Lesson from the Moscow Art Hall: classicism in the architecture of Western Europe. Classicism classicism in the architecture of Western Europe classicism

At the end of the 17th century in France, during the reign of Louis XIV, a new style arose in the field of art - classicism, which translated from Latin means “exemplary”. Soon, under the influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment, it spread throughout almost all of Western Europe and dominated in the first third of the 19th century. Classicism became most widespread in France, England, Germany and Russia, where it covered literally all spheres of art, but left its brightest mark in architecture.

This appeal to the art of the past was due to the fact that in European countries, starting from the 17th century, there was a rapid development and formation of capitalist relations. And as you know, the life of the state is always reflected in art and even influences its directions.

In art, a need arose in such a direction that would help reflect the new trends of the century. This is what classicism became. Now architecture was supposed to convey not ceremonial solemnity and pomp, but grandeur and significance: to evoke in people associations with the greatness of the rulers of the ancient Greeks and Romans. During this era, the central provisions and theories of urban planning of previous centuries continued to develop, and completely new ones arose, based on the latest achievements of the exact sciences and architecture. Their implementation took place at the end of the 18th century - the first half of the 19th century, during a period of rapid urban growth in Europe. Naturally, classicism, which flourished precisely during this period, left its mark on the appearance of most new buildings. Entire neighborhoods with features characteristic of this style have survived to this day. Classical forms and details were used as the main elements in architectural compositions, in which the relationships of the component parts were strictly defined. Outwardly, they complemented the emphasized correctness and severity of the entire house. More often, architects used an order composition, because colonnades, like nothing else, conveyed the idea of ​​grandeur and orderliness (order translated means “order”). Important elements were porticoes, small pilasters, and cornices. At the beginning of the 19th century in France, during the reign of Napoleon I, classicism moved into its final stage - Empire (which means “empire”). It was characterized by monumentality, special laconicism, an emphasized contrast of the smoothness of the wall and the columns attached to it, a wealth of stucco, cast and carved decor, symbolizing the power and military strength of the state.

15. discovery of tone and value in Barbizon painting

Valer - A hue that determines the ratio of light and shadow within the same color.

Tone is the quality of color that makes a given color different from other colors. B. sh. systematically developed a method of tonal painting, restrained and often almost monochrome, rich in subtle values, light and color nuances; calm brown, brown, green tones are enlivened by individual ringing accents.

Striving to individualize landscape motifs, to depict the diverse states of nature, light and air, Valeur, according to Delacroix’s definition, is the “primary color” of an object, a true coloristic quality that is destroyed by chiaroscuro: it becomes whiter in the light and changes greatly in the shadow due to reflexes. Therefore, the “primary color” exists only in light divisions, at the border of light and shadow; it also serves as the basis for the harmonization of tones in the color of the picture, while preserving the qualities of “objectivity”, the materiality of the depicted objects. This is exactly how the Barbizonians painted their wonderful landscapes,

