Artistic culture of Russia in the 19th century. Artistic culture of Europe in the 19th century
Western Europe
Romanticism- a phenomenon of European culture in the 18th-19th centuries, representing a reaction to the Enlightenment and the scientific and technological progress stimulated by it; ideological and artistic direction in European and American culture of the late 18th century - the first half of the 19th century. It is characterized by an affirmation of the intrinsic value of the spiritual and creative life of the individual, the depiction of strong (often rebellious) passions and characters, spiritualized and healing nature. It has spread to various spheres of human activity. In the 18th century, everything strange, fantastic, picturesque and existing in books and not in reality was called romantic. At the beginning of the 19th century, romanticism became the designation of a new direction, opposite to classicism and the Enlightenment.
Romanticism in art and literature has common characteristic features: rejection of the bourgeois, bourgeois reality of his time, contrasting the prose of the existing world with the ideal world. This opposition was carried out by the inherent methods of expressiveness inherent in different types of art. For example, the juxtaposition of a day filled with bustle led poets, musicians and painters to poeticize the night, this strange, sometimes surreal world that lives according to its own laws. The night genre is becoming a favorite in the works of romantic artists. Sometimes the lyrics of the night give way to the horror of darkness. Rejection of life and reality gives rise to the motive of departure, escape from life, which is expressed in various forms, including in the genre of travel, wandering, most often to the East. The theme of death takes on a special meaning. The favorite theme of the romantics is the rebel hero, the tragic struggle, the confusion of violent feelings. Portraiture takes on special significance. Artists strive to depict the inner workings of thought, self-absorption, and sensual individuality. Images of turbulent nature allow us to allegorically convey our plans. The theme of heroic struggle against the elements, desperate tension, impulse are common to the romantics of European countries. The desire to learn more deeply the intricacies of the human soul gives rise to the themes of the tragedy of a broken fate, a sick soul, and despair. The most prominent representatives of the French school were E. Delacroix and T. Gericault.
Romanticism was also reflected in landscape painting, which conveyed a special mood and inspiration from the contemplation of native nature. This is primarily characteristic of English art, whose prominent representatives were J. Constable, J. Turner, and R. Benington.
Critical realism. In the second half of the 19th century. becomes the dominant artistic thinking and method. Critical realism does not at all mean a negative attitude towards reality. This is a form of opposition to the existing (dominant) ideology. The leading role in critical realism belongs to literature. A realistic reflection of reality is determined not by one or another technique, but by a general attitude to reality, that is, artistic truth, which includes two sides: a truthful reflection of existing aspects of life and truth, compliance with the aesthetic ideal. In the first half of the 19th century. realism functioned in close connection with romanticism.
For the culture of the 19th century. characterized by multi-style, struggle between different directions, and the onset of crisis phenomena. The nature of a person’s interaction with the surrounding reality changes fundamentally: a contemplative attitude appears, a desire for sensory contact with the world, and this is realized in different ways in different movements. In naturalism - through the fixation of the fleeting, through an individual impression. In impressionism - through the transmission of dynamically filled life. In symbolism - thanks to the animation of the external world, and in modernism - thanks to the creation of images of the spirit.
Impressionism- a movement in the art of the last third of the 19th - early 20th centuries, which originated in France and then spread throughout the world, whose representatives sought to most naturally and impartially capture the real world in its mobility and variability, to convey their fleeting impressions. Usually the term “impressionism” refers to a movement in painting, although its ideas have also found their embodiment in literature and music.
The name of this movement comes from the French word meaning “impression.” The history of the genre originates from the creative quests of both realists and romantics. The essence of impressionism is the desire to convey a direct impression of the surrounding world. Using pictorial means, artists sought to convey the uniqueness and illusion of light, air, water, color in all its purity, and subtle nuances of the light-air environment. Painting expanded the boundaries of space, “opened a window” into nature with all its unique and fleeting changes. The founder of the movement was Edouard Manet, but Claude Monet became its recognized leader. Outstanding impressionists were O. Renoir, E. Degas, A. Sisley, C. Pissarro, and later P. Cezanne, V. van Gogh, and the sculptor O. Rodin was very close to them in terms of the nature of his creativity. Impressionism marked the beginning of a new perception of the world around us, allowed us to feel the beauty of every moment of life and had a huge influence on the emergence of new directions in art.
In general, the culture of Western Europe in the 19th century. developed as the culture of an industrial society with all its inherent characteristics and influenced its further formation.
POSTIMPRESSIONISM the general name of trends in painting. 19 - beginning 20th centuries, which arose in France as a reaction to impressionism with its interest in the accidental and fleeting. Having adopted the purity and sonority of color from impressionism, post-impressionism contrasted it with the search for permanent principles of existence, stable material and spiritual essences, generalizing, synthetic painting methods, and increased interest in philosophical and symbolic aspects, in decorative, stylizing and formal techniques. Post-impressionism includes P. Cezanne, V. Van Gogh, P. Gauguin, A. Toulouse-Lautrec, representatives of neo-impressionism and “Nabis” - a group of artists who worked in Paris in the late 1880s - early 1900s and created under the influence Gauguin is a unique version of the Art Nouveau style, close to symbolism, which is characterized by decorative generalization of forms, flatness of composition, and the primacy of color.
MODERN - stylistic direction in European and American art. 19 - beginning 20th centuries Representatives of “modernism” used new technical and constructive means, free planning, and unique architectural decor to create unusual, emphatically individualized buildings, all elements of which were subject to a single ornamental rhythm and figurative and symbolic design (H. van de Velde in Belgium, J. Olbrich in Austria, A. Gaudi in Spain, C. R. Mackintosh in Scotland, F. O. Shekhtel in Russia). The fine and decorative art of “modern” is distinguished by the poetics of symbolism, the decorative rhythm of flexible flowing lines, and stylized floral patterns.
Krysanova Alina Olegovna
Culture of the 19th century is the culture of established bourgeois relations. By the end of the 18th century. capitalism as a system is fully formed. It covered all sectors of material production, which entailed corresponding transformations in the non-productive sphere (politics, science, philosophy, art, education, everyday life, social consciousness).
The culture of this period is characterized by a reflection of the internal contradictions of bourgeois society. The clash of opposing tendencies, the struggle of the main classes - the bourgeoisie and the proletariat, the polarization of society, the rapid rise of material culture and the beginning of alienation of the individual determined the nature of the spiritual culture of that time.
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Artistic culture of the 19th century Performed by: Krysanova A.O. Student, 11th grade, MOBU Secondary School No. 5, Nagornoye village, Pozharsky district, Primorsky Territory, Head Shevchik Oleg Dmitrievich
1. CLASSICISM 2. ROMANTICISM 3. REALISM
Classicism (French classicisme, from Latin classicus - exemplary) - artistic style and aesthetic direction in European culture of the 17th-19th centuries
CLASSICISM began to take shape in European art in the 17th century. The most important feature is the appeal to the principles of ancient art. It took shape in France, reflecting the establishment of absolutism in this country. For classicists, only timeless things have aesthetic value, i.e. enduring. He put forward new ethical standards, as he attached great importance to the social and educational function of art. The aesthetics of classicism are normative rules. A strict hierarchy of genres was established (high genre - historical paintings, mythical, religious; low genre - landscape, portrait, still life. High - tragedy, epic, ode; low - comedy, satire, fable). Classicism was characterized by features of utopianism, idealization and abstraction, which intensified during the period of its decline. In the middle of the 19th century. Classicism has degenerated into lifeless academicism.
Romanticism (French romantisme), an ideological and artistic movement in European and American culture of the late 18th - first half of the 19th centuries.
