Ancient weight measures. Ancient Russian measures of length

In Rus', the oldest unit of mass was hryvnia(409.5 g). There is an assumption that this unit was brought to us from the East. Subsequently it received the name pound. The hryvnia (later pound) remained unchanged. The word "hryvnia" was used to designate both a weight and a monetary unit. This is the most common measure of weight in retail and craft applications. It was also used for weighing metals, in particular gold and silver.

Hryvnia (pound)(from the Latin word "pondus" - weight, weight) was equal to 32 lots, 96 spools, 1/40 pood, in modern terms 409.50 g. Used in combinations: "not a pound of raisins", "find out how much a pound of raisins is."

The Russian pound was adopted under Alexei Mikhailovich.

Sugar was sold by the pound.

Lot- an old Russian unit of mass measurement equal to three spools or 12.797 grams. This unit was no longer used after the introduction of the metric system in Soviet Russia in 1918 and in the USSR in 1925.

Share- the smallest old Russian unit of mass measurement, equal to 1/96 of a spool or 0.044 grams. This unit was no longer used after the introduction of the metric system in Soviet Russia in 1918 and in the USSR in 1925.

A pood was equal to 40 pounds, in modern terms - 16.38 kg. It was already used in the 12th century.

Pud- (from the Latin pondus - weight, heaviness) is not only a measure of weight, but also a weighing device. When weighing metals, the pud was both a unit of measurement and a unit of counting. Even when the results of weighings were reported to tens and hundreds of poods, they were not transferred to Berkovites. Back in the XI-XII centuries. they used various scales with equal-armed and unequal-armed beams: “pud” - a type of scale with a variable fulcrum and a fixed weight, “skalvy” - equal-armed scales (two-cup). The pud, as a unit of mass, was abolished in the USSR in 1924.

Berkovets- this large measure of weight was used in wholesale trade mainly for weighing wax, honey, etc.Berkovets - from the name of the island of Bjerk. This is what was called in Rus' a measure of weight of 10 pounds, just a standard barrel of wax, which one person could roll onto a merchant boat sailing to this very island. (163.8 kg).

There is a known mention of the berkovets in the 12th century in the charter of Prince Vsevolod Gabriel Mstislavich to the Novgorod merchants. This unit was no longer used after the introduction of the metric system in Soviet Russia in 1918 and in the USSR in 1925.

To determine large masses it was used pood(16.38 kg), and small ones - spool(12.8 g). They said about the spool: “the spool is small but expensive.” This word originally meant a gold coin.

They bought tea with gold coins.

Until recently, a small pack of tea, weighing 50 grams, was called an “octam” (1/8 pound)

And this would continue endlessly: different countries - different units of measurement, until it was adopted Mass standard.

In 1872, by decision of the International Commission on Standards of the Metric System, the mass of the prototype stored in the National Archives of France was adopted as a unit of mass. This prototype is a platinum cylindrical weight with a height and diameter of 39 mm. Prototypes of the kilogram for practical use were made from a platinum-iridium alloy. A platinum-iridium weight, closest to the mass of the Archive’s platinum kilogram, was adopted as the international prototype of the kilogram. It should be noted that the mass of the international prototype kilogram is somewhat different from the mass of a cubic decimeter of water. As a result, the volume of 1 liter of water and 1 cubic decimeter are not equal to each other (1 liter = 1.000028 dm3). In 1964, the XII General Conference on Weights and Measures decided to equate 1 liter to 1 dm3.

The international prototype of the kilogram was approved at the First General Conference on Meters and Weights in 1889 as a prototype of a unit of mass, although at that time there was no clear distinction between the concepts of mass and weight and therefore the mass standard was often called the weight standard.

By decision of the First Conference on Weights and Measures, platinum-iridium kilogram prototypes No. 12 and No. 26 were transferred to Russia from 42 kilogram prototypes produced. The kilogram prototype No. 12 was approved in 1899 as an optional state standard of mass (the pound had to be periodically compared with the kilogram) , and prototype No. 26 be used as a secondary standard.

The standard includes:

a copy of the international prototype of the kilogram (No. 12), which is a platinum-iridium weight in the form of a straight cylinder with rounded ribs with a diameter and height of 39 mm. The prototype of the kilogram is stored at VNIIM. D. M. Mendeleev (St. Petersburg) on ​​a quartz stand under two glass covers in a steel safe. The standard is stored while maintaining the air temperature within (20 ± 3) ° C and relative humidity 65%. In order to preserve the standard, two secondary standards are compared with it every 10 years. They are used to further convey the size of a kilogram. When compared with the international standard kilogram, the domestic platinum-iridium weight was assigned a value of 1.0000000877 kg;

equal-arm prism scales 1 kg. No. 1 with remote control (in order to eliminate the operator’s influence on the ambient temperature), manufactured by Ruprecht, and equal-arm modern prism scales for 1 kg No. 2, manufactured at VNIIM. D.M. Mendeleev. Scales No. 1 and No. 2 serve to transfer the size of a unit of mass from prototype No. 12 to secondary standards.

Improved: website

Units of measurement in Rus'. From the chronicle of the system of measures.

By the 18th century, there were up to 400 units of measures of different sizes used in different countries. The variety of measures made trading operations difficult. Therefore, each state sought to establish uniform measures for its country.

In Russia, back in the 16th and 17th centuries, uniform systems of measures were defined for the entire country. In the 18th century In connection with economic development and the need for strict accounting in foreign trade, the question of measurement accuracy and the creation of standards on the basis of which verification work ("metrology") could be organized in Russia arose.

The question of choosing standards from the many existing ones (both domestic and overseas) turned out to be difficult. In the middle of the 18th century. foreign coins and precious metals were weighed at customs upon arrival, and then reweighed repeatedly at the mints; At the same time, the weight turned out to be different.

By the mid-30s of the 18th century. There was an opinion that, more precisely, the scales at the St. Petersburg customs office. It was decided to make model scales from those customs scales, place them under the Senate and carry out verification using them.

A ruler that previously belonged to Peter I served as an example of a measure of length when determining the size of an arshin and a sazhen. The ruler was marked with a half-arshin. Using this half-arshin measure, samples of length measures were made - a copper arshin and a wooden fathom.

Among the measures of bulk solids received by the Commission, the quadrangle of the Moscow Big Customs was selected, according to which the measurements of bulk solids in other cities were verified.

The basis for liquid measurements was a bucket sent from the Kamennomostsky drinking yard in Moscow.

In 1736, the Senate decided to form a Commission of Weights and Measures, headed by the chief director of the Monetary Board, Count Mikhail Gavrilovich Golovkin. The commission created exemplary measures - standards, established the relationship of various measures to each other, and developed a project for organizing verification work in the country. A project was introduced on the decimal construction of measures, taking into account the fact that the Russian monetary account system was built on the decimal principle.

Having decided on the starting units of measures, the Commission began to establish connections between different units of measurement using measures of length. Determine the volume of the bucket and quadrangle. The volume of the bucket was 136.297 cubic vershok, and the volume of the four-bucket was 286.421 cubic vershok. The result of the work of the Commission was the “Regulations...”

According to the arshin, the value of which was determined by the Commission of 1736–1742, it was recommended in 1745 to produce arshins “in the entire Russian state.” In accordance with the volume of the quadrangle adopted by the Commission, in the second half of the 18th century. Quadruples, half-octagons and octagons were made.

From the second half of the 18th century, the divisions of the vershok, in connection with the reduction of the arshin and sazhen to a multiple ratio with English measures, were replaced by small English measures: inch, line and point, but only the inch took root. Lines and dots were used relatively little. The lines expressed the dimensions of lamp glasses and the calibers of guns (for example, ten- or 20-line glass, known in everyday life). The dots were used only to determine the sizes of gold and silver coins. In mechanics and mechanical engineering, the inch was divided into 4, 8, 16, 32 and 64 parts.

In construction and engineering, dividing fathoms into 100 parts was widely used. The foot and inch used in Russia are equal in size to English measures.

Under Paul I, by decree of April 29, 1797 on the “Establishment of correct scales, drinking and grain measures throughout the Russian Empire,” a lot of work began on streamlining measures and weights. Its completion dates back to the 30s of the 19th century. The decree of 1797 was drawn up in the form of desirable recommendations. The decree concerned four issues of measurement: weighing instruments, weight measures, measures of liquid and granular bodies. Both the weighing instruments and all the measures had to be replaced, for which it was planned to cast cast iron measures.

By 1807, three arshin standards were made (stored in St. Petersburg): crystal, steel and copper. The basis for determining their value was the reduction of arshin and fathom to a multiple ratio with English. measures - in fathoms 7 English feet, in arshins - 28 English. inches. The standards were approved by Alexander I and transferred for storage to the Ministry of Internal Affairs. 52 copper tetrahedral arshins were made to be sent to each province. It’s interesting that before this, the saying: “Measure by your own yardstick” literally corresponded to reality. Sellers measured the length of the fabric with a yardstick - using a drawbar from their shoulder.

On July 10, 1810, the State Council of Russia decided to introduce a single measure of length throughout the country - the standard 16 vershok arshin (71.12 cm). The state-branded yardstick, priced at 1 silver ruble, was ordered to be introduced in all provinces, with the simultaneous withdrawal of old yardstick templates.

The decree of 1835 determined the relationship between Russian measures and English ones:

• Fathom = 7 feet.
• Arshin = 28 inches.

A number of units of measurement (verst divisions) were abolished, and new measures of length came into use: inch, line, point, borrowed from English measures.

Old Russian Measures of Length.

The system of Old Russian measures of length included the following basic measures: verst, fathom, arshin, elbow, span and vershok.