16. German romanticism in painting

Outstanding representatives of romanticism in German painting include Philipp Otto Runge (1777-1810) and Caspar David Friedrich (1774-1840). Throughout his life, the artist turned to portraits, which became a favorite genre of romantics. In the canvas “The Three of Us” (1805) and two self-portraits of the artist (1805, 1806, all are in the Kunsthalle, Hamburg), the concept of a European romantic portrait is clearly expressed. O. Runge depicts himself in moments of various emotional movements: excitement, melancholy, immersed in thought. In line with the romantic aspirations of the era, the artist’s appeal to national tradition and themes from national history. For German churches he created the paintings "Rest on the Flight into Egypt" (1805-1806) and "Christ Walking on the Waters" (1806-1807; both are in the Kunsthalle, Hamburg). The programmatic work of European romanticism was the canvas “Cross in the Mountains” by K. Friedrich. One of the first oil paintings was “Cross in the Mountains” (1808). The painting depicts a mountain rocky outcrop surrounded by forest, with a cross against a crimson sky. This altar composition was commissioned for the chapel of Tetchen Castle. The artist suggested accepting nature as it is. He seemed to make it clear that the Divine essence was present in her; he was looking for a new mythology, new types of symbols. (1808, Picture Gallery, Dresden). The theme of the Crucifixion, characteristic of the old German masters, takes on a new meaning in the painting of the romantic artist: notes of nostalgic attitude towards the world of classical art, towards the originality of the national tradition, faith in the power of religion. The same feelings give rise to paintings depicting the ruins of old cathedrals, abandoned abbeys, monasteries ("Winter", Neue Pinakothek, Munich; "Cathedral", 1818, private collection, Schweinfurt; "Abbey among oak trees", 1810, Charlottenburg, Berlin). In the paintings "Chalk cliffs on the island of Rügen" (circa 1820, Reinhardt collection, Winterthur), "Moonrise over the sea" (1821-1822, National Gallery, Berlin), "On a sailboat. Sunset" and "Harbor at night" (both 1821, Hermitage) K. Friedrich gives a look at an infinitely distant space from a fixed point of view - figures of people placed in the foreground, contemplating the opening view in poetic silence. The juxtaposition of small and large, finite and infinite in his views of mountain and sea landscapes enhances the feeling of the cosmic nature of nature. His views always contain the greatness of a natural, almost mystical feeling and an individual specific vision of a given landscape motif.

Symbolism is also inherent in other works of Friedrich,

Friedrich was particularly influenced by Runge, which was expressed primarily in a predilection for the contrasting delineation of different parts of the composition, starting from a darkened foreground to a light background, following through a brightly colored middle one, as, for example, in Moonrise over the Sea (1822).

Biedermeier is alive in it

Biedermeier (Biedermeier; German Biedermeier) - artistic style, direction in German and Austrian art. Representatives of Biedermeier in painting: German artists G. F. Kersting, Ludwig Richter, Karl Spitzweg The main feature of Biedermeier is idealism. Therefore, everyday scenes predominate in painting. One of the largest representatives of Biedermeier painting, Carl Spitzweg, painted eccentric philistines, as they were called in Germany, philistines, as he himself was. Of course, his heroes are limited, these are small people of the province, watering roses on the balcony, postmen, cooks, clerks. There is humor in Spitzweg's paintings; he laughs at his characters, but without malice

Realism.courbet

Courbet, Gustave (1819-1877)

French painter and graphic artist, founder of realism. In the early period, marked by the influence of romanticism, the artist painted landscapes, self-portraits, and compositions based on literary subjects. A turning point in his life was a trip to Holland and his acquaintance with the works of Hals and Rembrandt. Painted at the same time and presented at the Paris Salon of 1850-51, Courbet’s paintings “Funeral in Ornans”, “Stone Crusher”, “Afternoon Rest in Ornans” declared him as a bright master of the realistic school. The artist's realism caused sharp rejection from official circles, because... opposed the accepted academicism and was socially dangerous. Courbet's realism was more a revolution in the choice of subject than a revolution of style. Nevertheless, the rage of conservatives who accused him of dangerous radicalism is understandable. Courbet depicted everyday life with the monumentality and seriousness that was traditionally used in painting on historical themes. He completely rejected all traditional subjects borrowed from religion, mythology and history, thereby expressing his protest. During the Paris exhibition of 1855, at which the works of Ingres and Delacroix were successfully demonstrated, Courbet drew attention to his paintings by staging a personal exhibition in a large wooden barn , where he distributed the “Manifesto of Realism.” At the center of the exhibition was a huge canvas, the most ambitious of all Courbet's paintings, entitled: "The Artist's Studio: However, in Courbet's painting the artist is placed in the center, and those gathered around him are not royalty, who are free to visit the studio whenever they please, but invited they have guests. The artist collected them on purpose, and why becomes clear only after some reflection. The meaning of the painting can be fully comprehended only if you seriously think about its title and the artist’s attitude towards the people he depicts. And they are divided into two main groups. On the left are the people, and these are types rather than individual individuals: hunters, peasants, workers, a priest, a Jew, a young mother with a child - the artist made sketches of them in his hometown of Ornance. On the right, on the contrary, we see people who have a portrait resemblance to those who surrounded Courbet in Paris - these are his customers, critics, intellectuals (for example, a person reading a newspaper - Baudelaire). Everyone present is strangely passive, as if they are waiting for something. Some of them are talking calmly, some are deep in thought; almost no one looks at Courbet. All of them, in essence, are not spectators; rather, they represent the social environment in which Courbet moves. although even before him, artists of the Barbizon school worked in a realistic manner (Theodore Rousseau, Jean-François Millet, Jules Breton)

