the lesson is impossible, then its image is quite appropriate (for example, in zoology, images of tropical animals etc., in medicine - anatomical tables, etc.); 2) the use of N. m. should not be of a passive-contemplative nature, but serve as material for amateur performances. In this regard, it should be recognized as correct that “ Currently, we have to talk not about visual aids, but about working material for students’ independent knowledge and research" (Konorov). However, we must admit that this is nothing more than the highest form of N. m., which has gone beyond the boundaries of a narrow formal understanding this method. All these provisions remain in full force with regard to the use of N. m. in dignity. education, not to mention the teaching of hygiene in school, where tables on anatomy, skeleton, models of certain sanitary installations, anatomy. microscope, preparations, in a word, various visual forms. benefits will find the widest application; The N. method is especially important in mass education. work., 89 VISUAL METHOD 90 Having as its ultimate goal the activation of amateur activity of the broad masses in the struggle for the improvement of work and life, mass work itself, in comparison with school, where there is a stable audience and a large supply of time, provides less opportunity for an active method in the process of Sanitation itself. .-clearance, work. Therefore, in mass work, contrary to the opinions of opponents of N. m., given above, purely illustrative aids are of great importance. The importance of visual aids can be summarized as follows: they facilitate the perception of new information, reduce time for explanations, increase learning and facilitate the creation of figurative ideas. However, the growth of amateur activity of the masses, a radical restructuring of all mass work, poses the task of using N. m. in a completely different way, because, by involving the broadest masses in the work of improving health, in the work of sections of health care, health services, and dignity. commissions, labor safety commissions, etc., we do not use artificially created visual aids, but directly in life, in practical everyday work, we carry out the dignity visually. training of millions of masses, an example of which is the conduct of dignity. minimum. New forms of labor—socialist competition and shock work—visually teach the masses to an even greater extent the struggle for a new life. The period of reconstruction of the entire national economy, the construction of the foundation of socialism in our country, also imposed completely different demands on the health care business. A radical restructuring of the entire healthcare business also requires new approaches and a huge scale in the spread of mass san. culture. All this puts the question of N. m. and visual aids in a completely different way at this stage. Resolution of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks dated 5/VIII 1931 on technical propaganda, which opens a new stage in the matter of dignity. education, focusing the attention of the entire Soviet public on this most important task, directly emphasizes the importance of visual aids. In school, where visual aids are especially widely used in connection with active forms of work and the growth of amateur performances, N. m. also takes on a different character and is carried out directly on real objects. The polytechnization of the school undoubtedly increases even more the importance of visual learning, conducting it not in pictures and images, but directly in labor processes, at the machine, in the field, etc. etc., giving it the character of the greatest vital clarity. By this, visual aids are by no means erased from the arsenal of san.-prosvet. methods, but they are given a purely auxiliary significance as an important auxiliary methodological point. The content is visual. any questions of medicine and health care can serve as aids, but the relevance of the topic and its compliance with the needs of socialist construction are one of the most important requirements for visual aids. The main requirements for visual aids boil down to the following: scientific literacy (not only in the sense of formal accuracy, but especially in relation to the interpretation of certain processes on the basis of Marxist-Leninist methodology and the avoidance of vitalistic and mechanistic illumination, examples of which can be found in the German Museum in Dresden in the “Man” department, where the visual aids take a position of neutrality between both ideological directions, equally hostile to consistent dialectical materialism, on the basis of which alone health education can be built; as a similar example, we can name the table “Human Body” ", placed in the book Kahn"a: "Das Lebendes Menschen" and published several years ago by the publication "Gudok" and "Scientific Thought"; it is the worst example of vulgar-mechanistic simplification: the entire human body is presented in the form of a series of machines). In each in a visual aid, political clarity and sharpness, along with the fight against the perversions indicated now, should be expressed in the political intensity of each visual aid, which should not serve the purposes of naked culturalism, but be a weapon in the struggle for the socialist offensive, should awaken the activity of the working masses to improve the health of work and everyday life, carrying out san. minimum, for reducing morbidity, thereby accelerating the pace of our construction. Only under these conditions can visual aids currently be considered suitable; any neutrality in visual aids, as well as in other areas, must be recognized as harmful and intolerant. The third requirement for visual aids is artistic execution. Of the individual types of visual aids, we can name sequentially: the use of the surrounding nature and everyday life, natural objects taken in their usual setting, the same objects taken in isolation and transferred to the educational setting in kind or in preparations, their images as completely documentary (photographs), and creative (drawing, table, poster), and we can talk about