Measures of length (used in Russia after the Decree of 1835 and before the introduction of the metric system):

• 1 arshin = 4 quarters (spans) = 16 vershok = 28 inches = 71.12 cm (divisions in vershok were usually applied to the arshin).
• 1 verst = 500 fathoms = 50 poles = 10 chains = 1.0668 kilometers.
• 1 fathom = 3 arshins = 7 feet = 48 vershoks = 2.1336 meters.
• Oblique fathom = 2.48 m.
• Mach fathom = 1.76 m.
• 1 cubit = 44 cm (according to various sources from 38 to 47 cm).
• 1 foot = 1/7 fathom = 12 inches = 30.479 cm.
• 1 quarter<четверть аршина>(span, small span, span, span, span, span, span) = 4 inches = 17.78 cm (or 19 cm - according to B.A. Rybakov). A synonym for “quarter” is “chet”.
• Large span = 1/2 cubit = 22-23 cm - the distance between the ends of the extended thumb and middle (or little) finger.
• A “span with somersault” is equal to a small span plus two or three joints of the index or middle finger = 27 - 31 cm.
• 1 vershok = 4 nails (width - 1.1 cm) = 1/4 span = 1/16 arshin = 4.445 centimeters
  - an ancient Russian measure of length equal to the width of two fingers (index and middle).
• 1 finger ~ 2 cm.

An ancient Russian measure of length, equal in modern terms to 0.7112 m. Arshin was also the name given to a measuring ruler, on which divisions in vershoks were usually applied.

There are different versions of the origin of the arshin measure of length. Perhaps, initially, “arshin” denoted the length of a human step (about seventy centimeters, when walking on the plain, at an average pace) and was the base value for other large measures of determining length, distances (fathom, verst). The root "AR" in the word arshin - in Old Russian (and in other neighboring languages) means "EARTH", the surface of the earth, and indicates that this measure could be used in determining the length of the path traveled on foot. There was another name for this measure - Step. In practice, counting could be done in pairs of steps of an adult ("small fathoms"; one-two - one, one-two - two, one-two - three...), or in threes ("official fathoms"; one-two-three - one, one-two-three - two...), and when measuring small distances in steps, step-by-step counting was used. Subsequently, they also began to use, under this name, an equal value - the length of the arm.

For small measures of length, the base value was the measure used from time immemorial in Rus' - " span"(since the 17th century - a length equal to a span was called differently - "a quarter of an arshin", "a quarter", "a quarter"), from which, by eye, it was easy to obtain smaller shares - two inches (1/2 span) or an inch (1/4 span).

Merchants, when selling goods, as a rule, measured it with their arshin (ruler) or quickly - measuring “from the shoulder”. To exclude measurements, the authorities introduced, as a standard, the “government arshin,” which is a wooden ruler with metal tips with a state mark riveted at the ends.

In the second half of the 17th century, the arshin was used together with the vershok in various branches of production. In the “Description Books” of the Armory Chamber of the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery (1668) it is written: “... a copper regimental cannon, smooth, nicknamed Kashpir, Moscow made, length three arshins and a half-eleven vershok (10.5 vershok) ... Large cast iron archina, Iron lion, with belts, length three arshins, three cubits and a half inch. The ancient Russian measure "elbow" continued to be used in everyday life for measuring cloth, linen and woolen fabrics. As follows from the Trade Book, three cubits are equal to two arshins. The span as an ancient measure length still continued to exist, but since its meaning changed, due to agreement with a quarter of an arshin, this name (span) gradually fell out of use.The span was replaced by a quarter of an arshin.

Step - the average length of a human step = 71 cm. One of the oldest measures of length.

Pyad (pyatnitsa) is an ancient Russian measure of length. The name span comes from the Old Russian word “past”, i.e. wrist.

• Small span(they said - “span”; since the 17th century it was called “quarter”) - the distance between the ends of the spread thumb and index (or middle) fingers = 17.78 cm.
• Large span- the distance between the ends of the thumb and little finger (22-23 cm).
• Somersault span("span with a somersault", according to Dahl - "span with a somersault") - a span with the addition of two joints of the index club = 27-31 cm.

Our old icon painters measured the size of icons in spans: “nine icons - seven spans (1 3/4 arshins). The Most Pure Tikhvin on gold - pyadnitsa (4 vershoks). Icon of St. George the Great deeds of four spans (1 arshin)"

Versta is an old Russian travel measure (its early name was “field”). This word originally referred to the distance traveled from one turn of the plow to another during plowing. The two names have long been used in parallel, as synonyms. There are known mentions in written sources of the 11th century. In manuscripts of the 15th century. there is an entry: “field of 7 hundred and 50 fathoms” (750 fathoms long). Before Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, 1 verst was considered 1000 fathoms. Under Peter the Great, one verst was equal to 500 fathoms, in modern terms - 213.36 X 500 = 1066.8 m. “Verstoy” was also called a milepost on the road.

Rostov region, Aksai. Milestone at the former postal station. 2004. (photo from the site: vladsc.narod.ru)

The size of the verst changed repeatedly depending on the number of fathoms included in it and the size of the fathom. The Code of 1649 established a “boundary mile” of 1 thousand fathoms. Later, in the 18th century, along with it, " waypoint"500 fathoms ("five hundredth verst").

The boundary verst is an old Russian unit of measurement equal to two versts. A verst of 1000 fathoms (2.16 km) was widely used as a boundary measure, usually when determining pastures around large cities, and on the outskirts of Russia, especially in Siberia, and to measure distances between populated areas.

The 500-fathom verst was used somewhat less frequently, mainly for measuring distances in the European part of Russia. Long distances, especially in Eastern Siberia, were determined in days of travel. In the 18th century boundary versts are gradually being replaced by travel ones, and the only verst in the 19th century. there remains a “travel” mileage equal to 500 fathoms.

- one of the most common length measures in Rus'. There were more than ten fathoms of different purposes (and, accordingly, size).

"Machaya fathom" - the distance between the ends of the fingers of an adult man's widely spaced hands." Oblique fathoms" - the longest: the distance from the toe of the left foot to the end of the middle finger of the raised right hand. Used in the phrase: "he has oblique fathoms in his shoulders" (meaning - hero, giant) This ancient measure of length was mentioned by Nestor in 1017.

Name fathom comes from the verb to reach (reach) - as far as you could reach with your hand. To determine the meaning of the ancient Russian fathom, a major role was played by the discovery of a stone on which the inscription was carved in Slavic letters: “In the summer of 6576 (1068) of the 6th day of indictment, Prince Gleb measured... 10,000 and 4,000 fathoms.” From a comparison of this result with the measurements of topographers, a fathom value of 151.4 cm was obtained. The results of measurements of temples and the value of Russian folk measures coincided with this value. There were fathomed measuring ropes and wooden “folds” that were used in measuring distances and in construction.

According to historians and architects, there were more than 10 fathoms and they had their own names, were incommensurable and not multiples of one another. Fathoms:

• policewoman or Oblique fathom- 284.8 cm,
• without name - 258.4 cm,
• great - 244.0 cm,
• Greek - 230.4 cm,
• breech - 217.6 cm,
• royal - 197.4 cm,
• church - 186.4 cm,
• folk or Machaya fathom- 176.0 cm,
• masonry - 159.7 cm,
• simple - 150.8 cm,
• small - 142.4 cm
• and another one without a name - 134.5 cm (data from one source), as well as a courtyard, pavement.

Fathoms were used before the introduction of the metric system of measures.

Elbow - equal to the length of the arm from the fingers to the elbow (according to other sources - “the distance in a straight line from the elbow to the end of the extended middle finger of the hand”). The size of this ancient measure of length, according to various sources, ranged from 38 to 47 cm. Since the 16th century, it was gradually replaced by the arshin and in the 19th century it was almost not used.

Elbow- a native ancient Russian measure of length, known already in the 11th century. The value of the Old Russian cubit of 10.25-10.5 vershoks (on average approximately 46-47 cm) was obtained from a comparison of measurements in the Jerusalem Temple made by Abbot Daniel, and later measurements of the same dimensions in an exact copy of this temple - in the main temple of the New Jerusalem Monastery on the Istra River (XVII century). The cubit was widely used in trade as a particularly convenient measure. In the retail trade of canvas, cloth, linen - elbow was the main measure. In large wholesale trade, linen, cloth, etc., were supplied in the form of large pieces - “postavs”, the length of which at different times and in different places ranged from 30 to 60 cubits (in places of trade these measures had a specific meaning).

An inch was equal to 1/16 of an arshin, 1/4 of a quarter. In modern terms - 4.44 cm. The name "Vershok" comes from the word "top". In the literature of the 17th century. There are also fractions of an inch - half an inch and a quarter inch.

When determining the height of a person or animal, counting was carried out after two arshins (mandatory for a normal adult): if it was said that the person being measured was 15 vershoks in height, then this meant that he was 2 arshins 15 vershoks, i.e. 209 cm.

For humans, two methods of fully expressing height have been used:

• combination of “height *** elbows, *** spans.”
• combination “height *** arshin, *** vershoks.”
• from the 18th century - "*** feet, *** inches".
• For domestic small animals they used - “growth of *** tops”.
• For trees - “height *** arshins”.

New measures (introduced since the 18th century):

• 1 inch = 10 lines = 2.54 cm. The name comes from the Dutch - “thumb”. Equal to the width of your thumb or the length of three dry grains of barley taken from the middle part of the ear.
• 1 line = 10 points = 1/10 inch = 2.54 millimeters (example: Mosin’s “three-ruler” - d = 7.62 mm.) Line- width of wheat grain, approximately 2.54 mm.
• 1 hundredth fathom = 2.134 cm.
• 1 point = 0.2540 millimeters.
• 1 geographical mile (1/15 degree of the earth's equator) = 7 versts = 7.42 km
  (from the Latin word "milia" - a thousand (steps)).
• 1 nautical mile (1 minute of arc of the earth's meridian) = 1.852 km.
• 1 English mile = 1.609 km.
• 1 yard = 91.44 centimeters.

