The influence of outstanding people in social development. Positive and negative influence of religion Ideology that changed history: Karl Marx

He defended a dissertation in which he tried to find the “laws of generation” of all organic bodies, and in accordance with this, he successively considered in it “the generation of plants,” “the generation of animals,” and, finally, “the general laws of the generation of organic bodies.” Wolf made an important discovery while studying the development of stems, leaves and flowers. He discovered that at the top of each growing shoot there is a special "point or surface of growth." Before Wolff, the process of “unfolding” (evolutio) of bud, flower and leaf was a classic example of preformation. Wolf's assertion that inside every leaf bud there are no noticeable leaves, but only the “internal substance of plants”, which gives rise to the rudiments of leaves, was the starting point of a new principle of development. Another important discovery is made by K.F. Wolf, tracing the development of the flower. His doctrine of plant metamorphosis was completed in his work of the St. Petersburg period (1767), in which he states: “In the entire plant, the parts of which at first glance are so unusually diverse, I see, after a mature examination, nothing more than leaves and stems... "All parts of the plant, with the exception of the stem, are therefore only modified leaves." This doctrine of plant metamorphosis is the indisputable historical merit of K.F. Wolf. He also observed the development of an incubated chicken egg. He discovered the formation of "blood islands", which then turn into blood and blood vessels; he described the formation of limbs, primary kidneys and a number of other organs. These are Wolf's observations in brief, which allowed him to reject the theory of preformation and put forward the idea of ​​​​the true development of plants and animals. In 1767, Wolf came to Russia, and in September of the same year he presented his new work “On the formation of the intestines in the chicken” for publication. This is the most mature work of K.F. Wolf - a strictly scientific treatise, in which he refrains from hasty natural-philosophical generalizations; he formulates the general principle of the development of organs: “The part which, when completed, has an internal cavity or represents a tube or reservoir, in its original state was open and stretched in the form of a certain kind of simple plate, the edges of which were forced to fold together to form whole channel." K.F. Wolff tirelessly repeated that the patterns he discovered were “the main evidence of epigenesis.” Thanks to the collection of the Kunstkamera, he wrote numerous anatomical works, published annually for 25 years in the proceedings of the St. Petersburg Academy and wrote at least 1000 pages of descriptions of monsters that were particularly interesting, from his point of view, still unpublished.

characterize the main forms of relationship between man and society. 4. What is the historical process? 5. How do you understand the connection between the past, present and future in the history of countries and peoples? Give examples. 6. Based on knowledge of history, literature, and other subjects, give examples characterizing the role of the people in the historical process. 7. Is it true that a worldview can be had not only by an individual, but also by a social group, a nation, or a historical era? Explain your opinion, confirm it with examples. 8. Russian historian V. O. Klyuchevsky (1841-1911) wrote that knowledge of the past is “not only a need for the thinking mind, but also an essential condition for conscious and correct activity,” because it gives that eye of the situation, then sense of the moment, which protects a person “from both inertia and haste.” And then he gives advice: “When determining the tasks and direction of our activities, each of us must be at least a little historian in order to become a conscious and conscientiously acting citizen.” What significance do these thoughts of V. O. Klyuchevsky have for our days? 9. The word “civilization” and its derivatives can mean: a) good manners, the ability to behave in society (“he was a completely civilized young man, with excellent manners and behavior”); b) the stage of social development following savagery and barbarism; c) the state of a society that recognizes the values ​​of peace, economic prosperity, freedom, legality (“in a civilized society there is no place for violence, crime, violation of the law, disrespect for human rights”); d) a set of manifestations of culture (“ancient civilization is a unique culture that underlies the European culture of subsequent eras”); e) a set of unique economic, social, political, spiritual, moral, psychological, value and other structures that distinguish one historical community of people from others (“the economy, system of power, values, lifestyle and psychology of the people of the Middle Ages distinguished this civilization from ancient or modern"). Which of these meanings are directly related to the characteristics of the historical process? Apply these principles to the analysis of specific societies known to you

The social structure of society is:

A) the basis of society;

B) organization of society;

C) types of social communities and relationships between them;

D) the structure of society as a whole.

