Classicism in the art of Western Europe of the 17th century. Classicism as an artistic movement of the 17th century
Know: 1. Features of classicism as a literary movement: the concept of man, the picture of the world, the concept of beauty in the culture of the era of classicism. 2. Basic rules of classicism. 3. Classicism in painting, architecture, sculpture, landscape art.
AESTHETIC PRINCIPLES OF CLASSICISM: 1. Strict division into genres. 2. Logical harmony of the work: three unities. 3. Main conflict: personal and civil interests, feeling and duty. 4. Inheritance of antiquity as a model. 5. Heroes of “one passion”, images without faces. They do not change, being exponents of general truths. 6. The use of common language was excluded.
Hierarchy of genres of classicism: Hierarchy Genres Themes IdeasHeroes Language High Ode, tragedy, heroic poem Events of outstanding national significance Glorification of the monarchy, service to the state Kings, outstanding figures, courtiers Majestic and solemn Average Scientific works, elegies, satires Science, nature, human vices Knowledge of the world and human nature Representatives of the middle classes Common vocabulary Low Comedy, songs, prose poems, epigrams Social vices, negative character traits Exposure of human vices Ordinary people Conversational style
HEROES POSITIVE EXAMPLE TO IMITATE NEGATIVE MORAL LESSON FOR READERS Skillfully preserve your character traits in the midst of any events for your hero. Let him be free from unworthy feelings, And even in his weaknesses, may he be powerful and noble! He must do great things.
1. For your hero, skillfully preserve character traits in the midst of any events. Let him be free from unworthy feelings, And even in his weaknesses, may he be powerful and noble! He must do great things. 2. Flee vile words and gross ugliness. Let the low syllable preserve both order and nobility. 3. You must introduce us to the plot without delay. You should maintain the unity of place in it. But we must not forget, poets, about reason: Let one event, contained in a day, flow in one place on stage; Only in this case will it captivate us.
Classicism is a style in the art of the 17th – early 19th centuries. The very concept of “classicism” translated from Latin means “exemplary”. Features: appeal to ancient culture as a model; declaration of the idea of a perfect society; the advantage of duty over feeling; exaltation of reason and rationality; subordination of a person to the state system.
Versailles - the residence of the French kings French classicism was characterized by a desire for splendor, to open views of the palace and from the palace, the symmetrical construction of both parts of the garden with a very wide central alley. Versailles - the absolute power of beauty
Classicism in architecture The architecture of classicism is amazing in its harmony. Perhaps it is in architecture and landscape art that the traditions of classicism have been preserved the longest. The works of Russian architecture of the 18th and early 19th centuries, primarily the ensembles of St. Petersburg and its suburbs, enjoy worldwide fame. They give “Northern Palmyra” a unique look, which has turned it into one of the most beautiful cities in the world. One of the monuments of early classicism in the Northern capital is the Admiralty, created according to the design of A. Zakharov. The building is decorated with a tower surrounded by a colonnade and topped with a dome and spire. On the spire there is a weather vane in the shape of a boat, which has become one of the symbols of St. Petersburg.
Sculpture of classicism What do you think is symbolized in the sculpture of Peter the Great: A rearing horse. Russia, which Peter's reforms turned into a powerful state. A solid stone in the shape of a huge wave. The memory that it was Peter the Great who won access to the sea for Russia. The snake trampled by Peter's horse. Opponents of Peter's reforms. The Tsar's hand pointing to the Neva, the Academy of Sciences and the Peter and Paul Fortress. The main goals of Peter's reform activities: education, trade and military power. Etienne-Maurice Falconet. Monument to Peter the Great
Pay attention to one of the main artistic techniques of the classicists - allegory (reflection of an abstract concept through a concrete image). The largest Peterhof fountain is based on “Samson tearing the lion’s mouth” - a myth about the hero of the Old Testament legends, the strongman Samson. God helps him defeat the lion. The sculpture was created in the year of the 25th anniversary of the Battle of Poltava. The image of Samson personified Peter the Great and the Russian army, and the lion represented the defeated Swedes, whose state coat of arms depicts a lion. The sculptural decoration of the Admiralty Tower includes the composition “Nymphs carrying the earthly sphere”: the sculptures personify the four seasons, the four elements, and the four main directions of the wind.
Landscape art Gardens and parks like Versailles and Peterhof are called regular: their amazing beauty is created according to the laws of harmony, symmetry, balance and reveals the classicists’ idea of a world opposed to the elements of chaos. This “decorated nature” is the embodiment not so much of naturalness as of an ideal image of the world, a harmonious and harmonious whole. Test yourself Who owns these words: The State is me? Name the author of the statement I think, therefore I exist Under what name is Armand Jean du Plessis depicted in Dumas' novel? Who was called the Sun King? Who believed that the task of comedy was to scourge vices? Why are the alleys of the Versailles park not related at right angles, but diverge from the center, like the spokes of a wheel? Who wrote about the rhyme: “If you learn to search for it persistently, it will come obediently to the voice of reason”?
Test yourself: 1. Classicism is the art of strict discipline of form and content. 2. Historical framework of classicism: 17th - early 19th centuries. 3. Reasons for the emergence of a new direction in art: crisis of humanistic ideas; the need for a new ideology that would contribute to the creation of a powerful state. 4. The birthplace of classicism: Italy-France. 5. Theorist of classicism: Nicolò Boileau 6. Which work embodies the artistic principles of classicism? "Poetic Art"
Classicism is an artistic movement in art and literature of the 17th and 18th centuries. This direction is characterized by such features as strict adherence to norms and rules, and high civic themes. The birth of classicism was due to the struggle against the higher baroque.
Classicism reached its apogee in the seventeenth century in France: in poetry thanks to La Fontaine, in drama - Racine, Moliere and Corneille, and in painting through the works of Poussin. This direction of literary art is characterized by the use of the class principle in different genres.