Old Russian Measures of Volume.

Bucket.

The main Russian premetric measure of the volume of liquids is bucket= 1/40 barrel = 10 mugs = 30 pounds of water = 20 vodka bottles (0.6) = 16 wine bottles (0.75) = 100 glasses = 200 scales = 12 liters (15 liters - according to other sources, rare). Bucket– iron, wood or leather utensils, mostly cylindrical in shape, with ears or a bow for carrying. In everyday life, two buckets on the yoke should be “fit for a woman.” Division into smaller measures was carried out according to the binary principle: the bucket was divided into 2 half-buckets or 4 quarters of a bucket or 8 half-quarters, as well as into mugs and cups.

Until the middle of the 17th century. the bucket contained 12 mugs, in the second half of the 17th century. so-called government bucket contained 10 mugs, and the mug contained 10 cups, so the bucket contained 100 cups. Then, according to the decree of 1652, the glasses were made three times larger than before (“three glasses of glasses”). The sales bucket held 8 mugs. The value of the bucket was variable, but the value of the mug was constant, 3 pounds of water (1228.5 grams). The volume of the bucket was 134.297 cubic inches.

Barrel.

Barrel, as a measure of liquids, was used mainly in the process of trade with foreigners, who were prohibited from conducting retail trade in wine for small measures. Equal to 40 buckets (492 l).

The material for making the barrel was chosen depending on its purpose:

• oak - for beer and vegetable oils,
• spruce - under water,
• linden - for milk and honey.

Most often, small barrels and kegs from 5 to 120 liters were used in peasant life. Large barrels could hold up to forty buckets (magpies). Barrels were also used for washing (beating) linen.

In the 15th century ancient measures were still common - golovazhnya, bow And cleaning. In the XVI-XVII centuries. Along with the fairly common korobya and belly, the Vyatka grain measure marten, the Perm sapsa (measure of salt and bread), the Old Russian bast and poshev are often found. The Vyatka marten was considered equal to three Moscow quarters, the saptsa contained 6 pounds of salt and approximately 3 pounds of rye, bast - 5 pounds of salt, poshev - about 15 pounds of salt.

Household measures of the volume of liquids were very diverse and were widely used even at the end of the 17th century: Smolensk barrel, bocha-selyodovka (8 pounds of herring; one and a half times less than Smolensk). Measuring barrel "... from edge to edge one and a half arshins, and across - an arshin, and to measure up, like a leader, half an arshin."

In everyday life and in trade they used a variety of household vessels: cauldrons, jugs, pots, bratins, valleys. The significance of such household measures varied in different places: for example, the capacity of boilers ranged from half a bucket to 20 buckets. In the 17th century a system of cubic units based on the 7-foot fathom was introduced, and the term cubic (or "cubic") was also introduced. A cubic fathom contained 27 cubic arshins or 343 cubic feet; cubic arshin - 4096 cubic vershoks or 21952 cubic inches.

Wine measures.

The Wine Charter of 1781 established that every drinking establishment should have “measures certified in the Treasury Chamber.”

Bottle . The “bottle” measure appeared in Russia under Peter I. Russian bottle = 1/20 of a bucket = 1/2 of a damask = 5 glasses = 0.6 liters (a half-liter appeared later - in the twenties of the 20th century). Since the bucket held 20 bottles (2 0 * 0.6 = 12 liters), and in trade the bill was on buckets, the box still holds 20 bottles.

For wine, the Russian bottle was larger - 0.75 liters.

In Russia, glass production began in a factory way in 1635. The production of glass vessels also dates back to this time. The first domestic bottle was produced at the plant, which was built on the territory of the modern Istra station near Moscow, and the products were, at first, intended exclusively for pharmacists. Overseas, a standard bottle holds one-sixth of a gallon - ranging from 0.63 to 0.76 liters in different countries. A flat bottle is called a flask.

Glass quarters. (modern production).

(from German Stof) = 1/10 bucket = 10 glasses = 1.23 l. Appeared under Peter I. Served as a measure of the volume of all alcoholic beverages. The shape of the damask was like a quarter.

Shtof. Green glass (Russia, 1749). Historical Museum. Moscow.

Mug (the word means “for drinking in a circle”) = 10 glasses = 1.23 liters.

Charka (Russian measure of liquid) = 1/10 shtofa = 2 scales = 0.123 l.

Stack = 1/6 bottle = 100 grams It was considered the size of a single dose.

Shkalik (popular name - “kosushka”, from the word “mow”, according to the characteristic movement of the hand) = 1/2 cup = 0.06 l.

Quarter (half a scale or 1/16th of a bottle) = 37.5 grams.

Barrelware (that is, for liquid and bulk products) was distinguished by a variety of names depending on the place of production (baklazhka, baklusha, barrels), on the size and volume - badia, pudovka, sorokovka), its main purpose (resin, salt, wine, tar) and the wood used for their manufacture (oak, pine, linden, aspen). Finished cooperage products were divided into buckets, tubs, vats, kegs and casks.

Endova - wooden or metal utensils (often decorated with ornaments) used for serving drinks to the table. It was a low bowl with a spout. The metal valley was made of copper or brass. Wooden valleys were made from aspen, linden or birch.

Endova. Arkhangelsk region, Krasnoborsky district, Permogorye pier, group of villages of Mokraya Yedoma. White background painting. 24 x 18 x 11. (photo from the site: bibliotekar.ru)

Tub - height of the vessel - 30-35 centimeters, diameter - 40 centimeters, volume - 2 buckets or 22-25 liters.

• Leather bag (skin) – up to 60 l.
• Korchaga - 12 l.
• Nozzle - 2.5 buckets (Nogorod liquid measure, 15th century).
• Ladle.
• Jug.
• Krynki.
• Sudenians, mises.
• Tuesa.

The oldest (first?) “international” measure of volume is A handful of(palm with fingers cupped). A large (kind, good) handful - folded so that it holds a larger volume. A handful is two palms joined together.

The box is made from solid pieces of bast, sewn together with strips of bast. The bottom and top cover are made of boards. Sizes - from small boxes to large chests of drawers.

Balakir is a dugout wooden vessel with a volume of 1/4-1/5 of a bucket.

As a rule, in the central and western parts of Russia, measuring containers for storing milk were proportional to the daily needs of the family and consisted of a variety of clay pots, pots, milk pans, lids, jugs, throats, milking bowls, birch bark with lids, containers, the capacity of which was approximately 1 /4- 1/2 buckets (about 3-5 l). The containers of makhotok, stavtsy, tuesk, in which fermented milk products were kept - sour cream, yogurt and cream, approximately corresponded to 1/8 of a bucket.

Kvass was prepared for the whole family in vats, tubs, barrels and tubs (lagushki, izhemki, etc.) with a capacity of up to 20 buckets, and for a wedding - for 40 or more poods. In drinking establishments in Russia, kvass was usually served in kvass pots, decanters and jugs, the capacity of which varied in different areas from 1/8-1/16 to about 1/3-1/4 of a bucket. The commercial measure of kvass in the central regions of Russia was a large clay (drinking) glass and jug.

Under Ivan the Terrible, eagle-shaped (branded with the sign of an eagle), that is, standardized drinking measures: bucket, octagon, half-octagon, stop and mug, first appeared in Russia. Despite the fact that valleys, ladles, staves, stacks remained in use, and for small sales - hooks (cups with a long hook at the end instead of a handle, hanging along the edges of the valley).

In old Russian measures and in vessels used for drinking, the principle of volume ratio is laid down - 1: 2: 4: 8: 16.

Ancient volume measures:

• 1 cu. fathom = 9.713 cubic meters meters.
• 1 cu. arshin = 0.3597 cubic meters meters.
• 1 cu. vershok = 87.82 cubic meters. cm.
• 1 cu. ft = 28.32 cu. decimeter (liter).
• 1 cu. inch = 16.39 cu. cm.
• 1 cu. line = 16.39 cu. mm
• 1 quart is a little more than a liter.

In trade practice and in everyday life, according to L.F. Magnitsky, the following measures of bulk solids (“grain measures”) were used for a long time:

• Last - 12 quarters.
• Quarter (chet) – 1/4 part of cadi = 2.099 hectoliters = 209.9 liters.
• Chetverik (“measure”) = 2.624 deciliters = 26.24 liters.
• Garnets = 3.280 liters.
• Osmina (octah - eighth part).
• Kad (tub, fetter) = 20 buckets or more.
• A big tub is bigger than a tub.
• Tsybik - box (of tea) = from 40 to 80 pounds (by weight).

Details: Tea was compacted tightly into wooden boxes, “tsibiki” - leather-covered frames in the shape of a square (two feet on a side), braided on the outside with reeds in two or three layers, which could be carried by two people. In Siberia, such a box of tea was called Umesta (“Place” is a possible option).

Russian Weights.

In Rus', the following weight measures (Old Russian) were used in trade:

• Berkovets = 10 poods.
• pood = 40 pounds = 16.38 kg.
• pound (hryvnia) = 96 spools = 0.41 kg.
• lot = 3 spools = 12.797 g.
• spool = 4.27 g.
• fraction = 0.044 g.

The hryvnia (later pound) remained unchanged. The word "hryvnia" was used to designate both a weight and a monetary unit. This is the most common measure of weight in retail and craft applications. It was also used for weighing metals, in particular gold and silver.

Berkovets - this large measure of weight was used in wholesale trade mainly for weighing wax, honey, etc. Berkovets - from the name of the island of Bjerk. This is what was called in Rus' a measure of weight of 10 pounds, just a standard barrel of wax, which one person could roll onto a merchant boat sailing to this very island. (163.8 kg). There is a known mention of Berkovets in the 12th century in the charter of Prince Vsevolod Gabriel Mstislavich to the Novgorod merchants.