Classical architecture appears to have emerged from distinct but interrelated developments that radically changed the relationship between man and nature. The first was an unexpected increase in man's ability to control nature: by the middle of the 17th century. this ability went far beyond the technical capabilities of the Renaissance.

The second was a fundamental revolution in the nature of human consciousness, which occurred as a result of changes in the structure of society, which led to the emergence of a new cultural formation, equally satisfying the lifestyles of both the fading aristocracy and the growing bourgeoisie. While technological advances created new infrastructure and increased productivity, changes in human consciousness brought new categories of knowledge and a historical way of thinking that was so reflective that it questioned its own authenticity.

Classicism was an expression of philosophical rationalism, the ideology and art of a new class - the bourgeoisie. The concept of classicism was the use of ancient form-formation systems in architecture, which, however, were filled with new content. The aesthetics of simple ancient forms and a strict order were put in contrast to the randomness and lack of rigor of the architectural and artistic manifestations of the worldview of the moribund aristocracy.

Classicism stimulated archaeological research, which led to amazing discoveries and new knowledge about advanced ancient civilizations. The results of the archaeological expeditions, summarized in extensive scientific research, laid the theoretical foundations of the movement, whose participants considered ancient culture to be the pinnacle of perfection in the art of construction, an example of absolute and eternal beauty. The popularization of ancient forms was facilitated by numerous albums containing images of architectural monuments.

Art history understands the term "classic" in the narrowest sense, Greek art in the period between the archaic style and Hellenism, i.e. approximately V-IV centuries. BC e. In a somewhat less narrow sense, this concept includes the art of Greek and Roman antiquity, which worked according to strict rules. The personification of classicist architecture is the front side of a Greek or Roman temple with a triangular pediment or portico with columns; the block-shaped body of the structure is divided only by pilasters and cornices. Orders of columns not only decorate the wall, but also support a system of beams. Along with garlands, urns and rosettes, classic palmettes and meanders, beads and ionics are also used as simple decoration. The character of architecture in most cases remained dependent on the tectonics of the load-bearing wall and the vault, which became flatter. The portico becomes an important plastic element, while the walls outside and inside are divided by small pilasters and cornices. In the composition of the whole and details, volumes and plans, symmetry prevails. The color scheme is characterized by light pastel tones. White color, as a rule, serves to identify architectural elements that are a symbol of active tectonics. The interior becomes lighter, more restrained, the furniture is simple and light, while the designers used Egyptian, Greek or Roman motifs.

At the forefront of the development of classicist architecture was primarily France during the Napoleonic period. Then Protestant Germany and England, as well as Russia, influenced by European movements. Rome became one of the main theoretical centers of classicism.

The emergence of classicism

The emergence of classicism is associated with Italy, which was the center of ideological and theoretical research in the field of the formation of new principles in architecture and art. It was in Italy and mainly in Rome that the main monuments of antiquity were concentrated, which over the centuries have not ceased to influence architects. At the same time, it would be wrong to consider in isolation from other European countries the ideological processes that emerged in Italy. At this time, in the middle of the 18th century, in all European countries, and especially strongly in France and England, there was a strengthening of the elements of capitalism in the economy and, accordingly, a strengthening of the bourgeoisie in the political life of states. The growing bourgeoisie is fighting in the ideological sphere. The ideological basis of the bourgeois class was the philosophy of enlightenment, and in the field of art there was a search for a new style that was supposed to reflect its goals and ideals.