ROMANTICISM Romantic art is characterized by aversion to bourgeois reality, a decisive rejection of the rationalistic principles of bourgeois enlightenment and classicism, and distrust of the cult of reason, which was characteristic of the enlighteners and writers of the new classicism. It originated in Germany. Spread throughout Europe. Originating as a reaction to the rationalism and mechanism of the aesthetics of classicism and the philosophy of the Enlightenment, established in the era of the revolutionary breakdown of feudal society, the former, seemingly unshakable world order, romanticism (both as a special type of worldview and as an artistic movement) has become one of the most complex and internally contradictory phenomena in cultural history.
Realism is an artistic method of figuratively reflecting reality in accordance with objective accuracy.
REALISM In realism, the phenomena of reality appear in all their complexity. By the middle of the century - he is the leading style. It arose in France and England under conditions of capitalist relations. In its ideological orientation it becomes critical - the writers took a critical approach to social contradictions.
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RussiancultureXIXcentury:literature,art,music,the science
6. Conclusion
art literature chekhov architecture
1. Introduction. Relevance of the topic
The 19th century occupies a special place in the history of Russian culture. This is the time of the rise of domestic enlightenment, the greatest scientific achievements, and the brilliant flowering of all types of art. During this period, artistic values were created that are of lasting importance not only for national art, but also for the world.
It was in the 19th century. Russian artistic culture has become classical, having the significance of an immortal model for all subsequent generations of people. If in economic and socio-political development Russia lagged behind advanced European countries, then in cultural achievements it not only kept pace with them, but was in many ways ahead of them. Russia has contributed wonderful works of literature, painting, and music to the world cultural fund. Russian scientists have made outstanding discoveries in science and technology. The questions posed by Russian culture of that time turned out to be relevant today, and therefore are at the center of ethical and philosophical reflections of our time. The rise of Russian culture was so great that it allows us to call this era the “Golden Age of Russian culture.”
2. Literary movements: classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism - works and their authors
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For Russian literature of the first half of the 19th century. characterized by rapid changes in artistic directions. The dominant aesthetic principles managed to transform several times during the life of one generation. The final chord of development classicism a play appeared in Russian literature A. WITH. Griboedova "Grief from mind"(1823), in which the traditions of classical comedy of the 18th century. are combined, like those of D.I. Fonvizin, with the features of emerging realism. At the beginning of the century, in Europe and Russia, a Romantism- a movement in literature and art, which is characterized by a special interest in an extraordinary personality, a lonely Hero, opposing himself and the world of his soul to the surrounding world. For romantics in creativity, the main task is not so much the accurate reproduction of reality, but the creation of an “ideal”, the features of which are usually attached to the main character and reflect the author’s attitude to reality.
The creator of Russian romanticism is considered Vasily Andreevich Zhukovsky(1783-1852), a poet whose works (ballads) are full of melancholy, folk motifs and mystical images "Lyudmila" 1808 "Svetlana" 1812) became examples of the style of new literature. Romantics are characterized by an interest in history. In addition to him, representatives of romanticism were the Decembrist poets TO. F. Ryleev, IN. TO. Kuchelbecker, A. A. Bestuzhev(Marlinsky), A. AND. Odoevsky. The ideological basis of their work, of course, is very different from the romanticism of Zhukovsky. The poetry of struggle and freedom predominates in it; it is much more optimistic. Early works cannot be called anything other than romantic. Alexandra Sergeevich Pushkin(1799-1837) and Mikhail Yurievich Lermontov (1814-1841).
Pushkin is one of those writers whose creative path was marked by an appeal to various artistic directions. Early Pushkin is a romantic; in his works one can even detect some influence of sentimentalism. At the same time, he is considered the founder of Russian realism. His novel V poetry "Eugene Onegin" was called by V. G. Belinsky “an encyclopedia of Russian life.” In addition to Onegin, historical drama is an outstanding example of realism in the works of A. S. Pushkin "Boris Yearatnew", stories "Captain's daughter", "Dubrovsky".
Pushkin's traditions in literature were continued by his younger contemporary M. YU. Lermontov. Lermontov's early works are mainly love lyrics. However, over time, his poetry, along with the theme of tragic, unhappy love, includes civil themes. His poem brought him fame "On death poet", dedicated to the death of A.S. Pushkin. They followed him "Motherland", "Borodino". Like his great predecessor, M. Yu. Lermontov combined romanticism and realism in his work. The poetry of romantic loneliness and opposition to the world is reflected in poems "Mtsyri" And "Daemon". The novel is considered the pinnacle of Lermontov's realism "Hero our time". The dramaturgy of M. Yu. Lermontov is represented by the play "Masquerade", written in 1835
The further development of literature was associated with the strengthening of the position of realism. An important milestone in this process was creativity Nicholas VasilievAndcha Gogol(1809-1852). He is considered the first writer of the so-called “natural school” in Russian literature, i.e. the movement that is now commonly called “critical realism.” The legacy of N.V. Gogol is diverse. These include colorful sketches of the life of Little Russian landowners in the stories "Mirgorod", and filled with fantastic and fairy-tale motifs of Ukrainian folklore "Evenings on farm near Dikanki", and mystical "Petersburg stories" in which there is grotesque, fantasy ( "Nose") are combined with a piercingly realistic depiction of the life of a “little man” crushed by life ( "ShAndnel"). In 1835 N.V. Gogol finished the comedy "Inspector", the plot of which was suggested to him by A.S. Pushkin. A comedy without a positive hero, in the images of thieving provincial officials, it showed a portrait of the entire bureaucratic autocratic Russian Empire. A unique combination of satire and lyricism, realism and grotesque is the unfinished work of N. V. Gogol "Dead souls", called a poem by the writer himself.
Of particular importance, which acquired in the first half of the 19th century. literature, led to the emergence of literary criticism as an independent genre. The highest achievements in this field are associated with the name Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky(1811-1848), the significance of whose work goes far beyond narrow literary issues. V. G. Belinsky was one of those thinkers whose efforts affirmed the high civic sound of Russian literature. Largely thanks to V. G. Belinsky, literary criticism in Russia became a space for ideological struggle, a forum at which the most important issues in the life of society were discussed, a platform from which advanced ideas went to the masses.
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In the second half of the 19th century, literature acquired enormous importance in the social and cultural life of Russia. Literature was seen not only as a field of artistic creativity, but also as a source of spiritual improvement, an arena of ideological battles, and a guarantee of a special great future for Russia. The abolition of serfdom, bourgeois reforms, the formation of capitalism, and the difficult wars that Russia had to wage during this period found a lively response in the works of Russian writers. Their opinions were listened to. Their views largely determined the public consciousness of the Russian population of that time.
The leading direction in literary creativity was critical realism. The work of I. S. Turgenev, I. A. Goncharov, L. N. Tolstoy, F. M. Dostoevsky, M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, A. P. Chekhov brought worldwide fame to Russian literature.
One of the most remarkable writers of the mid-century was Ivan XieRGeevich Turgenev(1818-1883). The writer managed to depict a gallery of portraits of peasants exceptionally truthfully in the series of stories that brought him fame, called "Notes hunter". Moral quests, love, and the life of a landowner's estate are revealed to the reader in the novel "Noble nest"(1858). The conflict of generations, unfolding against the backdrop of a clash between the nobility experiencing a crisis and the new generation of commoners (embodied in the image of Bazarov), who have made denial (“nihilism”) the banner of ideological self-affirmation, is shown in the novel "Fathers And children"(1862).
The destinies of the Russian nobility are reflected in the works AND. A. Goncharova. The characters of the heroes of his works are contradictory: soft, sincere, conscientious, but passive, unable to “get off the couch” Ilya Ilyich Oblomov ( "Oblomov", 1859); educated, gifted, romantically inclined, but again, like Oblomov, inactive and weak-willed Boris Raisky ( "Cliff", 1869). Goncharov managed to create an image of a very typical breed of people, to show a widespread phenomenon of social life of that time, which received at the suggestion of a literary critic N. A. Dobrolyubova the name "Oblomovism".