The spool was equal to 1/96 of a pound, in modern terms 4.26 g. They said about it: “the spool is small and expensive.” This word originally meant a gold coin.

A pound (from the Latin word "pondus" - weight, weight) was equal to 32 lots, 96 spools, 1/40 pood, in modern terms 409.50 g. Used in combinations: "not a pound of raisins", "find out how much a pound is worth." The Russian pound was adopted under Alexei Mikhailovich.

Sugar was sold by the pound. They bought tea with gold coins. Spool = 4.266g. Until recently, a small packet of tea weighing 50 grams was called an “octam” (1/8 pound).

Lot is an old Russian unit of mass measurement equal to three spools or 12.797 grams.

A share is the smallest old Russian unit of mass measurement, equal to 1/96 of a spool or 0.044 grams.

A pood was equal to 40 pounds, in modern terms - 16.38 kg. It was already used in the 12th century. Pud - (from the Latin pondus - weight, heaviness) is not only a measure of weight, but also a weighing device. When weighing metals, the pud was both a unit of measurement and a unit of counting. Even when the results of weighings were reported to tens and hundreds of poods, they were not transferred to Berkovites. Back in the XI-XII centuries. they used various scales with equal-armed and unequal-armed beams: “pud” - a type of scale with a variable fulcrum and a fixed weight, “skalvy” - equal-armed scales (two-cup). Pud, as a unit of mass, was abolished in the USSR in 1924.

Measures of weight used in the 18th century:

Note: the ones most used at that time (18th century) are highlighted.

Old Russian Square Measures.

The main measure of area was considered to be a tithe, as well as shares of a tithe: half a tithe, a quarter (a quarter was 40 fathoms of length and 30 fathoms of latitude) and so on. Land surveyors used (especially after the “Cathedral Code” of 1649) mainly the official three-arshine fathom, equal to 2.1336 m, so a tithe of 2400 square fathoms was equal to approximately 1.093 hectares.

The scale of use of tithes and quarters grew in accordance with the development of land and the increase in the territory of the state. However, already in the first half of the 16th century it became clear that when measuring lands in quarters, the general inventory of lands would take many years. And then in the 40s of the 16th century, one of the most enlightened people, Ermolai Erasmus, proposed using a larger unit - tetrahedral field, which meant a square area with a side of 1000 fathoms. This proposal was not accepted, but played a certain role in the process of introducing the large plow. Ermolai Erasmus is one of the first theoretical metrologists, who also sought to combine the solution of metrological and social issues. When determining the areas of hayfields, tithes were introduced with great difficulty because the lands were inconvenient for measurement due to their location and irregular shapes. The most commonly used yield measure was a haystack. Gradually, this measure acquired a meaning linked to the tithe, and was divided into 2 half-shocks, 4 quarter-shocks, 8 half-quarters of a hay, etc. Over time, a haystack, as a measure of area, was equated to 0.1 tithes (i.e., it was believed that, on average, 10 copecks of hay were taken from a tithe). Labor and sowing measures were expressed through a geometric measure - tithe.

Old Russian measures of area:

• 1 sq. verst = 250,000 square fathoms = 1.138 sq. kilometer
• 1 tithe = 2400 square fathoms = 1.093 hectares.
• 1 kopn = 0.1 tithe.
• 1 sq. fathom = 16 square arshins = 4.552 sq. meters.
• 1 sq. arshin=0.5058 sq. meters.
• 1 sq. vershok=19.76 sq. cm.
• 1 sq. ft=9.29 sq. inches=0.0929 sq. m.
• 1 sq. inch=6.452 sq. centimeter
• 1 sq. line=6.452 sq. millimeter.

Monetary units.

• Quarter = 25 rubles.
• Gold coin = 5 or 10 rubles.
• Ruble = 2 half.
• Tselkovy is the colloquial name for the metal ruble.
• Poltina = 50 kopecks.
• Quarter = 25 kopecks.
• Five-altyn = 15 kopecks.
• Altyn = 3 kopecks.
• Dime = 10 kopecks.
• Kidney = 1 half.
• 2 money = 1 kopeck.
• Grosh (copper penny) = 2 kopecks.

Polushka (otherwise half money) was equal to one kopeck. This is the smallest unit in the ancient money account. Since 1700, half coins were minted from copper = 1/2 copper money was equal to 1 kopeck.

Furniture design lessons in the PRO100 program.

Can be copied with an indication of the source and an active indexed hyperlink to the site

One of the basic subjects studied at school is mathematics. But the rules of counting were not always the same as those taught to modern schoolchildren. And it’s not even about the formulas, laws, sequences and interdependencies discovered by the scientific community. The very measures used to measure objects used to be completely different. Of course, outdated units are rarely needed in everyday life, but an educated person should understand what “elbow”, “verst” and “fathom” mean in order to understand what we are talking about if faced with such a definition of the dimensions of an object or space. Ancient measures of measurement are taught as part of a general education course at school, and you can also familiarize yourself with it - for example, from this article.

Useful, relevant, modern

Each of us, at least once in our lives, has come across sayings with ancient measures of measurement, but not everyone understood what dimensions we were talking about. To be sure that we accurately process incoming information, to consider ourselves educated people, modern, but aware of our history, it is important to know what terms mean what. Despite the fact that in our time ancient measures of measurement are found mainly in literature, it is necessary to know what ideas about numbers were in ancient times, because it was then that the foundations of modern arithmetic were laid, as well as ideas about proportionality.

If you become familiar with the foundations on which the modern system of units of measurement is built, you can learn more about the historical past of the state and nation. At school age, such a general introduction course makes it possible to interest schoolchildren - after all, everyone will want to show off their unique knowledge about ancient volume measures in Ancient Rus' in front of their peers. Thus, such information is useful, interesting, and easy to digest, as it arouses curiosity.

Information: is it all that simple?

To understand what ancient measures of measurement were in use, it is necessary to process many sources of information. A considerable amount can be gleaned from literature, very different - from classics to children's fairy tales. Familiarity with sayings and proverbs provides useful information. A lot of information can be gleaned from conversations with older people who in former times used ancient measures of measurement. Of course, a huge amount of information has been collected by scientists working on this issue.

Preserving and systematizing data on ancient measures of quantities allows us to preserve important historical information for the future, because the ideas about arithmetic that existed in former times also provide data about some features of the structure of society. Wisdom has been known since ancient times: the world is ruled by the one to whom numbers obey.

Ancient history

As historians have found, numbers were important to people in ancient times. At first they counted animals, fruits, products, and other representatives of society. Moreover, at first people didn’t even use numbers - they didn’t exist yet. Initially, the number of objects was compared with something characteristic of a person - the number of fingers, eyes or hands. The next step was counting on fingers. When describing the number of some objects, one could say “he has two arms and a leg,” which meant 15 pieces. The concept “whole person” described a collection of 20 objects.

Humanity developed, and at the same time arithmetic also developed, which led to the invention of numbers that were generally accepted among ordinary people. The population of Ancient Rus' paid special attention to the number “seven”. This can be seen from the sayings that have reached us. For example, as you know, even if seven troubles happen, there will still be one answer to them. With the same number there is a well-known saying about being late: seven do not wait for one. Economic activity became more complex, people felt the need for more complex measures of measurement, and in the absence of specialized terminology, concepts were literally invented from the surrounding space. For example, the original pebble counting evolved over time to the counts still in use today.

Man and the measurement system

When it became clear that humanity needed more complex measurement systems than pebbles and fingers, the first thing that was used to create the metric system was the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe proportionality of the human body. That is why ancient measures of length are designated by parts of the human body. The smallest unit, often used in everyday life, was equal to the distance separating the index finger from the thumb, if you spread them apart. If we compare ancient measures of length with modern ones, then this value is about 19 cm. In former times it was called a small span. There was also a large span, for the modern metric system it is 22.5 cm. It was calculated as the distance from the little finger to the thumb, if the fingers are spread apart. This ancient metric system is reflected in the name of the icons - “pyadnitsy” were 19-23 cm in size. Bricks produced in the 12th century were of the same size as they were intended to be laid by hand.

More and more

Of course, ancient measures of measurement in Rus' suggested measuring much larger quantities than two dozen centimeters. Here, too, measures were used that had their roots in the structural features of the human body. For example, when it was necessary to buy fabric, they usually told how many elbows needed to be measured. This measure meant the length from the tips of straightened fingers to the elbow. However, in some cases the hand was clenched into a fist, and only then the elbow was measured. As a rule, canvas was measured by elbows - one of the most durable materials, used in former times everywhere, from household purposes to clothing production.

An even larger ancient unit of measurement in Rus' was called the sazhen. This distance implied the number of centimeters separating the foot from the fingertips of the hand extended upward. In the modern metric system, a fathom is about 215 cm. However, it was such if the height of the person by which the fathom was measured was about 171 cm. An alternative option was called a simple fathom and was officially measured on the Tmutarakan stone. The inscription on this historical monument testifies to how large the width was at the time of ancient exploration. A simple fathom was determined by average height and was equal to the distance from the fingertips of one hand to the fingertips of the other, if you spread your arms to the sides. The fathom was divided into quarters, into 8 parts, thus obtaining a cubit, a span. Presumably, on the basis of a simple fathom, over time, a three-arshin was introduced.

Quite big!

When it was necessary to talk about large distances, for measuring which human height was completely unsuitable, the “verst” measure was used. Its alternative name is field. Verst is mentioned in numerous proverbs and sayings about ancient measures of measurement. It is known that the term has been in use since the eleventh century. Currently, scientists agree that the most accurate estimate of a fathom is a kilometer and 67 meters. At the same time, it must be taken into account that during the period of feudal fragmentation, the territory of each individual principality established its own measurement measures, which often did not coincide with those adopted by its neighbors.