both pre-prepared printed images and those improvised right there in front of the audience using a blackboard and chalk. Along with these flat images, three-dimensional aids are of great importance, which include models, dummies, and mock-ups. The last group consists of instruments and experiments. The first place in the visual method should be given to the use of the nature and everyday life around us for the purpose of visual education, the use of natural objects. At the same time, we must keep in mind that the most familiar objects in everyday life, precisely because of their familiarity, are usually not analyzed by us and are perceived almost unconsciously. Therefore, analysis of the most familiar subject as a visual aid can be of great methodological interest. As an example, we can name two striking examples for their time, given in Nikitinsky’s books “Glass of Water” and “Crust of Bread,” which show the use of such simple objects as these for the purpose of a visual and comprehensive development of the topic. In order to apply such objectivity, you can use dignity. walks (inspections) of a given hostel, school, club, collective farm, etc., a stove or central heating battery in a room, ventilation* and a number of others. In an anatomy lesson, before moving on to the corresponding table, you should familiarize yourself with a number of structural features human body on one of the listeners, show them a natural bovine heart, brain and kidney, which can always be obtained in advance by agreeing with the nearest meat or slaughterhouse; Only for a pathologically altered organ (alcoholic liver, tuberculosis lung, etc.) can you use a drug, a dummy or a model. For nutrition classes, you can use for visualization purposes such improvised objects as a piece of meat, lard, an egg, milk, showing the corresponding experiments with them (for example, the loss of protein in milk under the influence of acetic acid or the formation of sugar from starch in bread under the influence action of salivary ptyalin). During first aid classes, students should be familiarized with the dressing material, its properties, shown and taught how to make improvised splints from straw, twigs, etc., show what should not be applied to the wound (leaf, soil, droppings), and then move on to development of technical skills, and the whole activity, of course, will be both visually demonstrative and at the same time active in nature. When teaching how to care for an infant, which naturally should be entirely visual in nature, along with demonstration and exercise in processes such as wrapping a baby, how to hold him, you can show a homemade collection of items that should not be fed to an infant, toys, which should not be given to a child (tin, painted with harmful paints, etc.) ). A similar collection can also be compiled for the topic “What a pregnant woman should and shouldn’t eat.” Local materials should be widely used, which is especially important in rural work. So eg. a clean spoon and a dirty one, obtained from the doctor. Inspecting a worker's dormitory, somewhere under a pillow or behind a boot, dirty dishes, a cigarette butt, dirty rags from oil, etc. - all this can serve as an excellent visual aid for sanitary clearance, work. A significant number of such examples could be offered, and undoubtedly every doctor himself will find enough of them in his daily practical work. This widespread use of objectivity is especially important in the work of a local doctor, who, due to lack of funds, cannot purchase expensive benefits. Moving on to illustrative visual aids, we should especially note the importance of the aid created right there in front of the audience, together with it or itself. This is why it is so important to use blackboards and chalk in lecture work in small school or circle groups. This ABC of the technique is of exceptional importance. It is especially valuable if the teacher (lecturer) knows how to sketch not only a diagram or diagram, but also a drawing. Photography as a visual aid has become extremely widespread in recent years. International gig. the exhibition in Dresden in 1930 showed this especially clearly; photography in a wide variety of combinations was in the center there. Undoubtedly, this success is associated with the documentary nature of the photograph, its persuasiveness in the sense of authenticity in comparison with the deliberate drawing and the ease of giving it the desired size (at the mentioned exhibition there were photographs measuring 4 x 8 x). It is worth mentioning the subjects of photography. Often they prefer ceremonial photographs (dead, without people, idle laboratories, groups, meetings, etc.). Meanwhile, every photograph should be dynamic, life itself should speak from it; Each photograph taken for the purpose of subsequent visual propaganda should teach specific actions and call for practical work on health improvement. This basic requirement determines the choice of objects and moments of shooting. The so-called photomontage in which several photographs (often several dozen) through certain combinations provide a coherent and dynamic illustration of a particular topic or process (we do not mean old-fashioned dead montages, which were reduced only to the general framing of several dissimilar photographs , and not to their processing in content into something new). Photomontage has taken root not only in mass magazines, but also in visual aids. It is often overused to the detriment of clarity and intelligibility, but in essence this technique can achieve great dynamism. It is worth mentioning one technical technique for using photography in museums and exhibitions. in fact, with a stereo scope, which can give a good effect, enlivening a photograph, at the same time it allows you to save exposure space, although, on the other hand, it requires close and more in-depth attention. The main types of flat visual aids are drawing, table, diagram. The division between all these terms is quite arbitrary. We refer to a drawing as a single-shot image of a small size. The poster (see), which became extremely widespread during the years of the revolution, is primarily of a propaganda nature and does not usually serve as a teaching aid, although we often see propaganda posters. A diagram (see) is a graphical representation of digital values. Graphic images also include diagrams that are of great importance due to their simplicity, which determines their popularity. Schemes can be both organizational and scientific, for example anatomical, etc. By table we conventionally understand a visual aid that serves purely educational purposes and often consists of numerous drawings with significant explanatory text. Let's focus on these last ones here, since the other types (poster, diagram) are described separately. articles. From san.