Naturally, the bourgeoisie, when creating its own culture, sought to rely on the past and use the culture of past eras. The forms of ancient art most closely corresponded to bourgeois ideas about the new style being created; The latter was based on antiquity. Ancient art and ancient architecture became the subject of study, borrowing, and imitation. The growing interest in antiquity strengthened the negative attitude towards the Baroque.

A second “circle” of studying and mastering the ancient heritage was taking place: the first was associated with the Renaissance - the time of the first awakening of bourgeois self-awareness, the period of struggle against medieval ideas about the world, when the humanistic intelligentsia turned to ancient culture.

To create a new - classicist style, many philosophical works of this time, publications of research results in the field of ancient culture, as well as the excavations of Pompeii that began in 1748, which expanded the understanding of Roman art, were of great importance. Among the general theoretical works, it should be noted “Speeches on Art” (1750) by J.-J. Rousseau, who preached naturalism and naturalness in art.

The ideological leader of classicism was Winkelmann- founder of art history as a science, author of the works “Thoughts on Imitating Greek Art” and “History of the Arts of Antiquity,” published in the 1750-1760s and gaining all-European fame. He is considered the founder of scientific archaeology. His interpretation of the essence of Greek art as " noble simplicity and calm majesty" defines the ideal of beauty of “archaeological classicism”.

The largest representative of European enlightenment, Lessing, with his treatise “Laocoon” (1766), also contributed to strengthening the position of classicism. All their activities were largely connected with Rome. For the dissemination of ideas and forms of classicism, perspective painting (paintings by Pannini, later compositions by Hubert Robert), as well as famous etchings on ancient themes by the famous Italian architect and engraver D.-B. Piranesi, which began to be published in series starting in the 1740s, and became widely known in Europe.

The expansion of technical knowledge based on the achievements of science in the 17th and 18th centuries immediately gave impetus to numerous projects for the construction of roads and canals, as well as to the establishment of new technical educational institutions, such as the School of Bridges and Roads, founded in 1747. Change way of thinking contributed to the flourishing of the humanities during the Enlightenment. The first works on modern sociology, aesthetics, history and archeology appeared: “On the Spirit of Laws” by Montesquieu (1748), “Aesthetics” by Baumgarten (1750), “The Age of Louis XIV” by Voltaire (1751), “History of Ancient Art” by I. I. Winkelman (1764).

Urban planning and classicism architecture

The most significant urban planning concepts and their implementation in nature at the end of the 18th and first half of the 19th centuries are associated with classicism. During this period, new cities, parks, and resorts were founded. A new organization of settlement, aimed at overcoming social inequality and creating a new social harmony, was proposed at the end of the 19th century by utopian socialists. Projects of residential communes and phalansteries (implemented, however, in very small numbers) retained the image and spatial features characteristic of classicism.

The result of the architectural theories of the Enlightenment, outlined and repeated in many treatises of the late 18th century, can be succinctly defined as follows: the scope of urban planning in the complete absence of architectural masterpieces. Our judgment may seem superficial. Indeed, there were architects who did not want to create masterpieces. Architecture for them was not an expression and statement of a certain concept of the world, religious or political ideals. Her mission is to serve the community. Construction, decorum, and typology are necessarily subordinated to this task. Since the life of society is changing very quickly, it is necessary to meet new requirements and new types of buildings, that is, to build not only a church or a palace, but a middle-income residential building, a hospital, a school, a museum, a port, a market, and so on.