Many measures used in ancient Rus' changed over time. For example, the same cubit depended on the ruler of a particular principality, who had the right to establish a standard value corresponding to the size of his body. Whatever the size of the merchants and sellers, it was necessary to use exactly the elbow that was set by those in power. What joy the merchant class had in those days if power in the principality passed to a child or teenager! Well, ordinary people came up with more and more new proverbs and sayings with ancient measures of measurement, designed to reflect both worldly wisdom and the severity of the injustice that reigned around.

Size is not just length

Measuring length was not the only need in earlier times (as in other times today). No less significant were the measures that could be used to characterize bulk products. Most often, ancient mass measures were used for grain crops. In Kievan Rus, in the principalities from the thirteenth to the fifteenth centuries, rye, oats and wheat were measured in tubs, which, if necessary, could be divided into two, four or eight parts. One tub in the modern measurement system is approximately 230 kg.

From the sixteenth century to two centuries, the main ancient ancient measure of volume in the principalities that make up modern Russia and neighboring countries was a quarter. One quarter consisted of six pounds. Initially, the formation of these values ​​was based on the amount of grain that peasants sown in the fields. Over time, the measures, of course, underwent changes. Let's say, shortly before the revolution in the Russian Empire, the main measures were a quarter and a tithe; the first value was two times less than the second. As can be seen from the data collected by historians, ancient measures of length, mass, and volume are closely related to the banknotes and methods of payment for goods that were in use at that time.

Small spool but precious

Who hasn't heard this proverb? There are many other folk wisdoms with ancient measures of measurement. Despite the fact that these units of measurement have already left our everyday life, their names will be preserved for posterity for many centuries to come as a treasure trove of folk wisdom. True, even modern people have little idea what the word “spool” means.

This term can be found in historical artifacts that have come down to us from the times of Kievan Rus. At the same time, pud and berkovets were in use. To this day, scientists do not know for sure whether the spool was a measure of weight or whether it designated a coin made of gold. In the same way, it is not possible to establish exactly how much a pud, a berkowets, meant at first. Over time, the following values ​​were established: pood - 16.4 kg, Berkovets - 10 poods. One pood contained 40 pounds. Mention of these measures can be found in the proverb with ancient measures of measurement “a ruble of copper, and a pound of paper.”

Wisdom and compatibility

As can be seen from the sayings about ancient measures of measurement, in ancient times people more than once encountered difficulties associated with the system of measures. It is not surprising, because everyone had their own elbow, and everyone strived for their own benefit. Due to the incorrect description of the distance, people got confused in maps and could not determine exactly how much time was needed for the journey, and other misunderstandings plagued everyday life quite often. And it’s good if it just caused irritation, but it was possible to cause the feudal lord’s displeasure, which often threatened with punishment. And what gentleman would want to listen to an explanation where the main blame was shifted to the imperfections of the current metric system?

There are known cases when imperfections in the measurement system even provoked massive popular unrest. Already in those days it was clear that it was necessary to somehow streamline the current system, otherwise there was no point in counting on the progress of society in the future. In addition, since ancient times it has been human nature to strive for justice. This eventually caused the transition to the metric system that we currently use.

Fairy tales and measures

Both the measures of measurement used in ancient times and the incidents associated with them can be learned from folk tales. This category of folk art is of particular interest, since in former times fairy tales were passed on from mouth to mouth, and were not written down on paper, and therefore gradually changed. The tales of each locality reflect the peculiarities of life in that area. Most often in such sources you can find references to arshin, fathom, verst, pood. From this we can rightly conclude that these were the units of measurement that were used by ordinary people in everyday life.

Very interesting observations about ancient measures of volume, length and mass can be made from the fairy tale “The Little Humpbacked Horse,” as well as from collections of folk tales and epics. But in the legend about the sea king and Vasilisa there is a mention of punishment for guilt - transfer to the management of the site “thirty miles in length and across.” It is difficult for a modern person to imagine how large this territory is (although according to the meaning of the legend it is clear that we are talking about an impressive area). If we use information about the approximate correspondence of modern measures of length, it turns out that a square is described with a width and length of 32 kilometers and 40 meters. This is the scale!

There are no boundaries for perfection

As can be seen from history, the measurement system invented in ancient times, based on the dimensions of the human body, turned out to be quite convenient - it was in use for almost half a millennium, despite certain imperfections. States, power, borders, and the structure of society changed, but arshins and pounds remained in everyday use as irreplaceable parts of a person’s everyday life, his idea of ​​the surrounding space. The most used quantities introduced in the 11th century could be found in everyday life even in the 20th century.

As you can see, those values ​​that “survived” the longest were those that denoted fairly large sizes, dimensions, and spaces. For example, the cubit, used in earlier times, was eventually replaced by the arshin, which remained in use for a long time. As research shows, the elbow was used for quite a long time in the northern regions of modern Russia, but in the south it was no longer used. And the smallest ancient value, used for a long time in various Slavic tribes, and then in Rus' and Russia, was called vershok. And to this day the word is familiar to many from sayings and sayings. The tip was equal to the length of the phalanx of the index finger.

What currently?

Nowadays, ancient measures of measurement have lost their original meaning, but still accompany modern man. Yes, we no longer measure distance in miles and weight in pounds, we have kilometers and kilograms. Nevertheless, we still “share a peck of salt” with true friends, fighting problems “one like a finger.” Having left practical use as the metric system, units of measurement remained with us as phraseological units and sayings, reflecting the wisdom accumulated by the people.

One can constantly see mentions of ancient measures in classical literature; at the same time, folk tales, legends and epics are rich in such phrases. Most often you can find references to the finger, arshin, vershok, verst. Of course, fathom, span, pound are also used in fiction.

The metric system as a science

Nowadays, one of the main units for measurement is the meter. Even in the word “metric” we can see the same root - “meter”. It was first proposed by French scientists in the 18th century. The word was formed from a Greek source - “measure” in Greek sounds like “meter”.

Every year, Metrology Day is celebrated all over the world, which falls on May 20th. The international event is usually marked by works and speeches dedicated to new inventions, developments, and improvements to the measurement system and the instruments used for it. On this day, humanity pays tribute to the merits of metrologists who streamline our lives and make it clearer, correct and fair.

Proverbs and sayings

What proverbs and folk wisdom mention previously used systems of measures? Below are good examples that we come across in everyday life.

The following folk wisdom is indicative:

• "No step back!" (the step in the previous metric system was 71 centimeters).
• “There are 7 spans in the forehead” (as much as 189 cm!).
• “I conquered the kingdom in one step” (to conquer something by walking nothing, only 71 centimeters).
• “The pot is two inches away, and it’s already pointing!” (some 9 centimeters, that is, nothing at all, but he already controls those around him).
• You can save a pound of grain(one grain can save 16 and a half kilograms).

Folk wisdom for everyday life

Of course, not everyone these days needs to be able to convert ancient measures of measurement into those familiar to us. If you suddenly need such information, you can always find sources that reflect what corresponds to what in centimeters and grams. It is much more important for a modern person to have a general understanding of the metric system that existed in the past and the rules of its application, as well as the meaning inherent in sayings and proverbs, epics and fairy tales that have survived to this day.

The metric system is also important from the point of view that it helps develop interest in mathematics among schoolchildren, and allows historians to more accurately restore events, artifacts, and rules that governed the life of society in former times.

Number systems and their changes are a problem not only for historians, but also for lovers of historical literature. The metric system that is familiar to us today began to be used in Russia only in 1899 at the suggestion of D.I. Mendeleev, but even then it was not the only one, but one of the possible ones. Before that, there were many Russian measures of length, and many of them were perceived differently at different times.

Your own standard

The “measuring unit” in the Old Russian SI was an adult healthy man. Because of this, the units were very arbitrary - often each merchant or princely official had his own standard (a fact reflected in the saying “measure to your own arshin”). Although the names of the units were the same, they often meant different real values ​​in different areas. Large distances were measured very arbitrarily; more often the unit was one day's march (on foot or on horseback).

Your own arshin and oblique fathom

Since centuries, several basic units of measurement of length have been known from documents.

1. Arshin (0.71 m). The measurement was based on the full length of one arm (from the tip of the middle finger to the shoulder joint). The standard appeared only in the 17th century, although the measure was used earlier. It is sometimes believed that the arshin was a measure of step length. But for one it turns out to be a lot, but for two (in Rus' they usually thought so) it’s not enough.
2. Elbow. Arm length to elbow joint. In different areas and at different times it could range from 36 to 48 cm.
3. Fathom. There are at least 10 species. Accordingly, the length also varies: from 1.42 m (3 cubits, simple) to 2.48 m (oblique). The measurement was based on the height of a man with his arms raised or his arm span.
4. Field. It was the maximum distance for a plow to pass when plowing before turning (at this distance on the plain you can clearly see a person). It was estimated at 750 fathoms (most likely simple, but this is not indicated in the document).
5. Verst. Some believe that the word was originally equivalent to field. But the versts were also different, and could range from 500 to 1000 fathoms. In this case, a three-arshin fathom (2.13 m) was taken as a basis. The longest mile used was 1.06 km.

Dozen divisor

It should be remembered that before the 1917 revolution in Russia, dozens were more often counted than dozens. Therefore, smaller values ​​were often ½, ¼, 1/3, 1/6 larger (divisors of the number 12 are used).

1. The large span was half a cubit. It was measured by the distance between the tips of the thumb and little finger (about 22 cm). There were other options. For example, an ordinary span was determined by the thumb and index finger.
2. Palm – 1/6 elbow (slightly more than 7 cm).
3. The top is ¼ span (4.45 cm).