Task No. 13. Choose one answer:

Social community is:

A) speculative abstraction,

B) a set of individuals;

C) an independent subject of social action, formed on the basis of essential characteristics.

Task No. 14. Choose one answer:

Social status is:

A) the degree of recognition by society of the dignity of the individual,

B) the position of an individual or group in the social system, associated with a certain set of rights and obligations;

C) the integrity of human social properties, the result of the social development of the individual.

Task No. 15. Which of the following statuses is ascribed and which is achieved?

Specify the types of social statuses:

A) Nobleman D) Tsar E) Negro

B) Economist D) Criminal G) Deputy

B) President E) Unemployed

Task 16. Which of the following applies to social institutions?

B) Labor collective E) Education system

B) Duel E) Shipping Company

D) Health care system G) Gardening society

D) State

Task No. 17. Choose one answer:

What is a social role:

A) a pattern of behavior corresponding to social status;

B) what a person would like to do in life;

C) the desire to appear before others in a certain image.

Task No. 18. Choose one answer:

What is a change in a person’s social status called?

B) career;

B) social mobility.

Task No. 19. What basic sociological concepts is associated with the concept of a social institution?

Asocial stratification. D) The set of social statuses and

B) Social processes. roles.

B) Social mobility E) Social movements.

D) Social organizations. E) Socio-demographic

Characteristics of people.

Task No. 20. Choose one answer:

Social conflict is

A) social tension,

B) struggle of opinions;

C) people’s subjective awareness of the contradictory nature of their interests,

D) conflict

Task No. 21 Choose one answer

The object of the conflict is

A) household items, cultural items,

B) a fragment of material, social, political reality that serves as the basis for this problem (territory, mineral resources, distribution of power, language, etc.);

B) a clash of interests regarding the distribution of material and other goods and benefits.

Task No. 22 What is meant by “sampling” in sociology?

A) selection of respondents,

B) choice of research methods,

C) selection of objective information.

a person with excellent manners and deportment"); b) the stage of social development following savagery and barbarism; c) the state of a society that recognizes the values ​​of peace, economic prosperity, freedom, legality (“in a civilized society there is no place for violence, crime, violation of the law, disrespect for human rights”); d) a set of manifestations of culture (“ancient civilization is a unique culture that underlies the European culture of subsequent eras”); e) a set of unique economic, social, political, spiritual, moral, psychological, value and other structures that distinguish one historical community of people from others (“the economy, system of power, values, lifestyle and psychology of the people of the Middle Ages distinguished this civilization from ancient or modern"). Which of these meanings are directly related to the characteristics of the historical process? Apply these principles to the analysis of specific societies known to you

It would be nice to write JK Rowling, an outstanding writer, and then... Please help.

FORMATION OF THE CULTURAL SPACE OF A UNITED RUSSIAN STATE

Task 1. Fill out the table “The influence of historical events (processes, phenomena) on the development of Russian culture in the 15th - early 16th centuries.”

Answer:

Task 2. Write down which three seas Afanasy Nikitin “traveled”, which countries and lands he visited (see map on p. 110 of the textbook).

Answer:

Afanasy Nikitin “went” to Persia beyond the Caspian (then called Derbent) Sea; from Persia to India - across the Arabian Sea, and home from Turkey - across the Black Sea.

Afanasy Nikitin's path passed through the Kazan and Astrakhan Khanates, Shemakha (now Azerbaijan), Sari-Kashan-Yezd-Ormuz (then Persia, now Iran), Muscat (now Oman), Kambay-Junnar-Bidar-Kulur (now India), getting lost , sailed to Ethiopia. Then back through Persia to the Ottoman Empire and the cities of Trabzon (now Turkey) - Bakhchisaray (now Crimea, Russia). Further, through Kyiv (then the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, now Ukraine) to Smolensk, which he did not reach due to his death.