The middle of the century marks the beginning of the literary activity of the greatest Russian writer, thinker and public figure, Count Leo Nikolaevich Tolstoy(1828-1910). The titanic personality of Tolstoy represents the figure of an author characteristic of Russian culture, for whom literature was closely connected with social activities, and the professed ideas were propagated primarily by the example of his own life. Already in the first works of L.N. Tolstoy, published in the 50s. XIX century and brought him fame (trilogy "Childhood", "Adolescence", "Youth", Caucasian And Sevastopol stories), a powerful talent emerged. In 1863 the story was published "Cossacks", which became an important stage in his work. Tolstoy came close to creating a historical epic novel "War And world"(1863-1869) His own experience of participation in the Crimean War and the defense of Sevastopol allowed Tolstoy to reliably depict the events of the heroic 1812. The novel combines a huge and varied material, its ideological potential is immeasurable. Pictures of family life, a love story, and people's characters are intertwined with large-scale paintings of historical events. According to L.N. Tolstoy himself, the main idea in the novel was “folk thought.” The people are shown in the novel as the creator of history, the people's environment as the only true and healthy soil for any Russian person. The next novel by L.N. Tolstoy - "Anna Karenina"(1874-1876). It combines the story of the main character's family drama with an artistic understanding of the pressing social and moral issues of our time. The third great novel by a great writer - "Resurrection"(1889-1899), called by R. Rolland “one of the most beautiful poems about human compassion.”
Drama of the second half of the 19th century. was represented by plays A. N. Ostrovsky(“We’ll count our own people”, “Profitable Place”, “Balzaminov’s Marriage”, “Thunderstorm”, etc.) and A. IN. Sukhovo-Kobylina(trilogy “Krechinsky’s Wedding”, “The Affair”, “The Death of Tarelkin”).
An important place in the literature of the 70s. takes M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, whose satirical talent manifested itself most powerfully in "Stories one cities". One of the best works by M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin "Gentlemen Golovlevs" tells about the gradual disintegration of the family and the extinction of the Golovlev landowners. The novel shows the lies and absurdity underlying the relationships within the noble family, which ultimately leads to their death.
An unsurpassed master of the psychological novel was Fedor MAndKhailovich Dostoevsky(1821-1881). Dostoevsky's genius was manifested in the writer's extraordinary ability to reveal to the reader the hidden, sometimes terrifying, truly mystical depths of human nature, showing monstrous spiritual catastrophes in the most ordinary settings ( "Crime And punishment", "Brothers Karamazovs", "Poor People", "Idiot").
A new stage in the development of realism in Russian literature was creativity Anton Pavlovich Chekhov(1860-1904). A.P. Chekhov's talent manifested itself primarily in short stories, in which the writer amazingly accurately, with subtle humor and slight sadness, showed the life of ordinary people - provincial landowners, zemstvo doctors, county young ladies, behind the monotonous course of whose lives a real tragedy arose - unfulfilled dreams, unfulfilled aspirations, power, knowledge, love that turned out to be useless to anyone. A.P. Chekhov also wrote for the theater. He created wonderful plays ( "Three sisters" 1900 "Cherry garden" 1903), in which, as in stories, deep content was hidden behind the external simplicity of the plot. The drama of human life is terrible in its everyday hopelessness.
The pinnacle of Russian poetry of the second half of the 19th century. there was creativity Nicholas AleToSeevich Nekrasova(1821-1878). The main theme of his works was the depiction of the hardships of the working people. To convey through the power of the artistic word to an educated reader living in prosperity the whole depth of the people's poverty and grief, to show the greatness of the simple peasant - such was the meaning of the poetry of N. A. Nekrasov (poem "To whom on Rus' live Fine", 1866-1876) The poet understood his poetic activity as a civic duty to serve his country. In addition, N. A. Nekrasov is known for his publishing activities. He published magazines "Contemporary", "Domestic notes", on the pages of which the works of many later famous Russian writers first saw the light of day.
A special place in the literature of the second half of the 19th century. occupies the lyrics. The poetry of Russian nature and love, which at the same time is not devoid of a civic sound, found expression in creativity F. AND. Tyutcheva, A. A. Feta, A. N. Maykova.
3. Development of art and architecture
The dominant stylistic direction in painting in the first half of the 19th century. became romanticism. An outstanding master of romantic portraiture was Orestes Adamovich Kiprensky(1782-1836). Among his numerous works, especially interesting are portraits contemporaries of the artist poets IN. A. Zhukovsky And A. WITH. Pushkin. Pushkin’s review of his portrait fully characterizes Kiprensky’s creative style, in which portrait resemblance and truthfulness were combined with some romantic idealization of the portrayed character: “I see myself as in a mirror, but this mirror flatters me.” No less famous portrait painter was Basil Andreevich Tropinin (1776-1857). Tropinin's paintings are characterized by simplicity, artlessness, and the authenticity of the depiction of the everyday environment in which he placed the model being portrayed. One of his best works - portrait son Arsenia. Tropinin is the creator of one of the lifetime portraits A. WITH. Pushkin(1827).
The founder of the everyday genre in Russian art was Alexei Gavrilovich Venetsianov (1780-1847) ("The threshing floor", "On arable land Spring", "Morning landowners"). Venetsianov was attracted by the depiction of village life. The village on his canvases appears in a highly idealized form, but still the very fact of turning to folk life is evidence of a certain stage in development, which subsequently led to the formation of fully realistic art. The traditions of everyday life writing are continued in creativity P. A. Fedotova- an artist who is often called “Gogol in painting.” His works are usually satirical in nature, in which a whole story unfolds before the viewer. These are his paintings "Fresh kavAler", "Matchmaking major".
The greatest master of romantic painting was Charles Pavlovich Bryullov(1799-1852). In his art, the artist combined the best traditions of the academic school, the emotionality of romanticism and the desire for historical truth, which allows us to talk about elements of realism in his creative manner. K. P. Bryullov received recognition and fame during his lifetime. His picture "Afterdny day Pompeii" became a real event in the cultural life of that time. Bryullov was an outstanding portrait painter. He painted ceremonial portraits of remarkable beauty ( "Rider" 1832; portrait countess YU. P. Samoilova 1839), and chamber ones, distinguished by subtle psychologism ( portrait A. N. Strugovshchikova 1841; Self-portrait 1848).
The main work of another great painter of the era, Alexandra Andreevich Ivanova(1806-1858), there was a painting "Phenomenon Christ to the people". He devoted twenty years (1837-1857) to the creation of this monumental canvas. In the process of working on the painting, a huge number of sketches and sketches were created that have independent artistic value.
He worked in the genre of seascape AND. TO. Aivazovsky(1817-1900). His canvases amaze with their amazingly picturesque depictions of the sea elements. The painting gained textbook fame "Ninth shaft"(1850), which is a striking example of the master’s unsurpassed professionalism and testifies to the romantic nature of his work during this period.
Ways of development of Russian art II half XIX V. largely coincide with the movement of literary development. Active participation in ideological battles is a characteristic feature of the artistic culture of this period. Fine art could not remain aloof from the processes taking place in the public consciousness. A movement was formed, based on the ideas of critical realism.