-educational tables, most often published in series or albums, should be called: tables on anatomy, published by Dr. Cane in the 3rd edition back in 1920, weak in artistic execution and containing a number of scientific errors; those released in 1929-30 by the State Medical Publishing House are incomparably higher. tables ed. prof. Karuzina; doing them just as well as the science side. The best in art regarding the manuals were published by the State Medical Publishing House for Ven. b-yum (arts, an album containing up to 40 tables both on the clinic of veins. b-ney, and on social prevention), on tuberculosis (a similar type of publication), on alcoholism, maternal and infant health care. A number of series have been released over the years on individual infectious diseases (childhood infections, anthrax, malaria - Rostov edition, etc.). In addition to them, it is necessary to name several series of tables on first aid, according to prof. hygiene, a series of educational tables on military hygiene and a number of others. Along with the center (Moscow-ed. People's Commissariat of Health, State Medical Publishing House, Moscow Health Department, Kharkov - ed. "Scientific Thought") published manuals and publications, printing tables from linoleum due to the lack of printing capabilities and coloring them by hand. Along with the series consisting of individual tables suitable for hanging, a number of albums were published, valuable as a visual aid, but not designed for hanging, but more suitable for library use. Of these, we can name albums on patient care, first aid (ed. ROKK), etc. All these manuals (posters, tables, albums) can be used perse, as they are, and in the form of a montage, when individual parts of the table are cut and mounted in a completely different way in accordance with the task assigned to this manual (health board, etc.). This reworking makes it possible to supplement the coverage of the topic with local material and revive it. Often, drawings are glued onto plywood and cut out (this is how homemade mock-ups are prepared). In general, it must be said that despite the incessant complaints about the lack of visual aids, their absence on the market (indeed, their publication always lags sharply behind the enormous growing need), the center of gravity is not this lack of ready-made visual aids, but the underestimation of the importance of local visual aids . Meanwhile, a number of manuals (primarily diagrams, photomontages, as well as more complex ones, for example, layouts) can be easily prepared locally, right up to the local police station, where, in its official capacity, the work must first of all use its , local material (morbidity, sanitary condition of the collective farm, etc.). In school practice, such homemade visual aids can and should be made by children in the order of their educational work. Using children's drawings for clarity purposes. training is very important. Along with these specially developed visual aids, mention should be made of the use of portraits of great scientists and leaders (Marx, Engels, Lenin, Stalin) as visual aids, accompanying them with appropriate quotes about the improvement of the proletariat, the education of a new man, etc. Not to mention about exhibitions, where in the relevant departments portraits of the creators of a given discipline or who created an era in a particular area are mandatory, but in lectures the demonstration of transparencies with portraits is also highly desirable. Portraits should be included in corners and exhibitions arranged in waiting rooms. institutions. Portraits of scientists include Leeuwenhoek, Pasteur, Koch, Mechnikov, Lister, Pirogov and many others. Even more important is the use for visual purposes. propaganda of x-artistic painting. Starting from classical painting (Rembrandt, Rubens, Murillo, Holbein, etc.) and ending with modern artists, one can name a large number of paintings, reproductions of which could be used for the purpose of dignity. enlightenment. These paintings contain a wide variety of topics: anatomy (there are a number of paintings depicting an autopsy), b-ni (skin-various rashes, surgical-operations, mental health-the appearance of the mentally ill, the environment of “madhouses”), treatment, or rather healing b -nyh, gig. procedures (many pictures depicting baths), maternity protection, physical education, etc. In terms of relief, spatial visual aids, first of all, it should be said about models, by which we mean accurate in compliance with three-dimensional scales. an image, respectively reduced or enlarged or life-size, of an object, building, installation, organism, etc. An example is anat. models that, unlike the corresponding tables that give a flat image, give a depth display. Of these, we can name common models - torso, etc. In addition to anat. models are manufactured gig. models of filters, ventilation, heating and other installations. Models are most often made from papier-mâché and plywood (Fig. 1-6). Models represent an image that accurately conveys the shape of the corresponding object, the details of the surface structure and its natural color. This “photographic quality” distinguishes a dummy from a model, which allows for a certain conventionality and sketchiness (for details, see Dummy). Maket is a conventional three-dimensional artistic depiction of a particular scene or process, conveying them not in plan, but in perspective. Layouts can be made 95