Minor measurements were also used: a finger (the length of the first phalanx of the index finger, 2 cm) and a nail (a little more than 1 cm).

It's easier with the meter

This measurement system was outdated long before the advent of the metric system. This was due to the development of trade - merchants’ own standards constantly caused scandals and disputes. The first decisive measures to unify units of measurement were taken during the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich. In the era of Peter the Great, they began to use European measurements (foot, inch) and “adjust” traditional ones to them (for example, a fathom was recognized as 7 feet).

But the metric system beat all options due to its versatility and accuracy. No one could measure the Parisian meridian to their own arshin.

What exactly are the arshin, fathom, verst and other measures of length that were used in Russia before the introduction of the metric system of measures? This note will tell you about this.

Russian system of measures
(length, volume, area, weight)

Despite the lack of practical application, the names of Russian measures continue to be used in phraseological units and historical research.

Length measures

Since ancient times, the measure of length and weight has always been a person: how far he can stretch his arm, how much he can lift on his shoulders, etc. The system of ancient Russian measures of length included the following basic measures: a mile away, fathom, arshin, elbow, span And inch.

Russian system of measures- a system of measures traditionally used in Rus' and the Russian Empire. The Russian system was replaced by the metric system of measures, which was approved for use in Russia (optional) according to the law of June 4, 1899. The use of the metric system of measures in the RSFSR became mandatory by decree of the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR dated September 14, 1918, and in the USSR by decree of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR dated July 21, 1925.

VERST- Old Russian travel measure (its early name was “field”). This word originally referred to the distance traveled from one turn of the plow to another during plowing. The two names have long been used in parallel, as synonyms. There are known mentions in written sources of the 11th century. In manuscripts of the 15th century. there is an entry: “field of 7 hundred and 50 fathoms” (750 fathoms long). Before Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, 1 verst was considered 1000 fathoms. Under Peter the Great, one verst was equal to 500 fathoms, in modern terms - 213.36 X 500 = 1066.8 m.
"Verstoy" was also called a milestone on the road.
The size of the verst changed repeatedly depending on the number of fathoms included in it and the size of the fathom. The Code of 1649 established a “boundary mile” of 1 thousand fathoms. Later, in the 18th century, along with it, a “travel mile” of 500 fathoms (“five hundredth mile”) began to be used.
Mezhevaya Versta is an old Russian unit of measurement equal to two versts. A verst of 1000 fathoms (2.16 km) was widely used as a boundary measure, usually when determining pastures around large cities, and on the outskirts of Russia, especially in Siberia, and to measure distances between populated areas.
The 500-fathom verst was used somewhat less frequently, mainly for measuring distances in the European part of Russia. Long distances, especially in Eastern Siberia, were determined in days of travel. In the 18th century boundary versts are gradually being replaced by travel ones, and the only verst in the 19th century. there remains a “travel” mileage equal to 500 fathoms.

SAZHEN- one of the most common length measures in Rus'. There were more than ten fathoms of different purposes (and, accordingly, size). “Makhovaya fathom” is the distance between the ends of the fingers of an adult man’s widely spaced hands. “Oblique fathom” is the longest: the distance from the toe of the left foot to the end of the middle finger of the raised right hand. Used in the phrase: “he has slanting fathoms in his shoulders” (meaning - hero, giant)
This ancient measure of length was mentioned by Nestor in 1017. Name fathom comes from the verb to reach (reach) - as far as you could reach with your hand. To determine the meaning of the ancient Russian fathom, a major role was played by the discovery of a stone on which the inscription was carved in Slavic letters: " In the summer of 6576 (1068) indictment 6 days, Prince Gleb measured... 10,000 and 4,000 fathoms"From a comparison of this result with the measurements of topographers, a fathom value of 151.4 cm was obtained. The results of measurements of churches and the meaning of Russian folk measures coincided with this value. There were fathom measuring ropes and wooden “folds” that were used in measuring distances and in construction.
According to historians and architects, there were more than 10 fathoms and they had their own names, were incommensurable and not multiples of one another. Fathoms: city - 284.8 cm, untitled - 258.4 cm, great - 244.0 cm, Greek - 230.4 cm, state - 217.6 cm, royal - 197.4 cm, church - 186.4 cm, folk - 176.0 cm, masonry - 159.7 cm, simple - 150.8 cm, small - 142.4 cm and another one without a name - 134.5 cm (data from one source), as well as - courtyard, pavement.
FLY FATTH - the distance between the ends of the middle fingers of arms outstretched to the sides is 1.76 m.
OBLIQUE SAZHEN (originally “oblique”) - 2.48 m.
Fathoms were used before the introduction of the metric system of measures.

ELBOW equal to the length of the arm from the fingers to the elbow (according to other sources - “the distance in a straight line from the elbow to the end of the extended middle finger”). The size of this ancient measure of length, according to various sources, ranged from 38 to 47 cm. Since the 16th century, it was gradually replaced by the arshin and in the 19th century it was almost not used.
Elbow- a native ancient Russian measure of length, known already in the 11th century. The value of the Old Russian cubit of 10.25-10.5 vershoks (on average approximately 46-47 cm) was obtained from a comparison of measurements in the Jerusalem Temple made by Abbot Daniel, and later measurements of the same dimensions in an exact copy of this temple - in the main temple of the New Jerusalem Monastery on the Istra River (XVII century). The cubit was widely used in trade as a particularly convenient measure. In the retail trade of canvas, cloth, and linen, the cubit was the main measure. In large wholesale trade, linen, cloth, etc., were supplied in the form of large pieces - “postavs”, the length of which at different times and in different places ranged from 30 to 60 cubits (in places of trade these measures had a specific, well-defined meaning)

STEP- average human step length = 71 cm. One of the oldest measures of length.

SPAN(pyatnitsa) - an ancient Russian measure of length.
SMALL SPAND (they said - “span”; since the 17th century it was called “quarter”) - the distance between the ends of the spread thumb and index (or middle) fingers = 17.78 cm.
THUMB = 1/2 elbow - the distance between the ends of the thumb and little finger (22-23 cm).
SPAND WITH A TUMPLER ("span with a somersault", according to Dahl - "span with a somersault" s hand") - a span with the addition of two joints of the index finger = 27-31 cm
From the 17th century - length, equal to a span, they called it differently - " quarter arshin", "quarter", "honor", from which, by eye, it was easy to obtain smaller shares - two vershok (1/2 inch) or inch (1/4 inch).
Our old icon painters measured the size of icons in spans: “nine icons - seven spans (1 3/4 arshins). The Most Pure Tikhvin on gold - pyadnitsa (4 vershoks). Icon of St. George the Great deeds of four spans (1 arshin)"

FINGER~ 2 cm.

ARSHIN- an ancient Russian measure of length, equal in modern terms to 0.7112 m. Arshin was also the name given to a measuring ruler, on which divisions in vershoks were usually applied.
There are different versions of the origin of the arshin measure of length. Perhaps, initially, “arshin” meant the length of a human step (about seventy centimeters, when walking on the plain, at an average pace) and was the base value for others major measures determining lengths, distances(fathom, verst). The root "AR" in the word a rsh i n - in the Old Russian language (and in other neighboring ones) means "EARTH", "surface of the earth", and indicates that this measure could be used in determining the length of the path traveled on foot. There was another name for this measure - STEP. In practice, the count could be made in pairs steps of an adult ("small fathoms"; one-two - one, one-two - two, one-two - three...), or in threes(“official fathoms”; one-two-three – one, one-two-three – two...), and when measuring small distances in steps, step-by-step counting was used. Subsequently, they also began to use, under this name, an equal value - the length of the arm.
Merchants, when selling goods, as a rule, measured it with their arshin (ruler) or quickly - measuring “from the shoulder”. To exclude measurements, the authorities introduced, as a standard, the “government arshin,” which is a wooden ruler with metal tips with a state mark riveted at the ends.

VERSHOK- an ancient Russian measure of length equal to the width of two fingers (index and middle). 1 vershok = 4 nails (width - 1.1 cm) = 1/4 span = 1/16 arshin, 1/4 quarter. In modern terms - 4.44 cm. The name "Vershok" comes from the word "top". In the literature of the 17th century. There are also fractions of an inch - half an inch and a quarter inch.

When determining human or animal height the score was kept after two arshins(mandatory for a normal adult): if it was said that the person being measured was 15 vershoks in height, then this meant that he was 2 arshins 15 vershoks, i.e. 209 cm.

For humans, two methods of fully expressing height have been used:
1 - combination of “height *** elbows, *** spans”
2 - combination “height *** arshin, *** vershoks”
from the 18th century - "*** feet, *** inches"
For small domestic animals they used - “height *** inches”
For trees - “height *** arshins”

In the second half of the 17th century arshin used in conjunction with top to bottom in various industries. In the “Description Books” of the Armory Chamber of the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery (1668) it is written: “... a copper regimental cannon, smooth, nicknamed Kashpir, Moscow made, length three arshins and a half-eleven vershok (10.5 vershok) ... Large cast iron archina, Iron lion, with belts, length three arshins, three quarters and a half inch." The ancient Russian measure “elbow” continued to be used in everyday life for measuring cloth, linen and woolen fabrics. As follows from the Trade Book, three cubits are equivalent to two arshins. The span as an ancient measure of length still continued to exist, but since its meaning changed, due to agreement with a quarter of the arshin, this name (span) gradually fell out of use. The span was replaced by a quarter arshin.
In construction and engineering, dividing fathoms into 100 parts was widely used.