One of the first masters of this direction was Basil Grigorievich Perov(1833-1882). His genre works ( "Rural godfather move on Easter" 1861 "Seeing off POkoynik" 1865 "Troika" 1868) are sad stories of the life of ordinary people, presented in the language of painting. Narration was a very common phenomenon in painting in the second half of the 19th century. It made it possible to achieve extreme clarity, sharpness and wide accessibility of the ideological content of the work. The works of V. G. Perov revealed the most significant features of the emerging new approach to fine art, which is characterized by the awareness that in addition to aesthetic merits, painting should have a pronounced social, civic meaning.
V. G. Perov was a talented portrait painter. By the 60-70s. include wonderful portraits of F. M. Dostoevsky, A. N. Ostrovsky, I. S. Turgenev.
The new direction was established in the fight against official art, represented by the leadership of the Academy of Arts. In 1863, a group of graduate students refused to paint programmatic paintings based on the subjects of the Scandinavian epic, proposing instead to choose a theme related to the problems of modern society. This was denied to them. As a sign of protest, the artists, led by I. N. Kramskoy, without officially completing the course, left the Academy, forming the “St. Petersburg Artel of Artists.” In 1870, already in Moscow, AND. N. Kramskoy, IN. G. Perov, N. N. Ge, And G. G. Myasoedov organized "Partnership mobile artistic exhibitions". The partnership organized exhibitions in St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kharkov, Kazan, Orel, and Odessa. At various times, the Wanderers' Partnership included I. E. Repin, V. I. Surikov, A. K. Savrasov, I. I. Shishkin, A. I. Kuinzhi, I. I. Levitan, M. V. Vasnetsov, N. A. Yaroshenko and others.
The generally recognized ideological leader of this association was Ivan Nikolaevich Kramskoy (1837-1887).
The largest work of I. N. Kramskoy is a painting "Christ V desert"(1872). Despite the similarity of ideological positions, his creative style differs in many ways from the approaches of V. G. Perov. Kramskoy managed to convey colossal internal tension, titanic work of soul and thought. The basis is a biblical story (although, it would seem, it was historical and mythological themes that the student rebels spoke out against at one time), but there is no trace of academic routine in the film. The heavy thought of Christ, who was ready to sacrifice himself, was perceived by the audience as a challenge to social evil, as a call to selfless service to a higher goal. This work embodies the best qualities of Wandering. I. N. Kramskoy was an excellent portrait painter. He created portraits writers L.N. Tolstoy, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, artist I.I. Shishkin, famous collector, philanthropist, creator of the gallery of Russian painting P.M. Tretyakov. Gained great popularity "Stranger", painted by the artist in 1883.
The battle genre was represented by works IN. IN. Vereshchagina, an artist who repeatedly participated in hostilities and showed the horrors of war in its unostentatious manifestations: blood, wounds, the hard daily work of ordinary soldiers, the tragedy of death, which has become commonplace ( "Apotheosis war", 1871, "Balkan series" 1877-1881).
Reached unprecedented prosperity scenery. Landscape painting has become one of the leading areas of artistic development; this genre has been raised to new heights. Landscape of the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries. - this is no longer just an image of “types of landscapes”, but painting, through images of nature, conveying the subtlest movements of the human soul. The greatest masters of landscape in Russia were A. TO. Savrasov(“The Rooks Have Arrived” 1871), AND. AND. Shishkin(“Pine Forest” 1873, “Rye” 1878), A. AND. Kuinzhi(“Birch Grove” 1879, “Moonlit Night on the Dnieper” 1880), IN. D. Polenov(“Moscow courtyard” 1878), AND. AND. Levitan(“Evening Bells” 1892, “Spring. Big Water” 1897), TO. A. Korovin(“In winter” 1894. “Paris. Boulevard of the Capuchins” 1906).
Peaks of realistic art of the second half of the 19th century. reached in the works of I. E. Repin and V. I. Surikov. One of the first large works of the master is a painting "Barge Haulers" on Volga"(1873) was a great success. The genre scene acquired truly monumental grandeur in the film. Each of the characters depicted is endowed with individual characteristics. In general, the composition is perceived as a multi-valued metaphor, in which the hardships of the working people, the forces dormant in them and the image of Russia are given. Throughout his life, I. E. Repin painted portraits. He created an entire portrait gallery of his contemporaries: Russian art and music critic V.V. Stasov, writers A.F. Pisemsky, L.N. Tolstoy, engineer A.I. Delvig, actress P.A. Srepetova. The greatest works of Russian painting are the paintings of I. E. Repin "Godfather move V Kursk province"(1883), "Not were waiting"(1888), "Cossacks write letter Turkish to the Sultan"(1891).
Historical painting found its highest expression in creativity Vasily Ivanovich Surikov(1848-1916). In history, the artist was most interested in people: the masses and strong, bright personalities. The first work that brought V.I. Surikov fame was "Morning Streltsy executions"(1881). The composition is built on contrast: grief, hatred, suffering, embodied in the figures of the archers going to their death and their loved ones, are contrasted with Peter sitting on a horse, frozen in stone in the distance. Contrast is the basis of many of Surikov’s paintings. "Menshikov V Berezov"(1883) - the rich clothes of the “semi-sovereign” noble prince, sitting in a poor and dark peasant hut surrounded by children, create dissonance, emphasizing the image of a collapsed life, a heavy blow of fate, the greatest internal tension. "Boyarina Morozova"(1887) - the fanatical look and dark clothes of a frantic Old Believer are contrasted with a brightly dressed crowd of people, partly with sympathy, and partly simply with curiosity, looking after the simple peasant sledges, taking the rebellious noblewoman into captivity. The paintings of V. I. Surikov belong to the late period of creativity "Take snowy town"(1891), "Conquest Siberia Ermak"(1895), "Transition SuvorOva through Alps"(1899), "Stepan Razin"(1907).
In addition to V.I. Surikov, he wrote paintings on historical themes IN. M. Vasnetsov. The image of history in his works has a tangible epic, fairy-tale connotation: "After carnage Igor Svyatoslavich With Polovtsy"(1880), "Alyonushka"(1881), the combination of epic and history was especially clearly manifested in the grandiose canvas "Bogatyrs"(1898).
-RussianarchitectureXIXcentury.
Unlike other types of art in Russian architecture of the first half of the 19th century. classicism retains its position, having entered the stage of its highest development - mature or high classicism, often called Russians ampAndrum. The greatest architect of this time Andrey Nikiforovich Voronikhin(1759-1814). Voronikhin's main creation is Kazansky Cathedral, the majestic colonnade of which formed a square in the center of Nevsky Prospekt, turning the cathedral and surrounding buildings into the most important urban planning hub of the center of St. Petersburg.
The appearance of a Greek temple was given to the building Exchanges architect AND. Tom de Tomon(1760 - 1813. The monumental laconic silhouette, the powerful Doric colonnade of the Exchange in combination with the rostral columns placed along the edges organize not only the ensemble of the Spit of Vasilyevsky Island, separating the two channels of the Neva before its flow into the Gulf of Finland, but also influence the perception of both Universitetskaya and and Palace embankments.
The building plays an important role in shaping the architectural appearance of St. Petersburg Admiralty, built according to the project A. D. Zakharova. In its center there is a triumphal arch with a high gilded spire, which has become one of the symbols of the city.
The highest achievement of Empire architecture in St. Petersburg was the work of the famous architect Carla Ivanovich Russia(1775-1849). He designed entire ensembles. So, creating Mikhailovsky castle(now the Russian Museum), Rossi organized the square in front of the palace, outlining sketches of the facades facing the square of houses, designed new streets that connected the palace complex with the surrounding urban development, Nevsky Prospekt, etc. K. I. Rossi took part in the design of Palace Square, adjacent to Rastrelli's Winter Palace. Rossi closed it with a classically solemn building General Headquarters, decorated with a triumphal arch, the top of which is crowned with the chariot of Glory. K. I. Rossi designed the buildings Alexandrinsky theater, Public libraries, Senate And Synod.