Task 3. Complete filling out the table “The most important monuments of Russian culture of the 10th - early 16th centuries.” (pp. 46-47).

Answer:

Task 4. Using the textbook (text, illustrations on p. 113 and document on p. 115), write a short essay about Andrei Rublev.

Possible answer:

In the 15th century, Moscow developed its own school of painting. Russia is gradually moving away from excessively bright colors, Byzantine severity, and harsh images of Theophanes the Greek and adopting a different style of painting - “lightly joyful,” harmonic, lyrical and ethical.

Monk Andrei Rublev became a prominent representative of the new tradition. He managed with his creativity to reflect the dream of the Russian people about peace, harmony, tranquility and mutual love. He created humane and understandable images that conveyed the emotional experiences and moods of the people of that time.

The stern faces of saints, full of drama, are alien to the works of Andrei Rublev. His images are enlightened, there is a lot of light and peace on the canvases. The works bring to the world purity, love, the desire for ideal, happiness, despite the enmity, cruelty, hardships and troubles around. They also reflect in visible images heavenly purity and reverence for the Divine.

Icons and paintings by Andrei Rublev follow church canons, in which body proportions are not realistic. There is a lot of light in his icons, it seems to come from within, illuminating the entire space around, filling the soul with joy and happiness. Lightness in the proportions of the figures is one of the features of his icons.

Task 5. Which of the architectural structures depicted on p. 112 textbooks that currently exist?

Answer:

On page 112 of the textbook, masterpieces of Russian architecture erected by Italian masters are depicted - the Assumption Cathedral, the Archangel Cathedral and the Faceted Chamber of the Moscow Kremlin. All these architectural masterpieces still exist today.

Task 6. Write down your thoughts about the perception of the world by people who lived in the second half of the 15th - early 16th centuries. What were they worried about? What did they consider important in life?

Possible answer:

In the 15th century, the worldview of the inhabitants of Russian lands changed noticeably. Communication with representatives of other countries became more regular, which made it possible to get acquainted with another culture, customs, and traditions. Nevertheless, after the conclusion of the Union of Florence and the fall of Byzantium, the Russians began to understand that from now on Rus' was becoming the last stronghold of Orthodoxy in the world. This in turn led to the idea of ​​the exclusivity of the Russian people.

All this led to a certain detachment from the development of world culture, which made it possible, among other things, to talk about the beginning of the formation of a unified Russian culture. Local differences in the cultures of Russian lands began to be smoothed out, the best achievements of individual Russian lands, as well as other peoples, began to find their place in a single Russian culture.

Russian people's self-esteem has increased. Thanks to the expansion of ties with various countries, Russian people began to get acquainted with the traditions, way of life, and culture of other countries. However, all these innovations were perceived through the prism of their Orthodox exclusivity. So the attitude of Russians towards Western innovations can rather be called distrust and denial. Usually, such an attitude leads to misunderstanding, mistrust, and subsequently to isolation.

Nevertheless, Russia has received an excellent chance to develop as a single state. It was the ideas of unity and harmony, peace and Orthodox goodness that became the main ones in the lives of Russian people.

Task 7. Give examples of the patriotic behavior of the inhabitants of Russia that you remember most from the course on the history of Russia. What work of art says: “Everyone, one for one, wants to die and is ready to lay down their heads for each other”?

Answer:

The Tale of Bygone Years quotes the words of Prince Svyatoslav Igorevich, preparing for battle with the superior forces of the Byzantines: “We have nowhere to go, whether we want it or not, we must fight. So we will not disgrace the Russian land, but we will lie here as bones, for the dead have no shame. If we run, it will be a shame for us. So let’s not run, but we’ll stand strong, and I’ll go ahead of you: if my head falls, then take care of your own.”