The Rape of the Sabine Women. Nicolas Poussin
The poetics of classicism “broke” all genres into “low” (fable, comedy, satire, etc.) and “high” (ode, tragedy, epic). Moreover, she differentiated them according to class: in the low genre, only ordinary people entered, and in the high genre, only princes, kings, generals and courtiers could take part. The heroes of a comedy were only supposed to make the audience laugh, and the heroes of a tragedy had the right to touch them. In addition, the class division of genres was also expressed in the difference in syllable and language. Thus, the tragedy was necessarily written in a poetic, high style and was absolutely devoid of ordinary everyday concepts and even words. French tragedy of the seventeenth century is a tragedy of heroic action; it does not allow for the lyrical, the fantastic and the miraculous.
The main characteristic feature of classicism is normativity and strict adherence to all the rules of the classicist doctrine. Normativity should be perceived as a result of the absence in classicism of absolute reliance on reason and historical thinking. The classicists of that time believed that unchanging and eternal laws of reason, common to the entire society, create “good taste” in the field of art.
In all works in the style of classicism, everything must be based on reason and justified by common sense. The sublime, noble feelings of the heroes were reflected in lengthy monologues.
Jacques-Louis David. "The Oath of the Horatii" (1784)
The main principles of classicism:
- The main task is the formation and strengthening of an absolute monarchy;
- Only that which is reasonable is considered beautiful. Reason is the basis of everything;
- The main theme is the conflict between civic and personal interests, as well as feelings and duty;
- The highest dignity of a person is unquestioning service to the state idea;
- Antiquity - as a model of inheritance;
- Imitation of “embellished” nature;
- Beauty is the main character.
1. Classicism (from the Latin classicus - exemplary) is the artistic style of European art of the 17th-19th centuries, one of the most important features of which was the appeal to ancient art as the highest example and reliance on the traditions of the High Renaissance. The art of classicism reflected the ideas of the harmonious structure of society, but in many ways lost them in comparison with the culture of the Renaissance. Conflicts between personality and society, ideal and reality, feelings and reason testify to the complexity of the art of classicism. The artistic forms of classicism are characterized by strict organization, balance, clarity and harmony of images.
2. The main feature of the architecture of classicism was the appeal to the forms of ancient architecture as a standard of harmony, simplicity, rigor, logical clarity and monumentality. The architecture of classicism as a whole is characterized by regularity of layout and clarity of volumetric form. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the order, in proportions and forms close to antiquity. Classicism is characterized by symmetrical axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration, and a regular system of city planning. The architectural language of classicism was formulated at the end of the Renaissance by the great Venetian master Palladio and his follower Scamozzi. The Venetians absolutized the principles of ancient temple architecture to such an extent that they even applied them in the construction of such private mansions as Villa Capra. Inigo Jones brought Palladianism north to England, where local Palladian architects followed Palladian principles with varying degrees of fidelity until the mid-18th century.
Andrea Palladio. Villa Rotonda near Vicenza
3. Interest in the art of ancient Greece and Rome appeared back in the Renaissance, which, after centuries of the Middle Ages, turned to the forms, motifs and subjects of antiquity. The greatest theorist of the Renaissance, Leon Batista Alberti, back in the 15th century. expressed ideas that foreshadowed certain principles of classicism and were fully manifested in Raphael’s fresco “The School of Athens” (1511). The systematization and consolidation of the achievements of the great artists of the Renaissance, especially the Florentine ones led by Raphael and his student Giulio Romano, formed the program of the Bolognese school of the late 16th century, the most typical representatives of which were the Carracci brothers. In their influential Academy of Arts, the Bolognese preached that the path to the heights of art lay through a scrupulous study of the heritage of Raphael and Michelangelo, imitation of their mastery of line and composition. At the beginning of the 17th century, young foreigners flocked to Rome to get acquainted with the heritage of antiquity and the Renaissance. The most prominent place among them was occupied by the Frenchman Nicolas Poussin, in his paintings, mainly on the themes of ancient antiquity and mythology, who provided unsurpassed examples of geometrically precise composition and thoughtful relationships between color groups. Another Frenchman, Claude Lorrain, in his antique landscapes of the environs of the “eternal city”, organized the pictures of nature by harmonizing them with the light of the setting sun and introducing peculiar architectural scenes.
Jacques-Louis David. "The Oath of the Horatii" (1784). Poussin's coldly rational normativism was welcomed by the court of Versailles and was continued by court artists like Le Brun, who saw in classicist painting the ideal artistic language for praising the absolutist state of the “sun king.” Although private clients favored various variants of Baroque and Rococo, the French monarchy kept classicism afloat by funding academic institutions such as the École des Beaux-Arts. The Rome Prize provided the most talented students with the opportunity to visit Rome for direct acquaintance with the great works of antiquity. In the 19th century, classicist painting entered a period of crisis and became a force holding back the development of art, not only in France, but also in other countries. David’s artistic line was successfully continued by Ingres, who, while maintaining the language of classicism in his works, often turned to romantic subjects with an oriental flavor (“Turkish Baths”); his portrait works are marked by a subtle idealization of the model. Artists in other countries (like, for example, Karl Bryullov) also filled works that were classic in form with the spirit of reckless romanticism; this combination was called academicism. Numerous art academies served as its breeding grounds. In the middle of the 19th century, the young generation, gravitating towards realism, represented in France by the Courbet circle, and in Russia by the Itinerants, rebelled against the conservatism of the academic establishment.
4. Music of the period of classicism or music of classicism is the period in the development of European music approximately between 1730 and 1820. The concept of classicism in music is strongly associated with the work of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven, called the Viennese classics and who determined the direction of further development of musical composition.
The concept of “music of classicism” should not be confused with the concept of “classical music”, which has a more general meaning as the music of the past that has stood the test of time. The aesthetics of classicism was based on the belief in the rationality and harmony of the world order, which was manifested in attention to the balance of parts of the work, careful finishing of details , development of the basic canons of musical form. It was during this period that the sonata form was finally formed, based on the development and opposition of two contrasting themes, and the classical composition of the parts of the sonata and symphony was determined.
During the period of classicism, a string quartet appeared, consisting of two violins, a viola and a cello, and the composition of the orchestra expanded significantly.