From the second half of the 18th century, the divisions of the vershok, in connection with the reduction of the arshin and sazhen to a multiple ratio with English measures, were replaced by small English measures: inch, line and point, but only the inch took root. Lines and dots were used relatively little. The lines expressed the dimensions of lamp glasses and the calibers of guns (for example, ten- or 20-line glass, known in everyday life). The dots were used only to determine the sizes of gold and silver coins. In mechanics and mechanical engineering, the inch was divided into 4, 8, 16, 32 and 64 parts.

New measures (introduced since the 18th century):
The decree of 1835 determined the relationship between Russian measures and English ones:
Fathom = 7 feet
Arshin = 28 inches
A number of units of measurement (verst divisions) were abolished, and new measures of length came into use: inch, line, point, borrowed from English measures. The foot and inch used in Russia are equal in size to English measures.

• 1 geographical mile (1/15 degree of the earth's equator) = 7 versts = 7.42 km
  (from the Latin word "milia" - a thousand (steps))
• 1 nautical mile (1 minute of arc of the earth's meridian) = 1.852 km
• 1 English mile = 1.609 km
• 1 yard = 91.44 centimeters
• 1 inch = 10 lines = 2.54 cm
  The name comes from Dutch - "thumb". Equal to the width of your thumb or the length of three dry grains of barley taken from the middle part of the ear.
• 1 line = 10 dots = 1/10 inch = 2.54 millimeters ( example: Mosin “three-ruler” - d=7.62 mm.)
  The line is the width of a wheat grain, approximately 2.54 mm.
• 1 hundredth fathom = 2.134 cm
• 1 point = 0.2540 millimeters

Volume measures

The oldest (first?) “international” measure of volume is a handful of(palm with fingers cupped). A large (kind, good) handful - folded so that it holds a larger volume. Handful- two palms joined together.

Barrelware (that is, for liquid and bulk products) was distinguished by a variety of names depending on the place of production (baklazhka, baklusha, barrels), on the size and volume - badia, pudovka, sorokovka), its main purpose (resin, salt, wine, tar) and the wood used for their manufacture (oak, pine, linden, aspen). Finished cooperage products were divided into buckets, tubs, vats, kegs and casks.

Bucket
The main Russian premetric measure of the volume of liquids is bucket= 1/40 barrel = 10 mugs = 30 pounds of water = 20 vodka bottles (0.6) = 16 wine bottles (0.75) = 100 glasses = 200 scales = 12 liters(15 l - according to other sources, rare) A bucket is an iron, wooden or leather utensil, mostly cylindrical in shape, with ears or a bow for carrying. In everyday life, two buckets on a rocker should be “fit for a woman.” Division into smaller measures was carried out according to the binary principle: the bucket was divided into 2 half-buckets or 4 quarters of a bucket or 8 half-quarters, as well as into mugs and cups.
Until the middle of the 17th century. the bucket contained 12 mugs; in the second half of the 17th century. the so-called government bucket contained 10 mugs, and a mug contained 10 cups, so the bucket contained 100 cups. Then, according to the decree of 1652, the glasses were made three times larger than before (“three glasses of glasses”). The sales bucket held 8 mugs. The value of the bucket was variable, but the value of the mug was constant, 3 pounds of water (1228.5 grams). The volume of the bucket was 134.297 cubic inches.

Barrel
The barrel, as a measure of liquids, was used mainly in the process of trade with foreigners, who were prohibited from conducting retail trade in wine in small quantities. Equal to 40 buckets (492 l). The material for making the barrel was chosen depending on its purpose: oak - for beer and vegetable oils, spruce - for water, linden - for milk and honey.
Most often, small barrels and kegs from 5 to 120 liters were used in peasant life. Large barrels could hold up to forty buckets (forty)
Barrels were also used for washing (beating) linen.
Measuring barrel"... from edge to edge one and a half arshins, and across - an arshin, and to measure up, like a lead, half an arshin."
Tub– vessel height – 30-35 centimeters, diameter – 40 centimeters, volume – 2 buckets or 22-25 liters

In the 15th century ancient measures were still common - golovazhnya, bow And cleaning. In the XVI-XVII centuries. along with quite common box And belly Vyatka grain measure is often found marten, Perm sapsa(measure of salt and bread), old Russian bast And sewing. Vyatskaya marten was considered equal three Moscow quarters, sapsa accommodated 6 pounds of salt and approximately 3 pounds of rye, bast - 5 pounds of salt, sewing- near 15 pounds of salt.
Household measures of the volume of liquids were very diverse and were widely used even at the end of the 17th century: Smolensk barrel, bocha-selyodovka (8 pounds of herring; one and a half times less than Smolensk).
In everyday life and in trade they used a variety of household vessels: cauldrons, jugs, pots, bratins, valleys. The significance of such household measures varied in different places: for example, the capacity of boilers ranged from half a bucket to 20 buckets. In the 17th century a system of cubic units based on the 7-foot fathom was introduced, and the term cubic (or "cubic") was also introduced. A cubic fathom contained 27 cubic arshins or 343 cubic feet; cubic arshin - 4096 cubic vershoks or 21952 cubic inches.
As a rule, in the central and western parts of Russia, measuring containers for storing milk were proportional to the daily needs of the family and consisted of a variety of clay pots, pots, milk pans, lids, jugs, throats, milking bowls, birch bark with lids, containers, the capacity of which was approximately 1 /4- 1/2 buckets (about 3-5 l). The containers of makhotok, stavtsy, tuesk, in which fermented milk products were kept - sour cream, yogurt and cream, approximately corresponded to 1/8 of a bucket.
Kvass was prepared for the whole family in vats, tubs, barrels and tubs (lagushki, izhemki, etc.) with a capacity of up to 20 buckets, and for a wedding - for 40 or more poods. In drinking establishments in Russia, kvass was usually served in kvass pots, decanters and jugs, the capacity of which varied in different areas from 1/8-1/16 to about 1/3-1/4 of a bucket. The commercial measure of kvass in the central regions of Russia was a large clay (drinking) glass and jug.

Leather bag ( wineskin) – up to 60 l
Korchaga- 12 l
Nozzle- 2.5 buckets (Nogorod liquid measure, 15th century)
Balakir- a dugout wooden vessel, 1/4-1/5 in volume, buckets.

In Old Russian measures and in vessels used for drinking, the principle of volume ratio is laid down - 1: 2: 4: 8: 16.

Area measures

The main measure of area was considered to be a tithe, as well as shares of a tithe: half a tithe, a quarter (a quarter was 40 fathoms of length and 30 fathoms of latitude) and so on. Land surveyors used (especially after the “Cathedral Code” of 1649) mainly the official three-arshine fathom, equal to 2.1336 m, so a tithe of 2400 square fathoms was equal to approximately 1.093 hectares.

The scale of use of tithes and quarters grew in accordance with the development of land and the increase in the territory of the state. However, already in the first half of the 16th century it became clear that when measuring lands in quarters, the general inventory of lands would take many years. And then in the 40s of the 16th century, one of the most enlightened people, Ermolai Erasmus, proposed using a larger unit - a tetrahedral field, which meant a square area with a side of 1000 fathoms. This proposal was not accepted, but played a role in the process of introduction big plow. Ermolai Erasmus is one of the first theoretical metrologists, who also sought to combine the solution of metrological and social issues. When determining the areas of hayfields, tithes were introduced with great difficulty because the lands were inconvenient for measurement due to their location and irregular shapes. The most commonly used yield measure was shock. Gradually, this measure acquired a meaning linked to the tithe, and was divided into 2 half-shocks, 4 quarter-shocks, 8 half-quarters of a hay, etc. Over time, a haystack, as a measure of area, was equated to 0.1 tithes (i.e., it was believed that, on average, 10 copecks of hay were taken from a tithe). Labor and sowing measures were expressed through a geometric measure - tithe.

Weights

In Rus', the following weight measures (Old Russian) were used in trade:

• Berkovets = 10 poods
• pud = 40 pounds = 16.38 kg
• pound (hryvnia) = 96 spools = 0.41 kg
• lot = 3 spools = 12.797 g
• spool = 4.27 g
• fraction = 0.044 g

Hryvnia(latest lb.) remained unchanged. The word "hryvnia" was used to designate both a weight and a monetary unit. This is the most common measure of weight in retail and craft applications. It was also used for weighing metals, in particular gold and silver.

BERKOVETS - this large measure of weight was used in wholesale trade mainly for weighing wax, honey, etc.
Berkovets - from the name of the island of Bjerk. This is what was called in Rus' a measure of weight of 10 pounds, just a standard barrel of wax, which one person could roll onto a merchant boat sailing to this very island. (163.8 kg).
There is a known mention of Berkovets in the 12th century in the charter of Prince Vsevolod Gabriel Mstislavich to the Novgorod merchants.

The spool was equal to 1/96 of a pound, in modern terms 4.26 g. They said about it: “the spool is small and expensive.” This word originally meant a gold coin.

A POUND was equal to 32 lots, 96 spools, 1/40 pood, in modern terms 409.50 g. Used in combinations: “not a pound of raisins,” “find out how much a pound is worth.”
The Russian pound was adopted under Alexei Mikhailovich.

LOT is an old Russian unit of mass measurement equal to three spools or 12.797 grams.

SHARE is the smallest old Russian unit of mass measurement, equal to 1/96 of a spool or 0.044 grams.

PUD was equal to 40 pounds, in modern terms - 16.38 kg. It was already used in the 12th century.
Pud - (from the Latin pondus - weight, heaviness) is not only a measure of weight, but also a weighing device. When weighing metals, the pud was both a unit of measurement and a unit of counting. Even when the results of weighings were reported to tens and hundreds of poods, they were not transferred to Berkovites. Back in the XI-XII centuries. they used various scales with equal-armed and unequal-armed beams: “pud” - a type of scale with a variable fulcrum and a fixed weight, “skalvy” - equal-armed scales (two-cup).