Created remarkable monuments of Empire architecture IN. P. Stasov. Designed by him Pavlovsky barracks on the Champ de Mars in St. Petersburg and Imperial stables. From 1818 to 1858 French architect OgYustoma Montferrand a grandiose one was being built Isaakievsky Cathedral- a building whose somewhat heavy, overloaded forms testified to the beginning of the crisis of classicism in architecture and the advent of the era of eclecticism.
In Moscow, an outstanding master of mature classicism became Osip IvanOhiv Beauvais(1784-1834). They built a building Bolshoi theater, designed Teatral square, erected Triumphant gates at the entrance to the city from St. Petersburg, etc. Architects worked a lot and fruitfully in Moscow D. AND. Gilardi And A. G. Grigoriev. Their projects of Moscow residential buildings and estates are especially interesting.
In the second half of the century, significant changes occurred in architecture. The unity of style, observed until the second half of the 19th century, gave way to eclecticism (a mixture of styles). Stylization became a common technique - when erecting new buildings, architects gave their appearance features of architectural styles of past eras.
The combination of classicism and baroque became the basis of the architectural composition Isaakievsky cathedral(1818-1858), to the construction of which a native of France devoted more than half of his life ABOUT. G. Montferrand.
Worked in pseudo-Byzantine style TO. A. Tone, who owns the temple project Christ Savior in Moscow, Bolshoi Kremlin palace, railway stations Petersburg and Moscow, respectively, in Moscow and St. Petersburg.
One of the first masters who worked in a style for which ancient Russian wooden architecture became a model was AND. P. Ropet. Ropet supervised the construction of the wooden building of the Russian Department at the Paris World Exhibition in 1878, and he built the Terem in Abramtsevo near Moscow. After the name of the architect, this style, generally called pseudo-Russian, is sometimes called Ropetovsky. The pseudo-Russian style found expression in the works A. A. Parlanda (Temple Spasa on blood In Petersburg), A. A. Semenov And ABOUT. IN. Sherwood (Historical museum in Moscow). The pseudo-Russian style is characterized by the widespread use of decorative elements of 17th-century architecture. while maintaining the modern layout of the internal volumes.
4. Development of musical art
First half of the 19th century marked by the flourishing of Russian music, associated primarily with the name Mikhail Ivanovich Glinka(1804-1857), who went down in history as the first Russian composer of world significance. M.I. Glinka is considered the founder of Russian classical music. His operas "Life behind king" And "Ruslan And Lyudmila" largely determined the further development of Russian opera music for many decades to come. A distinctive feature of the composer’s creative approach was the use of motifs from Russian folklore and folk music. “The people create music, and we, composers, only arrange it,” believed M. I. Glinka. Glinka also wrote romances.
The development of the national theme in music was continued by Glinka’s younger contemporary Alexander Sergeevich Dargomyzhsky(1813-1869). Dargomyzhsky's innovation was expressed in the search for new expressive means in music. For Dargomyzhsky, the main means of creating an individual image was the musical reproduction of the intonations of living human speech. His opera "Mermaid", which was based on Pushkin's plot, marked the birth of a new genre - folk psychological drama. Dargomyzhsky enriched the genres of vocal lyrics: song "Old corporal", satirical-comic songs "Worm" And "Titular advisor".
Glinka's contemporaries made a significant contribution to the development of Russian musical culture A. A. Alyabyev, A. E. Varlamov, A. L. Gurilev, known today mainly as authors of romances.
In the second half of the 19th century. The Russian national music school continues to develop, the founder of which was M. I. Glinka in the first half of the century. Composers developed its traditions "Mighty heaps", a creative union of outstanding Russian composers, formed in 1862 in St. Petersburg. The group included: M. A. Balakirev (1837-1910), C. A. Cui (1835-1918), M. P. Mussorgsky (1839-1881), A. P. Borodin (1833-1887), N. A. Roman-Korsakov(1844-1908). The organizer of this group was M. A. Balakirev. The name of Balakirev’s mug was invented by critic V.V. Stasov. The composers of the “Mighty Handful” fought to strengthen and develop the national style in music. The most important area of activity for them was the collection and publication of folk songs. Very often in their work, composers turned to subjects of Russian history and folklore : "Boris Godunov", "Hovanshina" Mussorgsky; "Prince Igor" Borodin; "Snow Maiden", "Pskovitynka", "Gold cockerel" Rimsky-Korsakov.
The greatest composer in the history of Russian and world music was Peter Ilyich Chaikovsky(1840-1893) - creator of the highest examples of operas ( "Eugene Onegin" 1878 "Mazepa" 1883 "Peak lady" 1890 "ANDOLanta" 1891), ballets ( "Swan" lake" 1876 "Sleeping gorgeous" 1889 "Nutcracker" 1892), symphonic and chamber works.
5. Achievements of domestic science
Significant achievements marked research both in fundamental fields of science and in applied ones, the development of which was determined by production needs. The leading scientific centers were the Academy of Sciences and Moscow University. Along with them, recently founded universities played a major role in science - primarily St. Petersburg, Kazan and Dorpat. In addition to the Academy of Sciences and universities, various scientific societies played a significant role in the development of Russian science: one of the oldest in the world, the Russian Geographical Society, founded in 1845; Imperial Society of Russian History and Antiquities, Archaeological Society, Mathematical Society, etc.
The activities of the famous scientist N.I. Lobachevsky are connected with Kazan University. Great mathematician Nikolay Ivanovich Lobachevsky(1792-1856) is the creator of “non-Euclidean geometry” - a new doctrine in science that very radically changed ideas about the nature of space, which for more than 2 thousand years was based on the theory of the ancient Greek scientist Euclid, which was considered unshakable. Lobachevsky geometry differs from ordinary Euclidean geometry primarily in that, according to one of Lobachevsky’s basic axioms V plane through point Not lying on straight Can conduct more how one straight, parallel given. Many theorems differ, for example, the sum of angles in a triangle is less than 180 0, etc. Despite the external paradox, N. I. Lobachevsky managed to prove the logical validity of his constructions.
Chemist professor N. N. Zinina for the first time managed to get aniline- an organic substance used in the production of dyes and the pharmaceutical industry.
Russian physicist, academician of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences IN. IN. Petrov with the help of the galvanic battery he created, the largest for that time, he discovered electrical arc and showed the possibility of its use for lighting and melting metals. Academician B. WITH. Jacobi were invented electric motor, electrotype and several types telegraph devices.
Academician IN. I. Struve was the founder and first director of the world famous and best at that time in the world Pulkovskaya observatory, which played a huge role in the development of astronomical research.
The activities of the founder of military field surgery were associated with the University of Dorpat N. AND. Pirogov. He first produced surgery under anesthesia in the field. In addition to scientific discoveries, he has saved thousands of soldiers' lives.
In 1803-1806. seafarers AND. F. Krusenstern And YU. F. Lisyansky on the ships "Nadezhda" and "Neva" they accomplished the first among Russian travelers around the world swimming, during which many new islands were discovered in the Pacific and Arctic oceans. In 1819-1821 An expedition was carried out on the ships "Vostok" and "Mirny" under the command of F. F. Bellingshausen And M. P. Lazarev to the South Pole. During this voyage in 1820 there was open Antarctica.
Particular success has been achieved in the study of history. At the beginning of the 19th century. 12-volume released "Story states Russian" Nicholas MikhailovAndcha Karamzin(1766 - 1826). Karamzin’s “History” was written based on the study of a vast range of sources. Having been appointed to the official position of historiographer, N. M. Karamzin received access to state archives. His work was truly titanic. However, in addition to scientific value, “The History of the Russian State” has enormous lasting artistic value; Karamzin’s talent as a writer was fully demonstrated in it. The worldview of the sentimentalist writer contributed to the fact that on the pages of “History” for the first time attention was paid to the role of the people in the historical process.