The chronological framework of the existence of classicism in different European cultures is defined as the second half of the 17th - the first thirty years of the 18th century, despite the fact that early classicist trends were noticeable at the end of the Renaissance, at the turn of the 16th-17th centuries. Within these chronological limits, French classicism is considered the standard embodiment of the method. Closely connected with the heyday of French absolutism in the second half of the 17th century, it gave European culture not only great writers - Corneille, Racine, Moliere, La Fontaine, Voltaire, but also a great theorist of classicist art - Nicolas Boileau-Dépreau.
The historical prerequisites for the emergence of classicism connect the aesthetic problematics of the method with the era of aggravation of the relationship between the individual and society in the process of the formation of autocratic statehood, which, replacing the social permissiveness of feudalism, seeks to regulate by law and clearly delimit the spheres of public and private life and the relationship between the individual and the state. Classicism arose at the crest of the social upsurge of the French nation and the French state. The basis of the theory of classicism was rationalism, based on the philosophy of Descartes, the subject of art of classicism was proclaimed only the beautiful and sublime, and antiquity served as the ethical and aesthetic ideal.
architecture - Classicism is also reflected in architecture: palaces, churches, new Parisian squares created by Mansart and other architects are marked by strict symmetry and majestic simplicity. Classicism is characterized by harmonious orderliness of form, the idea of subordinating the individual to public duty. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the order, in proportions and forms close to antiquity, symmetrical axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration, and a regular city planning system
Literature - “Low” genres also achieved high development - fable (J. Lafontaine), satire (Boileau), comedy (Molière 1622-1673). The French writer Jean de La Fontaine is known as the author of fairy tales, comedies, and fables that satirically reflect life in absolutist France. The theorist of French classicism, Nicolas Boileau-Depreau, in his work “Poetic Art,” outlined the principles of classicism in literature.
Basic requirements of classicism in literature
1. Heroes are “images without faces.” They do not change, being exponents of general truths.
2. The use of common language was excluded
3. Requirement of compositional rigor
4. Observance of three unities in the work: time, place and action.
Without further ado, you must introduce us to the plot.
You should maintain the unity of place in it.
But we must not forget, poets, about reason:
One event per day
Let it flow in one place on stage;
Only in this case will it captivate us.
5. Strict division into genres.
“High”: tragedies, epic poems, odes, hymns
They must develop important social problems, resorting to ancient themes. Their sphere is the life of the state and court, religion. The language is solemn, decorated with epithets and mythological parallels, epithets
“Low”: comedies, satires, fables
Their theme is the life of private individuals, folk life. The language is colloquial.
Mixing genres was considered unacceptable!
sculpture - Everything is subordinated to rationality: frozen movements, the idea of sculpture and even its location in a park or palace. The sculptures of classicism, like a three-dimensional embodiment of myths, tell us about the mighty power of human thought, about the unity of the people in achieving common goals. It’s simply amazing how the classicists were able to tell an entire era in the life of a particular nation with the help of small-scale compositions. Striving for a rational use of the space occupied by sculpture, the masters thereby followed another principle of classicism - a departure from the private. In one single character, most often taken from mythology, the spirit of an entire people was embodied. And the heroes of the present were depicted with the same ease in an ancient setting, which only emphasized their historical role.
painting
The principles of rationalistic philosophy underlying classicism determined the view of theorists and practitioners of classicism on a work of art as the fruit of reason and logic, triumphing over the chaos and fluidity of sensory life. Orientation towards a rational principle, towards enduring patterns determined the firm normativity of ethical requirements (subordination of the personal to the general, passions - reason, duty, the laws of the universe) and the aesthetic demands of classicism, the regulation of artistic rules; The consolidation of the theoretical doctrines of classicism was facilitated by the activities of the Royal Academies founded in Paris - painting and sculpture (1648) and architecture (1671). In the painting of classicism, line and chiaroscuro became the main elements of form modeling; local color clearly reveals the plasticity of figures and objects, divides the spatial plans of the picture (marked by the sublimity of the philosophical and ethical content, the general harmony of the work of N. Poussin, the founder of classicism and the greatest master of classicism of the 17th century ; "ideal landscapes" by C. Lorrain). Classicism of the 18th – early 19th centuries. (in foreign art history it is often called neoclassicism), which became a pan-European style, was also formed mainly in the bosom of French culture, under the strong influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment. In architecture, new types of an elegant mansion, a ceremonial public building, an open city square were defined (J.A. Gabriel, J.J. Souflot), the search for new, orderless forms of architecture. the desire for harsh simplicity in the work of K.N. Leda anticipated the architecture of the late stage of classicism - Empire style. Civil pathos and lyricism were combined in the plastic arts of Zh.B. Pigal and J.A. Houdon, decorative landscapes by Yu. Robert. The courageous dramatism of historical and portrait images is inherent in the works of the head of French classicism, the painter J.L. David.
In the art of theater, K. contributed to a deeper revelation of the idea of a dramatic work and to overcoming the exaggeration in the depiction of feelings characteristic of medieval theater. The skill of performing classicist tragedy, raised to the heights of genuine art, was subject to aesthetic principles stemming from the classicist aesthetics of N. Boileau. The main condition for the creativity of actors is the rationalistic method, conscious work on the role. The tragedy actor had to read poetry emotionally and expressively, without trying to create the illusion of the hero’s true experiences. But in the art of acting, a contradiction characteristic of K. was manifested - the principle of turning to nature, reason, and truth was limited by the norms of courtly, aristocratic taste. The classicist performance as a whole was distinguished by its pomp and static nature; the actors acted against the backdrop of a scenery devoid of historical and everyday specificity (for example, a palace at will).
The basis of everything is the mind. Only what is reasonable is beautiful.
The main task is to strengthen the absolute monarchy; the monarch is the embodiment of reason.
The main theme is the conflict of personal and civil interests, feelings and duty
The highest dignity of a person is fulfillment of duty, service to the state idea
Inheritance of antiquity as a model
(Oral explanation: the action was transferred to another time not only for the purpose of imitating ancient models, but also so that familiar life would not interfere with the viewer or reader’s perception of ideas)
Imitation of “decorated” nature
K. is formed, experiencing the influence of other pan-European trends in art that are directly in contact with it: it starts from the aesthetics of the Renaissance that preceded it and confronts the Baroque art that actively coexists with it, imbued with the consciousness of the general discord generated by the crisis of the ideals of the past era. Continuing some traditions of the Renaissance (admiration for the ancients, faith in reason, the ideal of harmony and measure), K. was a kind of antithesis to him; behind the external harmony in K. hides the internal antinomy of the worldview, which makes it similar to the Baroque (for all their deep differences). The generic and the individual, the public and the personal, reason and feeling, civilization and nature, which (in a tendency) appeared in the art of the Renaissance as a single harmonious whole, in K. are polarized and become mutually exclusive concepts.