The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu tells about the heroism of the city’s defenders, in particular Evpatiy Kolovrat. This is the assessment of the Russian warriors given by the Tatar Murzas: “We have been with many kings, in many lands, in many battles, but we have never seen such daredevils and spirited men, and our fathers did not tell us. These people are winged, they do not know death, and so strong and courageously, riding on horses, they fight - one with a thousand, and two with darkness. Not one of them will leave the massacre alive.”

The Life of Alexander Nevsky tells about the exploits of Prince Alexander's squad in the battle on the Neva and Lake Peipsi. The Life quotes the words of Prince Alexander: “God is not in power, but in truth. Let us remember the Songmaker, who said: “Some with weapons, and others on horses, we will call on the name of the Lord our God; They, defeated, fell, but we resisted and stand upright.” The work also tells about the heroism of ordinary Russian soldiers. “Six brave men appeared from Alexander’s regiment. One, named Gavrilo Oleksich, seeing the prince, who was being dragged by the arms, attacked the ship and rode along the plank all the way to the ship, along which they ascended with the prince to the ship; and they ran from him, and then turned around and threw him and his horse off the board into the water; and by God’s grace he remained unharmed and again attacked them and fought with the commander himself among their army ... "

“Zadonshchina” talks about the Battle of Kulikovo and the heroism of Russian soldiers: “Peresvet the Chernets, from the Bryansk boyars, was called to the battlefield. And Peresvet the Chernets said to Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich: “It’s better for us to be chopped down than to be captured by the filthy Tatars!” Peresvet gallops on his greyhound horse, his gilded armor sparkling, and many already lie whipped on the shore of the Great Don. At that time it was fitting for the old to grow younger, and for the young to broaden his shoulders. And the monk Oslyabya says to his brother Peresvet the monk: “Brother Peresvet, I see serious wounds on your body, brother, your head is already rolling from your shoulders onto the grass, and my son Yakov is lying on the green feather grass in the Kulikovo field, on the river I’m not right for the Christian faith, for the Russian land and for the insult of Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich.”

The phrase “Everyone, one for one, wants to die and is ready to lay down their heads for each other” from “The Tale of the Massacre of Mamaev.”

Many great reformer rulers, generals, scientists and even philosophers can lay claim to being called the greatest people in human history. But it is difficult to consider a person’s achievements in isolation from the era. The Renaissance and Enlightenment eras, as well as the scientific revolution of the 20th century, changed the face of the world, but these breakthroughs in human history were associated with the activities of many outstanding people.

The achievements of some talented people do not survive them. Many reached heights in conjunction with others, and their merits are not shared. Let's try to highlight several personalities in world history whose actions and ideas influenced the further course of the historical process. The consequences of their actions are being felt even now.

At the origins of European science: Aristotle

Aristotle is a rare example of a student who surpassed his brilliant mentor. He did not hesitate to criticize the teacher’s views, and his saying dedicated to this went down in history. Plato was a brilliant philosopher, but his views concerned issues of philosophy, ethics and political science. Aristotle went further.

A native of the insignificant town of Stagira, he came to Athens, where he created his own philosophical school. Its students included many philosophers and even famous politicians, but none of them made a contribution to history comparable to the founder.

Aristotle created the doctrine of the first principles of existence. He introduced the principle of development into world philosophy and created a system of philosophical categories and levels of existence. Stagirite was the founder of logic as a science. He studied ethics and developed the doctrine of virtues. In the field of cosmology, he defended the idea of ​​a spherical Earth.

In his essay “The State,” Aristotle studied the strengths and weaknesses of different forms of government and put forward his own realistic idea of ​​the state. His work on the history of the Athenian government is an example of historical writing.

In addition, the scientist from Athens wrote works on all areas of knowledge available at that time - biology, zoology, poetics (where he studied theater arts). The works of Aristotle were studied by philosophers of the Middle Ages in Europe and the Muslim world. He can rightfully be placed at the origins of modern science.