The work of N. M. Karamzin gave impetus to the further development of historical science. The first half of the 19th century gave Russian culture a number of names of famous historians: M. P. Pogodin, M. T. Kachenovsky, N. A. Field. In the 40s, the work of the great historian began Sergei Mikhailovich Solovyova. A great contribution to the study of the history of the European Middle Ages was made by a professor at Moscow University T. N. Granovsky, who combined the qualities of a profound scientist and a brilliant speaker, whose lectures ended with a constant ovation from the audience gathered from all over Moscow.
A feature of the uniqueness of Russian culture in the second half of the 19th century. was that the relatively low level of elementary literacy of the overwhelming majority of the population was combined in Russia with an unusually high rate of development of domestic science, which achieved great success at that time. Research in the field of natural science is especially widely known throughout the world. The founder of the national school physiology became AND. M. Sechenov. His works on the study of the brain and nervous system were a major contribution to biology. Work on the theoretical and experimental study of the physiology of higher nervous activity was continued by a prominent domestic scientist, Nobel Prize laureate, academician of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences Ivan Petrovich Pavlov(1849-1936), who established, using the method of conditioned reflexes he developed, that mental activity is based on material physiological processes occurring in the cerebral cortex. Nobel laureate was also Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov(1845-1916) - author of works on immunology, problems of aging, pathology, comparative embryology and other issues that are important for the development of biology and medicine.
The development of chemistry was marked by remarkable discoveries. An entire scientific school was created at Kazan University, the founder and ideological leader of which was the famous scientist, academician Alexander MikhathLovich Butlerov(1828-1886), creator theories chemical buildings substances, according to which the properties of substances are determined by the order of bonds of atoms in molecules. This theory is one of the fundamental principles of modern organic chemistry. The contribution to world science was even more significant Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev(1834-1907) - a scientist who discovered one of the basic laws not only of chemistry, but of all natural science - periodic law chemical elements.
The creation of the world-famous St. Petersburg mathematical school is associated with the name of the academician Paphnutia Lvovich Chebysheva(1821-1894). Chebyshev's works are devoted to a variety of areas of mathematics. Many of the scientist’s fundamental discoveries are due to applied research. In the sphere of his attention were questions of the theory of mechanisms, number theory, probability theory, etc. Among the students of P. L. Chebyshev, the most famous was WITH. IN. Kovalevskaya- the first woman elected as a corresponding member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. The works of S. V. Kovalevskaya were awarded prizes from the Paris and Swedish Academies.
In physics, the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. was marked by a number of brilliant discoveries that had a huge impact not only on the development of fundamental theoretical research, but also on the technical progress of European civilization for a century to come. Outstanding physicist A. G. Stoletov studied issues of electricity, magnetism, and the physical nature of light. He discovered the first law of the photoelectric effect. A significant contribution has been made to the theory of gas discharge. Talented Russian electrical engineer P. N. Yablochkov invented the arc lamp, the “Yablochkov candle,” which marked the beginning of the practical use of electricity for lighting. However, the greatest success in this direction has been achieved A. N. Lodygin- inventor of the incandescent lamp, which remains the most common lighting device to this day. The founder of radio communications, professor at the St. Petersburg Electrotechnical Institute can be placed on a par with him A. WITH. Popov. A. F. Mozhaisky invented the world's first airplane. The structure he designed was built to full size, but never took to the skies due to the lack at that time of a sufficiently powerful and at the same time lightweight engine. The theoretical foundations of aircraft construction, which made it possible to bring Mozhaisky’s plan to life, were laid by research work N. E. Zhukovsky, a talented engineer and inventor, corresponding member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, founder of modern aerodynamics.
End of the 19th century was the era of the last great travelers. There are almost no “white spots” left on the map. However, not all of the earth's surface has been studied uniformly. The inaccessible regions of Central and Central Asia kept many secrets. A significant contribution to the development of geography and ethnography was made by academician P. P. Semenov-Tian-Shansky. He explored the Tien Shan, was the initiator of several expeditions to Central Asia and the head of the Russian Geographical Society. Dedicated his life to exploring the expanses of Central Asia N. M. Przhevalsky. He discovered a number of mountain ranges and lakes, unknown breeds of animals: a wild camel and a wild horse (named after him Przewalski's horse). A Russian ethnographer lived for many years among the Papuans of New Guinea N. N. Miklouho-Maclay. The materials he collected are an invaluable source of knowledge about the life, beliefs and customs of the inhabitants of Oceania.
In the second half of the 19th century, what remained to this day, perhaps the most complete and detailed "Story Russia With the most ancient times" in 29 volumes. Its author was an outstanding Russian historian, a representative of the state school in Russian historical science, rector of Moscow University, academician Sergey Mikhailovich Soloviev(1820-1879). Academician was a prominent historian, talented scientist and brilliant lecturer Basil Osipovich Klyuchevsky(1841-1911). He owns a number of works that have not lost scientific relevance to this day.
An event in the cultural life of Russia was the emergence "Sensible dictionary alive Great Russian language" IN. AND. Dahl. The dictionary was the fruit of long, painstaking work. Dahl collected words throughout Russia for many years. The dictionary contains about 200 thousand words. Along with the vocabulary of the literary language of the 19th century. it contains regional words, special terminology, and about 30 thousand proverbs and sayings. A collector of Russian folk tales studied Russian literature A. N. Afanasiev. The works of the Russian philologist and art critic, expert on ancient Russian literature and folklore, academician, became very famous F. AND. Buslaeva.
6. Conclusion
Despite the fact that there are practically no eras in history that would not have a strong influence on the subsequent course of cultural development, the 19th century in Russia can be called its most striking stage. This is a period of growth of national self-awareness, formed in the process of struggle against the French invasion. But at the same time, a sharply critical view of the social structure of Russian reality is taking shape and developing. The result is the Decembrist uprising, which demonstrated the emergence of a new mentality of the Russian intelligentsia and, to a certain extent, marked the separation of this layer of society.
Russian art reached a special flowering in the 19th century, revealing to the world great names of geniuses of global scale in all its forms and forms. In art, in just one century, the process of development of a variety of styles and trends from classicism to realism took place.
Thus, Russian culture of the second half of the 19th century has the right to be proud of great names. Literature, painting and music have reached classical perfection. The works of the geniuses of Russian art made it possible to reveal the vast world of the human personality. The method of realism was the first attempt at understanding this world. In the Russian culture of the 19th century, all the prerequisites for the modern culture of Russia were formed.
7. List of references
1) Golovashin V.A. Essays on the history of Russian culture. Culturology. 3rd ed., revised. and additional Tambov: TSTU, 2004. 240 p.
2) Dolgov V.V. A brief outline of the history of Russian culture from ancient times to the present day. Izhevsk: "Udmurt University", 2001. 196 p.
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Architecture
In the 18th century – the century of Enlightenment – various artistic styles were presented in Russia. One of them was Baroque. The heyday of Russian Baroque occurred in the first half of the 18th century. This style is characterized by grandeur, pomp, dynamics, passion for various kinds of effects, and vivid entertainment. In the literature of Peter the Great's times, it manifested itself in the works of F. Prokopovich, A. Kantemir, M. Lomonosov, V. Trediakovsky, and partly G. Derzhavin. Lush odes, mosaics, fireworks, and illuminations corresponded to the content of the Baroque. In the architecture of this style, secular, cheerful moods developed, and the features of elegance and colorfulness were enhanced. The greatest masters of Russian Baroque were V. Rastrelli, S. Chevakinsky, D. Ukhtomsky. Rastrelli's most outstanding creations were the Grand Palace of Tsarskoye Selo, the Peterhof Grand Palace, the Winter Palace and the ensemble of the Smolny Monastery. Baroque also penetrates into the fine arts. Rastrelli's brush is the ceremonial sculptural portrait of Anna Ioannovna with the little black arap. Among the artists who created ceremonial portraits, I. Argunov, a serf of Count N. Sheremetyev, and I. Vishnyakov became famous.