2.urban planning
The most significant urban planning concepts and their implementation in nature at the end of the 18th and first half of the 19th centuries are associated with classicism. During this period, new cities, parks, and resorts were founded. A new organization of settlement, aimed at overcoming social inequality and creating a new social harmony, was proposed at the end of the 19th century by utopian socialists. Projects of residential communes and phalansteries (implemented, however, in very small numbers) retained the image and spatial features characteristic of classicism.
The result of the architectural theories of the Enlightenment, outlined and repeated in many treatises of the late 18th century, can be succinctly defined as follows: the scope of urban planning in the complete absence of architectural masterpieces. Our judgment may seem superficial. Indeed, there were architects who did not want to create masterpieces. Architecture for them was not an expression and statement of a certain concept of the world, religious or political ideals. Her mission is to serve the community. Construction, decorum, and typology are necessarily subordinated to this task. Since the life of society is changing very quickly, it is necessary to meet new requirements and new types of buildings, that is, to build not only a church or a palace, but a middle-income residential building, a hospital, a school, a museum, a port, a market, and so on.
From a monument building they come to a building that expresses a certain social function; the unity of such functions creates an urban organism, and its structure is the coordination of these functions. Since social coordination is based on the principles of rationality, urban plans become more rational, that is, they follow clear rectangular or radial geometric patterns that consist of wide and straight streets, large square or circular areas. The idea of the relationship between human society and nature is expressed in the city by the introduction of wide areas of greenery, most often parks near palaces or gardens of former monasteries that became state-owned after the revolution.
*The features of the era, style and national traditions were expressed most clearly in the main squares of large cities and in the capital's squares. The construction or reconstruction of squares was often a means of political affirmation of the ruling regime. Due to the duration of the period under consideration - from the strengthening of absolutism to the strengthening of bourgeois democracy - the social role of the main square gradually changed: from the architectural and spatial background of the statue of the king, it turned in the most developed countries into the civic center of a capitalist city.
3. In the first half of the 17th century, the capital of France gradually transformed from a city-fortress into a city-residence. The appearance of Paris was now determined not by fortress walls and castles, but by palaces, parks, and a regular system of streets and squares.
In architecture, the transition from castle to palace can be traced by comparing the two buildings. The Luxembourg Palace in Paris (1615 – 1621), all of whose buildings are located around the perimeter of a large courtyard, with its powerful forms still resembles a castle fenced off from the outside world. In the Maisons-Laffite palace near Paris (1642 - 1650) there is no longer a closed courtyard; the building has a U-shaped plan, which makes its appearance more open (although it is surrounded by a moat with water). This architectural phenomenon received state support: a royal decree of 1629 prohibited the construction of military fortifications in castles.
Around the palace, the architect now made sure to arrange a park in which strict order reigned: green spaces were neatly trimmed, alleys intersected at right angles, flower beds formed regular geometric shapes. This park was called regular or French.
The pinnacle of the development of a new direction in architecture was Versailles - the grandiose ceremonial residence of the French kings near Paris.
In religious architecture, the Jesuits implanted the style of the Counter-Reformation, but despite this, France did not renounce its national traditions, and already during the reign of Louis XIII, an attempt to completely “Romanize” church architecture failed.
During the time of Henry IV, secular architecture played a predominant role, great attention was paid to the planning of the city environment, and as a result, Paris was decorated with two squares - the Vosges and the Dauphine. The architecture of this time was dominated by mannerism - ponderous pomp, richly decorated interiors, decorative painted and gilded panels.
4. The cult of reason is one of the main qualities of classicism, and therefore, in none of the great masters of the 17th century, the rational principle plays such a significant role as in Poussin. The master himself said that the perception of a work of art requires concentrated thinking and hard work of thought. rationalism is reflected not only in Poussin’s purposeful adherence to the ethical and artistic ideal, but also in the visual system he created.
He built a theory of so-called modes, which he tried to follow in his work.
By mode, Poussin meant a kind of figurative key, a sum of techniques of figurative-emotional characterization and compositional and pictorial solutions that were most consistent with the expression of a certain theme.
One of the characteristic examples of the ideological and artistic program of classicism can be Poussin’s composition “The Death of Germanicus” (1626 - 1627, Minneapolis, Institute of Arts), depicting a courageous and noble Roman commander on his deathbed, poisoned on the orders of the suspicious and envious Emperor Tiberius.
Very fruitful for Poussin’s work was his fascination with the art of Titian in the second half of the 1620s. Appeal to the Titian tradition contributed to the revelation of the most vibrant sides of Poussin's talent. The role of Titian’s colorism was also great in the development of Poussin’s artistic talent.
In 1625 - 1627, Poussin painted the painting “Rinaldo and Armina” based on the plot of Tasso’s poem “Jerusalem Liberated”, where an episode from the legend of medieval chivalry is interpreted rather as a motif from ancient mythology. Poussin resurrects the world of ancient myths in other paintings of the 1620s - 1630s: “Apollo and Daphne” (Munich, Pinakothek), “Bacchanalia” in the Louvre and London National Gallery, “The Kingdom of Flora” (Dresden, Gallery). Here he depicts his ideal - a person living a single happy life with nature.
Never later in Poussin's work do such serene scenes, such charming female images appear. It was in the 1620s that one of Poussin’s most captivating images was created - “Sleeping Venus” - the image of the goddess is full of naturalness and some special intimacy of feeling, it seems snatched straight from life.