From a monument building they come to a building that expresses a certain social function; the unity of such functions creates an urban organism, and its structure is the coordination of these functions. Since social coordination is based on the principles of rationality, urban plans become more rational, that is, they follow clear rectangular or radial geometric patterns that consist of wide and straight streets, large square or circular areas. The idea of ​​the relationship between human society and nature is expressed in the city by the introduction of wide areas of greenery, most often parks near palaces or gardens of former monasteries that became state-owned after the revolution.

Reducing architecture only to the fulfillment of urban planning tasks entails simplification and typification of its forms.

LESSON DEVELOPMENT ON WORLD ARTISTIC CULTURE IN 11TH GRADE

Lesson topic: “Classicism in the architecture of Western Europe”

Lesson type : lesson introduction to new material

Lesson format: travel lesson using computer technology

Target : 1.Create conditions for students to become acquainted with the characteristic features of classicism architecture and form an idea of ​​the ceremonial official architecture of Versailles;
2. Contribute to the development of the ability to independently study the material and prepare it for presentation; continue to develop the ability to analyze a work of art;
3. Promote the cultivation of a culture of perception of works of art.

Equipment: “The Palace of Versailles” - a tour of the museum CD, audio recording of W.A. Mozart “Sonata No. 40”

During the classes

I Organizing time

Smile at each other and give your smiles to me and your friends. Thank you. Your smiles encourage pleasant communication and create a good mood.

II Setting a lesson goal

The ceremonial splendor and “empty tinsel” of the Baroque gave way to classicism - a new artistic style. Having studied ancient art and taking it as a model, the followers of classicism came to the conclusion that the true basis of human life is the mind.
... Let's leave it to the Italians
Empty tinsel with its false gloss.
The most important thing is the meaning, but in order to get to it,
We'll have to overcome obstacles and paths,
Follow the designated path strictly:
Sometimes the mind has only one path...
You need to think about the meaning and only then write!
N. Boileau
This is how one of the ideologists of classicism, poet N. Boileau, taught his contemporaries.
Today we have a travel lesson and we will take a virtual tour of the grandiose palace and park ensemble of Versailles, get acquainted with the ceremonial official architecture and the characteristic features of classicism in architecture.
And today you will all help me, as you prepared a short message for the lesson.
III Learning new material

Write down the topic of the lesson.
Classicism manifested itself most clearly in works of architecture.

Classicism (Latin Classicus - exemplary) is an artistic style and aesthetic direction in European art of the 17th-19th centuries.

What patterns do you think this style followed?

Classicism was guided by the best achievements of ancient culture - the Greek order system, standards of harmony, simplicity, rigor, logical clarity and monumentality. Based on the ideas of Renaissance architects about the “ideal city,” the architects created a new type of palace and park ensemble, strictly subordinated to a geometric plan.
Characteristic of classicism compositions, restraint of decorative decoration, regular planning system and clarity of volumetric form.
Classicism is based on the ideas of rationalism and strict canons.

Our walk through Versailles has ended.
1) Why can Versailles be considered an outstanding work of classicism?
What are the main features of classicism?
What, in your opinion, distinguishes the buildings of classicism from the Baroque and Renaissance styles?
2) Work in pairs
Let's look at the paintings of the Russian artist A.N. Benois from the Versailles cycle. The King's Walk.
- How did Benoit convey the atmosphere of the court life of King Louis XIV in his paintings?
- Why can they be considered as symbolic paintings?

VLesson summary
Summing up the lesson, assessments
Was it interesting for you and that you learned something new for yourself, were you surprised by something?

VI.House. Exercise : 7.1, message “The history of one masterpiece (using the example of architectural monuments of Moscow and St. Petersburg)
In conclusion, let's take another look at the beauty of Versailles.
VII Reflection.

Suitcase. Continue the sentence. When leaving this lesson I will take with me...

The lesson is over.