Question 30
The Age of Enlightenment can rightly be called the “golden age of utopia.” The Enlightenment, first of all, included the belief in the possibility of changing a person for the better, “rationally” transforming political and social foundations. Attributing all the properties of human nature to the influence of surrounding circumstances or environment (political institutions, educational systems, laws), the philosophy of this era encouraged reflection on such conditions of existence that would contribute to the triumph of virtue and universal happiness. Never before has European culture given birth to so many novels and treatises describing ideal societies, the ways of their construction and establishment. Even in the most pragmatic writings of that time, features of utopia are visible. For example, the famous “Declaration of Independence” included the following statement: “all men are created equal, and are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness.”
European art of the 18th century combined two different antagonistic principles. Classicism meant the subordination of man to the social system, while developing romanticism sought to maximize the individual, personal beginning. However, the classicism of the 18th century changed significantly compared to the classicism of the 17th century, discarding in some cases one of the most characteristic features of the style - antique classical forms. In addition, the “new” classicism of the Enlightenment, at its very core, was not alien to romanticism. In the art of different countries and peoples, classicism and romanticism sometimes form some kind of synthesis, sometimes they exist in all sorts of combinations and mixtures.
An important new beginning in the art of the 18th century was the emergence of movements that did not have their own stylistic form and did not feel the need to develop it. This largest cultural movement was, first of all, sentimentalism, which fully reflected the Enlightenment ideas about the original purity and kindness of human nature, which were lost along with the original “natural state” of society, its distance from nature. Sentimentalism was addressed primarily to the inner, personal, intimate world of human feelings and thoughts, and therefore did not require special stylistic design. Sentimentalism is extremely close to romanticism; the “natural” person it glorifies inevitably experiences the tragedy of a collision with natural and social elements, with life itself, which is preparing great upheavals, the premonition of which fills the entire culture of the 18th century.
The product of the purely secular culture of the Enlightenment was the “Rococo” style, which received its most perfect embodiment in the field of applied art. It also manifested itself in other areas where the artist has to solve decorative and design problems: in architecture - in planning and interior design, in painting - in decorative panels, paintings, screens, etc. Rococo architecture and painting are primarily focused on creating comfort and grace for the person who will contemplate and enjoy their creations. Small rooms do not seem cramped thanks to the illusion of “playing space” created by architects and artists who skillfully use various artistic means for this: ornament, mirrors, panels, special colors, etc. The new style has become primarily the style of poor houses, into which, with a few techniques, he introduced a spirit of coziness and comfort without emphasized luxury and pomp. The eighteenth century introduced many household items that give a person comfort and peace, preventing his desires, making them at the same time objects of true art.
An equally significant aspect of the culture of the Enlightenment was the appeal to capturing human sensations and pleasures (both spiritual and physical) through artistic means. Among the greatest thinkers of the Enlightenment (Voltaire, Helvetius) one can find “gallant scenes” in which protest against the sanctimonious morality of the time sometimes develops into frivolity. In France, from the very beginning of the 18th century, both the public and critics began to demand from the new art, first of all, “pleasant”. Such requirements were imposed on painting, music, and theater. “Pleasant” meant both “sensitive” and purely sensual. Voltaire’s famous phrase “All genres are good, except the boring” most clearly reflects this requirement of the time.
The tendency of fine art to be entertaining, narrative and literary explains its rapprochement with the theater. The 18th century is often called the “golden age of theatre”. The names of Marivaux, Beaumarchais, Sheridan, Fielding, Gozzi, Goldoni constitute one of the brightest pages in the history of world drama. The theater turned out to be close to the very spirit of the era. Life itself moved towards him, suggesting interesting plots and collisions, filling old forms with new content. The secularization of public life, the deprivation of church and court ritual of their former holiness and pomposity led to their peculiar “theatricalization.” It is no coincidence that it was during the Age of Enlightenment that the famous Venetian carnival became not just a holiday, but precisely a way of life, a form of everyday life.
However, the “age of reason” also knew very significant changes in emotions, an appeal to mysticism and superstition. Realistic clarity and sobriety, in a certain sense, were opposed by a craving for everything fantastic and unusual, associated primarily with the crisis of orthodox religion. This desire was equally developed among the upper classes and among ordinary people. Freemasonry became widespread, combining specific political goals with deep philosophical and religious overtones and elements of masquerade and theatrical “initiation” ceremonies. The Age of Enlightenment is characterized by a craving for adventure, adventure, travel, and the desire to penetrate into a different “cultural” space. It found its manifestation in magical operas with many extraordinary transformations, in tragicomedies, fairy tales, etc.
Music occupied an important place in the hierarchy of spiritual values in the 18th century. If the fine art of Rococo strives, first of all, to decorate life, theater - to expose and entertain, then the music of the Enlightenment amazes a person with the scale and depth of analysis of the most hidden corners of the human soul. The attitude towards music is also changing, which back in the 17th century was just an applied instrument of influence in both the secular and religious spheres of culture. In France and Italy in the second half of the century, a new secular type of music - opera - flourished. In Germany and Austria, the most “serious” forms of musical works developed - oratorio and mass (in church culture) and concert (in secular culture). The pinnacle of the musical culture of the Enlightenment is undoubtedly the work of Bach and Mozart.
The synthesis of the entertainment and publicity of the theater and the depth of interpretation of human feelings reveals itself in the art of opera. One of the striking examples of the “fusion” of educational ideas and a new musical form is Mozart’s opera “The Magic Flute”. Reflecting the belief in the triumph of reason, the cult of light, the idea of man as the crown of the Universe, the opera equally carries the basic ideas of 18th-century utopias. The main character Tamino, finding himself in a perfect society, does not immediately win the right to be “an equal among equals” in the kingdom of Sarastro. This storyline reflects the hero’s desire for personal perfection, understood not simply as a process of self-affirmation of a person, his search for his place, but above all, as a path to achieving the much-desired social ideal, harmony of the individual and society.
Painting and architecture
Classicism represents primarily a French artist J.‑L. David (1748–1825). His work reflects major historical events and the theme of civic duty. His famous painting “The Oath of the Horatii” sounds like a call to fight against absolutism. This work is distinguished by its strict composition, clear rhythm, bright and rich color. His other painting, “The Death of Marat,” is dedicated to the Great French Revolution, in which David took an active part. Here, on the contrary, emphasized laconicism and asceticism of pictorial means prevail. The painting “The Coronation of Napoleon l” became a grandiose canvas on a historical theme.
Baroque The 18th century did not produce figures equal in scale and importance to Rubens. Being the “grand style” of the era of absolutism, it gradually lost its influence, and by the middle of the 18th century it was increasingly replaced by the Rococo style, which is sometimes called degenerate Baroque.
Most widespread rococo received in France. One of its most famous representatives is the artist O. Fragonard (1732–1806). He continues the line of Rubens, which is manifested in his sensual perception of color and special attention to the beauty of female flesh and exciting bodily forms. A striking example in this regard is the painting “Bathers,” which expresses the real apotheosis of life, sensual joy and pleasure. At the same time, the flesh and forms depicted by Fragonard appear as if incorporeal, airy and even ephemeral. In his works, virtuosity, grace, sophistication, light and air effects come to the fore. It is in this spirit that the painting “Swing” was painted.