5. Classicism began in the Age of Enlightenment The growth of freedom of society led to the appearance of the first public concerts, and musical societies and orchestras were formed in the main cities of Europe. Fundamental changes took place in orchestras; there was no longer a need for a harpsichord or organ, as in the main musical instruments; wind instruments - clarinet, flute, trumpet, etc., on the contrary, took their place in the orchestra and created a new, special sound. The new composition of the orchestra led to the emergence of the symphony - the most important type of music, according to the standard, consisting of three tempos - a fast beginning, a slow middle and again a fast ending. One of the first composers to use the symphonic format was the son of J. S. Bach - Carl Philipp Emmanuel Bach. In the same era, the piano, or fortepiano (correct name), was created. This allowed keyboardists to perform music in various variations, both softly (piano) and louder (forte), depending on the keys used. The most prominent composers of classicism were the great Austrians - Joseph Haydn and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. Haydn created fantastic choral, operatic, orchestral and instrumental music - but his greatest achievement was his symphonies, of which he wrote more than a hundred. Mozart is the most brilliant composer of all times. Having lived a short life, he left an incredible musical legacy - 41 symphonies, for example. His greatest achievements are considered to be his operas, in which he showed himself both as a great musician and as a talented playwright, some of his most beautiful operas are “Don Giovanni”, “The Marriage of Figaro”, “The Magic Flute”. At the end of the eighteenth century another one star of classical music is Ludwig van Beethoven, a composer who began composing music in the classical style inherited from Mozart and Haydn. He eventually outgrew this, and literally split the classical style, marking the dawn of a new era known as the Romantic period in music. The classical era was a time when composers introduced a sense of elegance to music. This clear and pure music, bringing peace and relaxation, is actually much deeper and in it you can find a dramatic core, touching feelings and boundless drive.
Municipal school No. 8
Secondary (complete) education
Abstract on the topic:
Classicism (France. XVII century)
Completed by: student of grade 11 “B”
Maltsev N.V.
Voronezh-1999/2000 academic year CONTENTS
Introduction……………………………………………………….3
What is classicism?…………………………………………...4
First half of the 17th century……………………………………..6
Second half of the 17th century…………………………………….11
References………………………………………………………..16
INTRODUCTION
The 17th century is one of the brightest eras in the development of Western European
artistic culture. This is the time of the most brilliant flowering of the series
largest national schools, many creative directions and
a truly extraordinary constellation of great names and
famous masters. The most significant and valuable thing that was created
this era is primarily associated with the art of five European countries
– Italy, Spain, Flanders, Holland, France.
We will focus on France.
WHAT IS CLASSICISM?
Classicism - Stylistic movement in European art,
the most important feature of which was the appeal to ancient art as
standard and reliance on the traditions of the High Renaissance. In the visual arts
art and architecture have manifested common aesthetic principles -
using forms and examples of ancient art to express
modern social aesthetic views, attraction to the sublime
themes and genres, to the logic and clarity of images, proclamation
harmonious ideal of the human personality. Prerequisites for the occurrence
classicism appeared in the second half of the 16th century, in the era of late
Renaissance in Italy in the works of the architect and theorist A. Palladio, and
theoretical works of the architect Vignola, S. Serlio and others. All these
the authors sought to bring the artistic heritage of antiquity and high
Revival into a single strict system. And establish a number of norms in art and
rules of ancient aesthetics.
How a consistent system of classicism develops in the first half
17th century in France. It is characterized by the proclamation of the ideas of civil
duty, subordination of individual interests to the interests of society, triumph
reasonable pattern. At this time, themes, images and
motifs of ancient and Renaissance art. The classicists strived for
sculptural clarity of forms, plastic completeness of the design,
clarity and balance of composition. Moreover, for classicism
characterized by a tendency towards abstract idealization, separation from concrete
images of modernity, to the establishment of norms and canons regulating
artistic creativity. The largest figure of classicism was the artist and
theorist N. Poussin. For the architecture of French classicism of the 17th century there were
characterized by consistency and balance of compositions, clarity of straight lines
lines, geometric correctness of plans and strictness of proportions.
Classicism was formed as an antagonistic direction in relation to
lush and virtuosic art of the Baroque. But when in the second half 17
century, classicism became the official art of the absolutist monarchy, it
absorbed elements of the Baroque. This was evident in the architecture of Versailles, in
the work of the painter C. Lebrun, sculptures F. Girardon, and A. Coisevox.
The direction is headed by the Paris Academy of Arts, which
belongs to the creation of a set of artificial dogmatic rules and supposedly
unshakable laws of drawing composition. This Academy has also established
rationalistic principles of depicting emotions (“passions”) and separation
genres into “high” and “low”. The “high” genres included
historical, religious and mythological genres, to the “low” - portrait,
landscape, everyday genre, still life. Over time, this trend has degenerated
into cold official academicism.
In the mid-18th century, against the backdrop of the educational movement, on the eve
French Revolution, a new movement of classicism emerged
opposing itself to the art of Rococo and the creativity of the epigones -
academicians. A feature of this direction was the manifestation of traits
realism, the desire for clarity and simplicity, a reflection of the educational
the ideal of “natural humanity”.
The sculpture of the Classical era is distinguished by severity and restraint,
coherence of forms, calmness of poses, when even movement does not disturb
formal closure (E. Falconet, J. Houdon).
The period of late classicism - Empire - falls on the first third of the 19th century
century. It is distinguished by its pomp and splendor, expressed in architecture and
applied arts. This period is distinguished as independent.
FIRST HALF OF THE 17TH CENTURY
In the first half and middle of the 17th century in French architecture
The principles of classicism take shape and gradually take root. This
The state system of absolutism also contributes.
Construction and control over it are concentrated in the hands
states. A new position is introduced: "architect of the king" and "first
architect." Huge amounts of money are spent on construction.
Government agencies control construction not only in
Paris, but also in the provinces.
Urban planning work is being carried out widely throughout the country. New
cities arise as military outposts or settlements near palaces and
castles of the kings and rulers of France. Mostly new cities
designed in the form of a square or rectangle in plan or in the form
more complex polygonal shapes - five, six, eight, etc.
angles formed by defensive walls, ditches, bastions and
towers. Inside them a strictly regular rectangular or
radial ring system of streets with a city square in the center. IN
Examples include the cities of Vitry-le-Francois, Saarlouis,
Henrishmont, Marle, Richelieu, etc.