Alexander the Great: Creation of a New World

In world history there have been many commanders whose victories numbered in the dozens. Alexander defeated the army of the largest empire in several battles, took the most fortified cities of that time and reached Punjab. The empire he created collapsed a few decades after his death, but new states emerged from its fragments.

The King of Macedonia was obsessed with the idea of ​​uniting the West and the East under his rule. The idea was partly a success. After his campaigns, the Mediterranean became a different world. The Greeks had served eastern rulers before. But now the heart of Greek civilization began to beat in Asia and Egypt. The Alexandria Museum became the greatest center of intellectual life - philosophers, scientists and poets from all over the Mediterranean lived here. The library contained the most important scientific works. Here the Old Testament was translated into Greek. Pergamon, whose library also became a scientific center, did not lag behind him.

Hellenism brought about revitalization and changes in Hellenic literature, sculpture and architecture. New traditions and ideas associated with Eastern influence appeared. Later, the Roman Republic would join this world, whose culture would be formed under the influence of the Hellenistic one.

Alexander was not directly involved in most of the processes. But it was his conquests that created a world in which the appearance of the Alexandrian Museum and the Pergamon Library was possible.

Prophet Muhammad: the creation of a new religion

Mohammed and the religion of Islam can be viewed in different ways. For many centuries, Arab tribes roamed the vast expanses of Arabia. They were vassals or allies of powerful empires. The nomads staged bloody wars among themselves, composed original and complex poems, and worshiped many gods.

In the first half of the 7th century, Muhammad began preaching in Mecca. He managed to overcome the enmity of his fellow tribesmen and gather a group of supporters. He went with them to Medina, but after a series of battles he defeated the enemies and achieved the unification of the two cities under his authority.

Muhammad's enemies accepted his religious teachings and became his companions. The creed of Islam assumed expansion - after the death of the Prophet, the Arab armies left Arabia. Led by the teachings of Muhammad, the Arabs destroyed the Sasanian Empire and conquered vast territories of the Byzantine Empire. They did not stop there and subjugated the territories of Spain, Central Asia and the Mediterranean islands.

Now Islam is professed by about 1.5 billion people on the planet. It is the state religion of 28 countries, and communities of followers of the Prophet are located in 122 states. This is proof of the influence of the Prophet Muhammad on history, whose actions changed the lives of not only his fellow tribesmen, but also many distant peoples.

Charlemagne: at the origins of modern Europe

After the slow decline of the Roman Empire in the west, Europe plunged into the darkness of the Early Middle Ages. The population has decreased: some regions have become depopulated. Several epidemics and destructive wars swept across Europe.

Even under these conditions, the heritage of Roman civilization and science was not forgotten. But the eras of the 5th - 8th centuries stand out as difficult and dark times. In 768, Charles, who went down in history under the nickname the Great, became king of the Frankish kingdom. He was a decisive sovereign who fought a lot with his neighbors and expanded the borders of the Frankish kingdom, and in 800 he was crowned emperor.

His empire included parts of eastern Spain, Italy to Rome, and the territory of modern Germany. Avars and numerous Slavic peoples were dependent on him: Moravians, Czechs, Obodrites, Serbs.

The emperor became famous not only for his victorious wars. He attracted educated people to his court and built schools. An Academy was organized, whose members were the smartest people of his era - the monk Alcuin, the historian Paul the Deacon, the biographer Einhard. Alcuin's student was the author of one of the medieval encyclopedias, Rabanus the Maurus.

Children of nobles and clergy studied in schools organized in the empire of Charlemagne. They studied the seven liberal arts, the canon of which had been formed earlier. "Carolingian minuscule", a method of writing letters that became the basis of the modern alphabet of most Western countries. At Charles's court there was an admiration for Roman literature, and copies of works in Latin were made.

The death of Charlemagne was followed by the collapse of his empire. The division of the empire into three states, formalized in 843, laid the foundations of modern Italy, Germany and France.