Queen's House - Queen's House, 1616-1636) in Greenwich. Architect Inigo Jones

The time has come, and the high mysticism of Gothic, having gone through the trials of the Renaissance, gives way to new ideas based on the traditions of ancient democracies. The desire for imperial greatness and democratic ideals was transformed into a retrospection of imitation of the ancients - this is how classicism appeared in Europe.

At the beginning of the 17th century, many European countries became trading empires, a middle class emerged, and democratic transformations took place. Religion was increasingly subordinated to secular power. There were many gods again, and the ancient hierarchy of divine and worldly power came in handy. Undoubtedly, this could not but affect trends in architecture.

In the 17th century in France and England, a new style arose almost independently - classicism. Just like the contemporary Baroque, it became a natural result of the development of Renaissance architecture and its transformation in different cultural, historical and geographical conditions.

Classicism(French classicisme, from Latin classicus - exemplary) - artistic style and aesthetic direction in European art of the late 17th - early 19th centuries.

Classicism is based on ideas rationalism emanating from philosophy Descartes. A work of art, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and logic of the universe itself. Of interest to classicism is only the eternal, the unchangeable - in each phenomenon it strives to recognize only essential, typological features, discarding random individual characteristics. The aesthetics of classicism attaches great importance to the social and educational function of art. Classicism takes many rules and canons from ancient art (Aristotle, Plato, Horace...).

Baroque was closely associated with the Catholic Church. Classicism, or the restrained forms of the Baroque, proved more acceptable in Protestant countries such as England, the Netherlands, Northern Germany, and also in Catholic France, where the king was much more important than the Pope. The possessions of an ideal king should have ideal architecture, emphasizing the true greatness of the monarch and his real power. “France is I,” proclaimed Louis XIV.

In architecture, classicism is understood as an architectural style common in Europe in the 18th - early 19th centuries, the main feature of which was an appeal to the forms of ancient architecture as a standard of harmony, simplicity, rigor, logical clarity, monumentality and reasonableness of filling space. The architecture of classicism as a whole is characterized by regularity of layout and clarity of volumetric form. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the order, in proportions and forms close to antiquity, symmetrical axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration, and a regular system of city planning.

Usually divided two periods in the development of classicism. Classicism developed in the 17th century in France, reflecting the rise of absolutism. The 18th century is considered a new stage in its development, since at that time it reflected other civic ideals based on the ideas of the philosophical rationalism of the Enlightenment. What unites both periods is the idea of ​​a reasonable pattern of the world, of a beautiful, ennobled nature, the desire to express great social content, sublime heroic and moral ideals.

The architecture of classicism is characterized by rigor of form, clarity of spatial design, geometric interiors, softness of colors and laconicism of external and internal decoration of buildings. Unlike Baroque buildings, the masters of classicism never created spatial illusions that distorted the proportions of the building. And in park architecture the so-called regular style, where all lawns and flower beds have the correct shape, and green spaces are placed strictly in a straight line and carefully trimmed. ( Garden and park ensemble of Versailles)

Classicism is characteristic of the 17th century. for countries in which there was an active process of formation of national states and the strength of capitalist development was growing (Holland, England, France). Classicism in these countries carried new features of the ideology of the rising bourgeoisie, fighting for a stable market and expanding the productive forces, interested in centralization and national unification of states. Being an opponent of class inequalities that infringed on the interests of the bourgeoisie, its ideologists put forward the theory of a rationally organized state based on the subordination of the interests of classes. The recognition of reason as the basis for the organization of state and social life is supported by the arguments of scientific progress, which the bourgeoisie promotes by all means. This rationalistic approach to assessing reality was transferred to the field of art, where the ideal of citizenship and the triumph of reason over elemental forces became an important theme. Religious ideology is increasingly subordinate to secular power, and in a number of countries it is being reformed. The adherents of classicism saw an example of a harmonious social order in the ancient world, and therefore, to express their socio-ethical and aesthetic ideals, they turned to examples of ancient classics (hence the term classicism). Developing traditions Renaissance, classicism took a lot from the heritage baroque.