Old medieval cities are being rebuilt on the basis of new ones
principles of regular planning. Direct highways are being laid,
urban ensembles and geometrically correct squares are being built on
site of a chaotic network of medieval streets.
In urban planning of the Classical era, the main problem becomes
a large urban ensemble with development carried out according to a single
plan. In 1615, the first planning work was carried out in Paris
in the northwestern part of the city, the islands of Notre Dame and Saint-Louis are being built up.
New bridges are being built and the city's borders are expanding.
Large palace complexes are being built on the left and right banks of the Seine -
Luxembourg Palace and Palais Royal (1624, architect J. Lemercier).
The further development of urban planning work in Paris was expressed in
creating two regular shapes - square and triangular - areas,
included in the medieval development of the city - Royal Square
(1606-12, architect L. Meteso) and Dauphine Square (started in 1605) on
western part of the island of Cité.
The principles of classicism, the ground for which was prepared by architects
French and Italian Renaissance, in the first half of the 17th century
did not differ in integrity and homogeneity. They often mixed with
traditions of the Italian Baroque, whose buildings are characterized by
loosened cornices, complicated shapes of triangular and curvilinear
pediments, an abundance of sculptural decoration and cartouches, especially in decoration
interiors.
Medieval traditions were so strong that even classical
orders acquired a peculiar character in buildings of the first half of the century
interpretation. The composition of the order is its location on the wall surface,
proportions and details - obeys the structure of the wall that has developed in
Gothic architecture, with its clearly defined vertical elements
supporting frame of the building (walls) and located between them
large window openings. Half-columns and pilasters, filling the piers,
grouped in pairs or bundles. This motive, combined with
subdividing facades using corner and central projections into
separate tower-shaped volumes covered with high pyramidal
roofs, gives the building a vertical tendency, not typical
classic system of order compositions and a clear, calm silhouette
volume.
Baroque techniques are combined with the traditions of French Gothic and new
classical principles of understanding beauty. Many iconic
buildings built according to the established Italian Baroque type
basilica church, received magnificent main facades, decorated
orders of columns and pilasters, with numerous braces,
sculptural inserts and volutes. An example would be the church
Sorbonne (1629-1656, architect J. Lemercier) - the first religious building
Paris, topped with a dome.
The predominance of classicist tendencies was reflected in such
structures such as the Church of La Visatación (1632-1634) and the church
Minimov monastery (started in 1632), created by F. Mansart. For these
buildings are characterized by simplicity of composition and restraint of forms, a departure from
Baroque examples of the basilica plan and interpretation of the facades as magnificent
architectural decoration.
One of the early palace buildings was the already mentioned Luxembourg
palace (1615-1620/21), built by Solomon de BIOS (after 1562-1626)
for Marie de Medici. A magnificent park was laid out near the palace, which was considered
at the beginning of the 17th century one of the best.
The composition of the palace is characterized by the placement of the main and lower
service buildings-outbuildings around the large ceremonial palace
(Courdonera). One side of the main building faces the front
courtyard, the other to the park. In the volumetric composition of the palace there is clearly
characteristic of French palace architecture of the first
half of the 17th century, traditional features, for example, highlighting in the main
three-story building of the palace with corner and central tower-like volumes,
crowned with high roofs, as well as the division of the internal
spaces of corner towers into completely identical residential sections.
The appearance of the palace, in some features of which it still resembles
castles of the previous century, thanks to the natural and clear
compositional structure, as well as a clear rhythmic structure
two-tiered orders dividing the facades, it is distinguished by its monumentality
and representativeness.
The massiveness of the walls is emphasized by horizontal rustication, entirely
covering walls and order elements. This technique, borrowed from
masters of the Italian Baroque, in the work of de Brosse received
a unique sound that gives the appearance of the palace a special richness and
magnificence.
Among de Brosse's other works, the church occupies a prominent place
Saint-Gervais (started in 1616) in Paris. In this church, built according to
plan of Italian Baroque churches, traditional elements of church
Baroque facades are combined with Gothic elongation of proportions.
The first half of the 17th century dates back to the early examples of large
ensemble compositions. The creator of the first French architecture
classicism of the ensemble of the palace, park and city of Richelieu (begun in 1627)
was Jacques Lemercier.
The layout of the now defunct ensemble was based on
intersection at an angle of two compositional axes. One of them coincides with
the main street of the city and the park alley connecting the city with the square
in front of the palace, the other is the main axis of the palace and the park. Layout
the park is built on a strictly regular system of intersecting lines
corner or alleys diverging from one center.
Located away from the palace, Reshelje was surrounded by a wall and
moat, forming a rectangle in plan. Layout of streets and neighborhoods
city is subject to the same strict system of rectangular coordinates as
ensemble as a whole, which indicates the formation in the first half of the 17th
centuries of new urban planning principles and overcoming medieval
methods of building a city with crooked narrow streets, crowded
buildings and small cramped areas.
Richelieu Palace, like its regular park with deep perspectives
alleys, extensive parterres and sculptures, was created as a majestic
a monument designed to glorify the all-powerful ruler of France. Interiors
the palace were richly decorated with stucco and paintings, in which
the personality of Richelieu and his deeds were exalted.
The ensemble of the palace and the city of Richelieu was not yet sufficiently penetrated
unity, but overall Lemercier managed to create a new type of complex and
strict spatial composition, unknown to architecture
Italian Renaissance and Baroque.
Along with Lemercier, the largest architect of the first half of the century was
Francois Mansart (1598-1666). His major work is the church
convent of Val de Grace (1645-1665), built after his
of death. The composition of the plan is based on the traditional dome scheme
basilicas with a wide central nave covered by a barrel vault,
transept and dome on the middle cross. As in many others
French religious buildings of the 17th century, the façade of the building dates back to
traditional solution of the church facade with Italian architecture
baroque. The church dome raised on a high drum is one of three
the tallest domes in Paris.
In 1630, Francois Mansart introduced the practice of building urban housing
high broken roof shape using an attic for housing
(a device called “attic” after the author’s name).
In the decoration of the interiors of castles and city hotels in the first half of the 17th century
centuries, carved wood, bronze, stucco, sculpture,
painting.