Sentimentalism, which arose in the second half of the 18th century, was the first opposition to the Enlightenment deification of reason. He contrasted reason with the cult of natural feeling. One of the founders and main figures of sentimentalism was J.-J. Rousseau . He owns the famous saying: “The mind can make a mistake, the feeling never!” In his works - “Julia, or New Heloise”, “Confession”, etc. - he depicts the life and concerns of ordinary people, their feelings and thoughts, glorifies nature, critically evaluates city life, and idealizes patriarchal peasant life.
The greatest artists of the 18th century transcended stylistic boundaries. These include primarily the French artist A. Watteau (1684–1721) and Spanish painter F. Goya (1746–1828).
Watteau's work is closest to the Rococo style. Therefore, he is sometimes called the genius of the Rococo era. At the same time, his works are influenced by Rubens and Van Dyck, Poussin and Titian. He is rightfully considered the forerunner of romanticism and the first great romantic in painting. J. Cocteau compares Watteau with Mozart. all this makes the work of the French artist extremely complex and multi-valued.
The main themes of his works are nature and women, love and music. Watteau became one of the greatest painters of the human soul, its invisible depths and subtle tints. He created an amazing musical painting, as if vibrating and pulsating. It is marked by vivid theatricality. It combines the real and the imaginary, the serious and the funny, joy and sadness. In the painting “Morning Toilet” Watteau depicted a wonderful naked girl. The canvas “Pierrot” is dedicated to the Italian comedian. The artist’s most famous work is considered to be the painting “Pilgrimage to the Island of Cythera.”
No less complex and multifaceted is the art of F. Goya. With his work he continues the realistic trend of Rembrandt. In his works one can detect the influence of Poussin, Rubens and other great artists. At the same time, his art is organically fused with Spanish painting - especially with the art of Velazquez. Goya is one of the painters whose work has a pronounced national character.
Goya successfully worked in almost all genres of painting. As a court artist, he created magnificent portraits of members of the royal family. Among them is the “Portrait of Queen Marie-Louise”. In the portrait genre, he also created such masterpieces as “Maja on the Balcony” and “Portrait of Sabasa Garcia”. Many of Goya's canvases depict ordinary people - workers, scenes from folk life, beautiful Spanish landscapes.
It is especially necessary to highlight the art of music, which experienced an unprecedented rise and dawn in the 18th century. If the 17th century is considered the century of theater, then the 18th century can rightfully be called the century of music. Its social prestige increases so much that it takes first place among the arts, displacing painting.
The music of the Enlightenment is represented by such names as F. Haydn , K. Gluck ,G. Handel . Among the great composers who deserve close attention are I.S. Bach (1685–1750) and V.A. Mozart (1756–1791).
Bach is the last great genius of the Baroque era. He successfully worked in almost all musical genres, except opera. His music was far defining of its time, anticipating many later styles, including Romanticism. Bach's work constitutes the pinnacle of the art of polyphony. In the field of vocal and dramatic music, the composer’s most famous masterpiece is the cantata “Matthew Passion”, which tells about the last days of the life of Christ. During his lifetime, Bach's greatest fame came from organ music. Here he knows no equal. In the field of music for the clavier, the composer’s ingenious creation is “The Well-Tempered Clavier,” which is a kind of encyclopedia of music styles of the 17th and 18th centuries.
Austrian composer V.A. Mozart is one of the greatest geniuses of world art. He belongs to the Viennese classical school. His music is characterized by classical, transparent clarity and piercing purity of sound. However, his work goes beyond any particular style. His works combine the principles of classicism with the aesthetics of sentimentalism. They also contain grace, lightness, sophistication and tenderness of gallant style.
At that time, Mozart was the forerunner of romanticism - the first great romantic in music. His work spans almost every genre, and he is a bold innovator everywhere. During Mozart's lifetime, his operas enjoyed the greatest success. The most famous among them are “The Marriage of Figaro”, “Don Giovanni”, “The Magic Flute”. “Requiem” also deserves special attention. However, real fame came to Mozart after his death. He became a symbol of incredible talent, unsurpassed genius, and selfless devotion to art.
As for architectural art, during the Enlightenment it underwent significant changes. If in the 17th century the main attention of architects was paid to the facade of the building, now the interior becomes the main thing. The straight line in the outlines of objects, which began to seem too strict, was replaced by a curly, wavy line that characterizes the Rococo style. This style cultivates the most complex carved and molded patterns, curls, and masks of cupids' heads. Reliefs and picturesque panels, as well as numerous mirrors, play an important role in the decoration of the premises.
Progressive trends in the fine arts found expression in a passion for antiquity. Architects Gabriel , Soufflo , V. Louis in the second half of the 18th century, grandiose buildings were created in the antique style. This is the Pantheon in Paris, the theater in Bordeaux, the Petit Trianon in Versailles. They are characterized by simplicity, harmony and proportionality of all parts of the architectural composition.
Features of artistic culture of the 19th century.
Social revolutions and the revolutionary movement were of decisive importance. In the 19th century, the bourgeois revolution represented one of the most important stages of the class struggle, contributed to the establishment and development of capitalism, the solution of historical problems, and the unification of Italy and Germany in particular. desire for freedom. The industrial revolution, which ended in the 19th century, had a great influence and led to a significant restructuring of labor and its subject form, a direct result of an increase in the productivity of social labor. Practical needs stimulated the rapid development of science. 19th century - the flourishing of classical natural science, the creation of a unified system of sciences, the emergence of the first laboratories, the development of leading industries, metallurgy, energy, mechanical engineering, instrument making, transport, chemical industry. The striking achievements of the industrial revolution, the use of electricity in industry, new means of communication - telegraph, telephone, machine drives, incandescent lamps.
The 19th century was a century of reassessment of the values of the past and present.
For artistic culture, this meant that old forms of artistic creativity, focused on ancient classics and medieval symbolism, were supplanted by new ones that sought to depict the modern world. Instead of traditionalism, the new cultural dominant was the recognition of the absolute value of innovation and the unique individuality of artistic creativity. Such a radical change in the aesthetic attitude and creative method was a consequence of the change in the relationship between the sovereign, self-sufficient individual and the society of the New Age.
The old aristocratic culture died along with its bearers. Religiosity lost its meaning. The result of the Great French Revolution (1789) was the idea of individual freedom. Signs of culture! 9th century - secularism, democracy and diversity .
A feature of the 19th century was change of world view past and present. Old forms, oriented towards ancient classics and medieval symbolism, are being replaced by new ones, which are trying to reflect the modern world. The dominant of the new culture is recognition of absolute value innovation and unique individuality thin creativity. The attitude towards the value of the individual and people has changed. life.
Eventful political life Europe: revolutions in France, Germany, England, USA, the Netherlands, Spain, Italy; wars (Russian-Turkish, Northern, Napoleonic wars); the formation of new states as a result of national liberation movements.
Results of the Enlightenment: freedom of the individual from the authority of government and religion, reliance on one’s own judgment based on science. Hence the previously unprecedented activity, restless activity, struggle of views and directions, art. styles and principles.
The main social movements - liberalism. Its basis is political and individual freedom of the individual. It is a continuation of the cultural movements of Humanism, Reformation and Enlightenment. Liberalism stood for freedom of conscience, thought, scientific research, speech, press, and guarantees of personal integrity.
Discoveries of science completely changed our view of the world. The structure of matter, concepts of time, space and movement, the place of man in nature, the origin of life on earth.
Darwin's theory in On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection. This theory changed paradigms not only in biology, physics, chemistry, but also in the entire picture of the world.
Faraday and Maxwell provide new ideas about electric and magnetic fields and electromagnetism. The emergence of microworld physics, developing abstract thinking.