The Ideology That Changed History: Karl Marx

One of the greatest (according to many) thinkers of the 19th century is Karl Marx. He was born in Prussia, but spent most of his life in Great Britain and died in London. The ideas and works he developed determined the course of history of the next century.

The formation of Marx as a thinker was influenced by the philosophy of Hegel. Marx criticized his predecessor, but, relying on his dialectical method, formed his concept of dialectical materialism. He introduced his own materialistic understanding of the course of the historical process, which continues to be used in modern science.

Finally, Marx created the work “Capital”, in which he examined the contradictions of his contemporary capitalist society. He showed the essence of conflicts between capitalists and workers, as well as within these classes. He substantiated the inevitability of the replacement of capitalism by socialism.

Marx's ideas influenced all left-wing thinkers of the 20th century. The practical application of these ideas was made by the builders of the USSR and other socialist states. In the 21st century, socialist states continue to exist, and supporters of this ideology believe in the final victory of socialism. At the basis of this historical process were the ideas of Karl Marx.

The greatest people in human history are individuals who, alone or with the participation of fellow performers, changed the course of history or directed it in the right direction. This influence was manifested in various ways - the development of science, the creation of a new religion or ideology, changes in the political map of the world, which created new conditions for the development of civilization. The results of the activities of these individuals were able to fully manifest themselves years and decades after their death.

1. Give examples of prominent people belonging to different races. Fill the table

Field of activity	Caucasian	Mongoloid race	Negroid race
Politicians	Mikhail Gorbachev, Angela Merkel, Charles de Gaulle	Mao Zedong, Yasser Arafat, Akihito	Nelson Mandella, Martin Luther King, Barack Obama
Actors	Nikita Mikhalkov, Brigitte Bardot, Jean-Paul Belmondo	Bruce Lee, Jackie Chan, Miura Haruma	Damon Waynes, Eddie Murphy, Vanessa Williams
Musicians	Ludwig van Beethoven, Mstislav Rastropovich, Niccolo Paganini	Vanessa May, Viktor Tsoi	Louis Armstrong, Michael Jackson, Jimi Hendrix
Athletes	Michael Schumacher, Andre Agassi, Sergei Bubka	Park Ji-sung, Konstantin Ju	Muhammad Ali, Michael Jordan, Pele

2. Compare the “States of the World” map in the atlas and the map in Figure 101 in the textbook. Give two examples of countries whose populations are dominated by representatives of different races.

Caucasian: UK, Denmark

Mongoloid: Mongolia, Japan

Negroid: Somalia, Chad

3. Using additional sources of information, give examples of countries with the largest populations. Indicate what continent each country is located on.

a) China - Eurasia

b) India - Eurasia

c) USA - North America

d) Indonesia - Eurasia

e) Brazil - South America

f) Pakistan - Eurasia

4. What type of settlement is yours?

Answer: Our settlement is classified as a medium-sized city.

How many people live in it?

Answer: It is home to 60 thousand people.

Where do people living in your community work?

Answer: Mostly people work in industrial enterprises and the service sector.

5. What natural disasters can happen in your area?

Make a memo “Rules of behavior during an earthquake” according to plan.

Is it possible to warn about an impending natural disaster in advance?

Answer: It is impossible to warn about an earthquake.

Where is the best place to wait out a disaster? What should you take with you?

Answer: It is best to wait out the earthquake outside, in an area away from buildings and trees. When going outside, you need to take documents, money, a small container of water, some food, and necessary medications.

Where is the best place to be if a natural disaster finds you at home?

Answer: If an earthquake occurs in the house, you need to stand in the doorway or corner of the room. You can also hide under a table or bed.

What should you do at home before a natural disaster strikes?

Answer: Turn off the gas, water, and unplug electrical appliances. Warn neighbors and relatives.

What rules should be followed immediately after the end of a natural disaster?

Answer: After an earthquake, it is necessary to monitor alerts, as aftershocks are possible. Enter the premises only after permission from the relevant services.