Thus, in the first half of the 17th century, both in the region
urban planning, and in the formation of the types of buildings themselves there is a process
maturation of a new style, and conditions are created for its flourishing in the second
half a century.
SECOND HALF OF THE 17TH CENTURY
The second half of the 17th century is the time of the greatest flowering of architecture
French classicism.
One of the reasons for the leading importance of architecture among other types
art in the second half of the 17th century was rooted in its specific
features. It is architecture with the monumental nature of its forms and
durability could most powerfully express the ideas of a centralized
national monarchy in its maturity. In this era it is especially bright
the social role of architecture, its ideological significance and
organizing role in the artistic synthesis of all types of fine arts,
applied and gardening arts.
The organization of the Academy had a great influence on the development of architecture
architecture, the director of which was appointed a prominent architect and
theorist François Blondel (1617-1686). Its members were outstanding
French architects L. Briand, J. Guitard, A. Lenotre, L. Levo, P.
Miyan and others. The Academy's task was to develop basic
aesthetic norms and criteria of classicism architecture, which should
were guided by the architects.
Features of architecture of the middle and second half of the 17th century
are reflected both in the huge volume of construction of large front doors
ensembles designed to exalt and glorify the ruling classes
the era of absolutism and the powerful monarch - the Sun King Louis
XIV, and in the improvement and development of artistic principles
classicism.
In the second half of the 17th century there was a more consistent
application of the classical order system: horizontal divisions
prevail over vertical ones; high separate ones constantly disappear
roofs and are replaced by a single roof, often masked by a balustrade;
the volumetric composition of the building becomes simpler, more compact,
corresponding to the location and size of the internal premises.
Along with the influence of the architecture of ancient Rome, the influence of
Italian Renaissance and Baroque architecture. This is the last one
reflected in the borrowing of some baroque forms (torn curves
pediments, magnificent cartouches, volutes), in the principles of solving the internal
space (enfilade), as well as in increased complexity and
pompousness of architectural forms, especially in interiors, where their synthesis with
sculpture and painting often bears in itself to a greater extent the features
baroque than classicism.
One of the works of architecture of the second half of the 17th century, in which
the predominance of mature artistic principles is already clearly felt
classicism, is the country ensemble of the palace and park of Vaux-le-Vicomte
near Melen (1655-1661).
The creators of this outstanding work, built for
Comptroller General of Finance Fouquet, were the architect Louis Levo (c.
1612-1670), master of landscape art Andre Le Nôtre,
who planned the palace park, and the painter Charles Lebrun, who took
participation in decorating the interiors of the palace and painting lampshades.
In the structure and appearance of the building, as well as in the composition of the ensemble in
In general, there is undoubtedly a more consistent application of classicism
architectural principles.
This is manifested primarily in a logical and strictly calculated
planning solution for the palace and park as a single whole. Big
oval-shaped salon, constituting the central link of the enfilade of ceremonial rooms
premises, became the compositional center not only of the palace, but also of the ensemble in
in general, since its position is at the intersection of the main planning
axes of the ensemble (the main park alley leading from the palace, and the transverse ones,
coinciding with the longitudinal axis of the building) makes it the “focus” of everything
complex.
Thus, the palace building and the park are subject to a strictly centralized
compositional principle that allows you to bring a variety of elements
ensemble to artistic unity and highlight the palace as the main
an integral part of the ensemble.
The composition of the palace is characterized by the unity of the internal space and
volume of the building, distinguishing the works of mature classicism
architecture. A large oval salon is allocated within the building volume
curvilinear risalit, topped with a powerful domed roof, creating
static and calm silhouette of the building. By introducing a large order
pilasters spanning two floors above the base, and a powerful horizontal
a smooth, strictly profiled classical entablature is achieved
the predominance of horizontal divisions over vertical ones in the facades,
integrity of order facades and volumetric composition, not typical
castles of an earlier period. All this gives the appearance of the palace
monumental representativeness and pomp.
François made an important contribution to the theory and practice of French classicism
Blondel (1617-1686). Among his best works it should be noted
the triumphal arch, usually called the Porte Saint-Denis in Paris. Big
Blondel's merit lies in the deep creative reworking of the type
Roman triumphal arch and the creation of a unique composition that has had
strong influence on the architecture of similar structures in the 18th-19th centuries.
The problem of the architectural ensemble, which stood almost throughout
century in the center of attention of the masters of classicism of the 17th century, found its
expression in French urban planning. An outstanding innovator in this
region is represented by the largest French architect of the 17th century - Jules
Hardouin-Mansart (1646-1708; from 1668 he bore the surname Hardouin-Mansart).
Place Louis the Great (later Place Vendôme; 1685-1701) and the square
Victories (1648-1687) in Paris were erected according to his designs.
Full and comprehensive development of progressive trends in architecture
classicism of the 17th century is obtained in grandiose scale, boldness
and the breadth of artistic design of the Versailles ensemble (1668-1689). Main
the creators of this most significant monument of French
classicism of the 17th century were the architects Louis Levo and Hardouin-Mansart, master
landscape art Andre Le Nôtre (1613-1700) and the artist Lebrun,
participated in the creation of the palace interiors.
The original concept of the Versailles ensemble, which consisted of a city and a palace
and park, belongs to Levo and Le Nôtre. Both masters began to work on
construction of Versailles since 1668. In the process of implementing their ensemble
the plan underwent numerous changes. Final completion
of the Versailles ensemble belongs to Hardouin-Mansart.
Versailles, as the main residence of the king, was supposed to exalt
and glorify the limitless power of French absolutism. However, this is not
the content of the ideological and artistic concept of the ensemble is exhausted
Versailles, as well as its outstanding significance in the history of world architecture.
Shackled by official regulations, forced to obey
despotic demands of the king and his entourage, the builders of Versailles -
a huge army of architects, artists, craftsmen and
gardening art - managed to embody in it enormous creative
the strength of the French people.
Features of constructing an ensemble as a strictly ordered
centralized system based on absolute compositional
the dominance of the palace over everything around them are due to its general ideological
by design.
To the Palace of Versailles, located on a high terrace,
three wide straight radial avenues of the city converge, forming
trident. The middle trident avenue leads to Paris, the other two to
the royal palaces of Saint-Cloud and Sceaux, as if connecting the main countryside
residence of the king with various regions of the country.