Below are the measures and their meanings according to the “Regulations on Weights and Measures” (1899), unless otherwise indicated. Earlier values ​​of these units may have differed from those given; so, for example, the code of 1649 established a verst of 1 thousand fathoms, while in the 19th century the verst was 500 fathoms; versts of 656 and 875 fathoms were also used.

Length measures

• 1 mile = 7 versts = 7.468 km.
• 1 verst = 500 fathoms = 1066.8 m.
• 1 fathom = 3 arshins = 7 feet = 12 spans = 48 vershok = 84 inches = 100 acres = 2,133,600 m.
• 1 arshin = 4 quarters = 28 inches = 16 vershok = 0.711 200 m.
• 1 quarter (span) = 1/12 fathoms = 1/4 arshin = 4 vershkas = 7 inches = 177.8 mm.
• 1 foot = 12 inches = 304.8 mm.
• 1 vershok = 1.75 inches = 44.45 mm.
• 1 inch = 10 lines = 25.4 mm.
• 1 weave = 1/100 fathoms = 21.336 mm.
• 1 line = 10 points = 2.54 mm.
• 1 point = 1/100 inch = 1/10 line = 0.254 mm.

Area measures

• 1 sq. verst = 250,000 sq. fathoms = 1.1381 sq. km.
• 1 tithe = 2400 sq. fathoms = 10,925.4 sq.m. = 1.0925 hectares.
• 1 tithe = 1/2 tithe = 1200 sq. fathoms = 5462.7 sq.m = 0.54627 hectares.
• 1 octopus = 1/8 tithe = 300 sq. fathoms = 1365.675 sq.m = approximately 0.137 hectares.
• 1 sq. fathom = 9 sq. arshins = 49 sq. feet = 4.5522 sq.m.
• 1 sq. arshin = 256 sq. vershoks = 784 sq. inches = 0.5058 sq.m.
• 1 sq. ft = 144 sq. inches = 0.0929 sq.m.
• 1 sq. vershok = 19.6958 sq.cm.
• 1 sq. inch = 100 sq. lines = 6.4516 sq.cm.
• 1 sq. line = 1/100 sq. inches = 6.4516 sq. mm.

Volume measures

• 1 cu. fathom = 27 cubic meters arshins = 343 cubic meters feet = 9.7127 cubic meters
• 1 cu. arshin = 4096 cubic meters vershoks = 21,952 cubic meters. inches = 359.7288 cubic dm.
• 1 cu. vershok = 5.3594 cubic meters inches = 87.8244 cc.
• 1 cu. ft = 1728 cu. inches = 28.3168 cubic dm.
• 1 cu. inch = 1000 cu. lines = 16.3871 cc.
• 1 cu. line = 1/1000 cc inches = 16.3871 cu.mm.

Measures of granular solids(“grain measures”)

• 1 cebr = 26-30 quarters.
• 1 tub (kad, okov) = 2 ladles = 4 quarters = 8 octopuses = 839.69 l (= 14 pounds of rye = 229.32 kg).
• 1 sack (rye = 9 pounds + 10 pounds = 151.52 kg) (oats = 6 pounds + 5 pounds = 100.33 kg)
• 1 polokova, ladle = 419.84 l (= 7 pounds of rye = 114.66 kg).
• 1 quarter, chet (for loose solids) = 2 octagons (half-quarters) = 4 half-octagons = 8 quadrangles = 64 garnets.
  (= 209.912 l (cubic dm) 1902). (= 209.66 l 1835).
• 1 octopus = 4 quadruples = 104.95 liters (= 1.75 pounds of rye = 28.665 kg).
• 1 half-half = 52.48 l.
• 1 quadrangle = 1 measure = 1/8 quarter = 8 garnets = 26.2387 l.
  (= 26.239 cu.dm (l) (1902)). (= 64 lbs of water = 26.208 L (1835 g)).
• 1 half-quadruple = 13.12 l.
• 1 four = 6.56 l.
• 1 garnets, small quadrangle = 1/4 bucket = 1/8 quadrangle = 12 glasses = 3.2798 l.
  (= 3.28 dm? (l) (1902)). (=3.276 l (1835)).
• 1 half-garnets (half-small four) = 1 shtof = 6 glasses = 1.64 l.
  (Half-half-small quadrangle = 0.82 l, Half-half-half-small quadrangle = 0.41 l).
• 1 glass = 0.273 l.

Measures of liquid bodies("wine measures")

• 1 barrel = 40 buckets = 491.976 l (491.96 l).
• 1 pot = 2 buckets (about 25 l.).
• 1 bucket = 4 quarters of a bucket = 10 damasks = 1/40 of a barrel = 12.29941 liters (as of 1902).
• 1 quarter (buckets) = 1 garnets = 2.5 shtofas ​​= 4 wine bottles = 5 vodka bottles = 3.0748 l.
• 1 garnet = 1/4 bucket = 12 glasses.
• 1 shtof (mug) = 3 pounds of clean water = 1/10 of a bucket = 2 vodka bottles = 10 glasses = 20 scales = 1.2299 l (1.2285 l).
• 1 wine bottle = 1/16 bucket = 1/4 garnz = 3 glasses = 0.68; 0.77 l; 0.7687 l.
• 1 vodka (beer) bottle = 1/20 of a bucket = 5 glasses = 0.615; 0.60 l.
• 1 bottle = 3/40 of a bucket (Decree of September 16, 1744).
• 1 scythe = 1/40 of a bucket = 1/4 of a mug = 1/4 of a damask = 1/2 of a half-damask = 1/2 of a vodka bottle = 5 scales = 0.307475 l.
• 1 glass = 0.273 l.
• 1 piece = 1/50 of a bucket = 245.98 ml.
• 1 glass = 1/100 of a bucket = 2 scales = 122.99 ml.
• 1 scale = 1/200 bucket = 61.5 ml.

Weights(Weight)

• 1 fin = 6 quarters = 72 pounds = 1179.36 kg.
• 1 waxed quarter = 12 pounds = 196.56 kg.
• 1 Berkovets = 10 poods = 400 hryvnias (large hryvnias, pounds) = 800 hryvnias = 163.8 kg.
• 1 congar = 40.95 kg.
• 1 pood = 40 large hryvnias or 40 pounds = 80 small hryvnias = 16 steelyards = 1280 lots = 16.380496 kg.
• 1 half pound = 8.19 kg.
• 1 batman = 10 pounds = 4.095 kg.
• 1 steelyard = 5 small hryvnias = 1/16 pood = 1.022 kg.
• 1 half-money = 0.511 kg.
• 1 large hryvnia, hryvnia, (later - pound) = 1/40 pood = 2 small hryvnia = 4 half-hryvnia = 32 lots = 96 zolotniks = 9216 shares = 409.5 g (11th-15th centuries).
• 1 pound = 0.4095124 kg (accurate, since 1899).
• 1 small hryvnia = 2 half-hryvnia = 48 zolotniks = 1200 kidneys = 4800 pirogues = 204.8 g.
• 1 half hryvnia = 102.4 g.

Also used: 1 libra = 3/4 lb = 307.1 g; 1 ansyr = 546 g, not widely used.

• 1 lot = 3 spools = 288 shares = 12.79726 g.
• 1 spool = 96 shares = 4.265754 g.
• 1 spool = 25 kidneys (until the 18th century).
• 1 share = 1/96 spools = 44.43494 mg.

From the 13th to the 18th centuries, measures of weight such as kidney and pie were used:

• 1 kidney = 1/25 spool = 171 mg.
• 1 pie = 1/4 kidney = 43 mg.

Weights(masses) apothecary and troy

Pharmacist's weight - a system of mass measures used when weighing drugs until 1927 (different from the English system of measures)

• 1 pound = 12 ounces = 358.323 g.
• 1 ounce = 8 drachms = 29.860 g.
• 1 drachm = 1/8 ounce = 3 scruples = 3.732 g.
• 1 scruple = 1/3 drachm = 20 grains = 1.244 g.
• 1 grain = 62.209 mg.

Currency units

• Quarter = 25 rubles
• Gold coin = 5 or 10 rubles
• Ruble = 2 half
• Tselkovy - the colloquial name for the metal ruble
• Poltina = 50 kopecks
• Quarter = 25 kopecks
• Five-altyn = 15 kopecks
• Altyn = 3 kopecks
• Dime = 10 kopecks
• kidney = 1 half
• 2 money = 1 kopeck
• 1/2 copper money (half a coin) = 1 kopeck.
• Grosh (copper penny) = 1/2 kopeck.

Polushka (otherwise half money) was equal to one kopeck. This is the smallest unit in the ancient money account. Since 1700, half coins were minted from copper = 1/2 copper money was equal to 1 kopeck.

• Pint is an old French measure of liquids, about 0.9 liters; in England and the USA - a measure of the volume of liquids and bread, approximately 0.57 l
• Eighth of a pound = 1/8 pound
• Gallon English - 4.546 l
• Barrel - 159 l
• Carat - 0.2 g, weight of wheat grain
• Ounce - 28.35 g
• English pound - 0.45359 kg
• 1 stone = 14 pounds = 6.35 kilograms
• 1 small handweight = 100 pounds = 45.36 kg.

Chinese measures: 1 li = 576 m, 1 liang = 37.3 g, 1 fen = 1/10 cun = 0.32 cm - in zhenjiu therapy.
individual cun = approximately 2.5cm
In Tibetan medicine: 1 lan = 36 grams, 1 en = 3.6 g, 1 un = 0.36 g.

• Yard -91.44 cm.
• Nautical mile - 1852 m
• 1 cable - tenth of a mile
• Rhumb - 11 1/4° = 1/32 fraction of a circle - unit of angular measure
• Sea knot (speed) = 1 mph