The premises of the palace were distinguished by luxury and variety of decoration. In them
Baroque motifs are widely used (round and oval medallions,
complex cartouches, ornamental fillings above the doors and in the piers) and
expensive finishing materials (mirrors, chased bronze, valuable rocks
wood), widespread use of decorative painting and sculpture - all this
designed to give the impression of stunning pomp.
The spirit of official solemnity reigned in the Versailles chambers. Premises
were luxuriously furnished. In the Mirror Gallery in shining silver
thousands of candles were lit in chandeliers and a noisy colorful crowd of courtiers
filled the palace enfilades, reflected in the tall mirrors.
The park sculpture of Versailles actively participates in the formation of the ensemble.
Sculptural groups, statues, herms and vases with reliefs, many of them
were created by outstanding sculptures of their time, close
perspectives of green streets, frame squares and alleys, form complex and
beautiful combinations with a variety of fountains and pools.
Like the palace, so especially the park of Versailles with its wide promenades,
the abundance of water, easy visibility and spatial scope served
a kind of magnificent "stage area" for the most
various, unusually colorful and magnificent spectacles - fireworks,
illuminations, balls, ballet divertissements, performances, masquerade
processions, and the canals for strolls and festivities of the pleasure fleet.
When Versailles was under construction and had not yet become the official center of the state,
its "entertainment" function prevailed. In the spring of 1664, the young monarch
in honor of his favorite Louise, de La Vallière established a series of festivities under
romantically titled "The Delights of an Enchanted Island". Initially in
these unique eight-day festivals, in which almost
all types of arts, there was still a lot of spontaneity and improvisation. WITH
over the years, the festivities took on an increasingly grandiose character, reaching
its apogee in the 1670s, when a new favorite reigned at Versailles -
the wasteful and brilliant Marquise de Montespan. In stories
eyewitnesses, in many engravings the glory of Versailles and its holidays
spread to other European countries.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Art of France of the 17th century. Moscow, 1969
Soviet encyclopedic dictionary. Moscow, 1988
Classicism, an artistic style in European art of the seventeenth and early nineteenth centuries, one of the most important features of which was the appeal to the forms of ancient art as an ideal aesthetic and ethical standard. The underlying principles of rationalist philosophy determined the view of theorists and practitioners of the classical style on a work of art as the fruit of reason and logic, triumphing over the chaos and fluidity of sensory life.
Classicism, which developed in polemical interaction with the Baroque, formed into an integral stylistic system in the French artistic culture of the 17th century. Orientation towards a rational principle, towards enduring patterns determined the firm normativity of ethical requirements (subordination of the personal to the general, passions - reason, duty, the laws of the universe) and the aesthetic demands of classicism, the regulation of artistic rules; The consolidation of the theoretical doctrines of the classical style was facilitated by the activities of the Royal Academies founded in Paris - painting and sculpture (1648) and architecture (1671). In the architecture of classicism, which is distinguished by logical planning and clarity of volumetric form, the main role is played by the order, subtly and restrainedly highlighting the overall structure of the structure (architects: Mansart Francois, Perrault Claude, Levo Louis, Blondel Francois); from the second half of the 17th century, French classicism absorbed the spatial scope of Baroque architecture (Hardouin-Mansart Jules and Le Nôtre André, the work of architects at Versailles).
In the 17th and early 18th centuries, classicism took shape in the architecture of Holland, England, where it was organically combined with Palladianism (Ainigo Jones, Christopher Wren), and Sweden (N. Tessin the Younger). In classical style painting, line and chiaroscuro became the main elements of form modeling; local color clearly reveals the plasticity of figures and objects, and separates the spatial plans of the painting; marked by the sublimity of philosophical and ethical content, the general harmony of the works of Poussin Nicolas, the founder of classicism and the greatest master of the 17th century; "ideal landscapes" (painter Lorraine Claude).
Classicism of the 18th – early 19th centuries (in foreign art history it is often called neoclassicism), which became a pan-European style, was also formed mainly in the bosom of French culture, under the strong influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment. In architecture, new types of an elegant mansion, a ceremonial public building, an open city square were defined (Gabriel Jacques Ange and Soufflot Jacques Germain), the search for new, orderless forms of architecture, the desire for severe simplicity in the work of Ledoux Claude Nicolas anticipated the architecture of the late stage of the classical style - Empire. Civil pathos and lyricism were combined in plastic art (Pigal Jean Baptiste and Houdon Jean Antoine), decorative landscapes (Robert Hubert). The courageous dramatism of historical and portrait images is inherent in the works of the head of French classicism, the painter Jacques Louis David.
In the 19th century, the painting of classicism, despite the activities of individual major masters, such as Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres, degenerated into official apologetic or pretentious erotic salon art. The international center of the European classical style of the 18th and early 19th centuries was Rome, where the traditions of academicism with their characteristic combination of nobility of forms and cold idealization (German painter Anton Raphael Mengs, sculptors: Italian Canova Antonio and Dane Thorvaldsen Bertel) largely dominated. The architecture of German classicism is characterized by the stern monumentality of the buildings of Karl Friedrich Schinkel, while the contemplative and elegiac painting and sculpture are characterized by the portraits of August and Wilhelm Tischbein, and the sculpture of Johann Gottfried Schadow.
In English classicism, the antique structures of Robert Adam, the Palladian-style park estates of William Chambers, the exquisitely austere drawings of J. Flaxman and the ceramics of J. Wedgwood stand out. Own versions of the classical style developed in the artistic culture of Italy, Spain, Belgium, Scandinavian countries, and the USA; Russian classicism of the 1760s–1840s occupies a prominent place in the history of world art. By the end of the first third of the 19th century, the leading role of this style movement in art was almost universally disappearing; it was being replaced by various forms of architectural eclecticism. The artistic tradition of the classical style comes to life in neoclassicism of the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
Reference and biographical data of the "Small Bay Planet Art Gallery" were prepared on the basis of materials from the "History of Foreign Art" (edited by M.T. Kuzmina, N.L. Maltseva), "Art Encyclopedia of Foreign Classical Art", "Great Russian Encyclopedia".