Architectural classicism of the 17th century developed in two main directions:

• the first was based on the development of the traditions of the late Renaissance classical school (England, Holland);
• the second - reviving classical traditions, developed the Roman Baroque traditions (France) to a greater extent.

English classicism

The creative and theoretical heritage of Palladio, who revived the ancient heritage in all its breadth and tectonic integrity, especially appealed to the classicists. It had a great impact on the architecture of those countries that took the path earlier than others architectural rationalism. Already from the first half of the 17th century. in the architecture of England and Holland, which were relatively weakly influenced by the Baroque, new features were determined under the influence Palladian classicism. The English architect played a particularly important role in the development of the new style. Inigo Jones (Inigo Jones) (1573-1652) - the first bright creative individual and the first truly new phenomenon in English architecture of the 17th century. He owns the most outstanding works of English classicism of the 17th century.

In 1613 Jones went to Italy. Along the way he visited France, where he was able to see many of the most significant buildings. This trip, apparently, became a decisive impetus in the movement of the architect Jones in the direction indicated by Palladio. It was to this time that his notes on the margins of Palladio’s treatise and in the album date back.

It is characteristic that the only general judgment about architecture among them is devoted to a reasoned criticism of certain trends in the late Renaissance architecture of Italy: Jones reproaches Michelangelo and his followers that they initiated the excessive use of complex decoration, and argues that monumental architecture, c. unlike scenography and short-lived light buildings, it must be serious, free from affectation and based on rules.

In 1615, Jones returned to his homeland. He is appointed inspector general of the Ministry of Royal Works. Next year he begins to build one of his best works Queen's House - Queen's House, 1616-1636) in Greenwich.

In the Queens House, the architect consistently develops the Palladian principles of clarity and classical clarity of order divisions, visible constructiveness of forms, balance of proportional structure. The general combinations and individual forms of the building are classically geometric and rational. The composition is dominated by a calm, metrically dissected wall, built in accordance with an order commensurate with the scale of a person. Balance and harmony reign in everything. The plan shows the same clarity of division of the interior into simple, balanced spaces.

This was Jones's first building that has come down to us, which had no precedents in its severity and naked simplicity, and also contrasted sharply with previous buildings. However, the building should not (as is often done) be assessed by its current condition. At the whim of the customer (Queen Anne, wife of James I Stuart), the house was built directly on the old Dover Road (its position is now marked by long colonnades adjacent to the building on both sides) and originally consisted of two buildings separated by the road, connected over it by a covered bridge. The complexity of the composition once gave the building a more picturesque, “English” character, emphasized by the vertical stacks of chimneys arranged in traditional clusters. After the death of the master, in 1662, the gap between the buildings was built up. This is how the resulting volume was square in plan, compact and dry in architecture, with a loggia decorated with columns on the Greenwich Hill side, with a terrace and staircase leading to a two-story hall on the Thames side.

All this hardly justifies the far-reaching comparisons between the Queenhouse and the square, centric villa at Poggio a Caiano near Florence, built by Giuliano da Sangallo the Elder, although the similarities in the drawing of the final plan are undeniable. Jones himself mentions only the Villa Molini, built by Scamozzi near Padua, as the prototype of the façade on the river side. The proportions - the equality of the width of the risalits and the loggia, the greater height of the second floor compared to the first, rustication without breaking into individual stones, a balustrade over the cornice and a curvilinear double staircase at the entrance - are not in the character of Palladio, and are slightly reminiscent of Italian mannerism, and at the same time rationally ordered compositions of classicism.

Famous Banqueting House in London (Banqueting House - Banquet Hall, 1619-1622) in appearance it is much closer to the Palladian prototypes. Due to its noble solemnity and consistent order structure throughout the entire composition, it had no predecessors in England. At the same time, in terms of its social content, this is an original type of structure, passing through English architecture since the 11th century. Behind the two-tiered order façade (at the bottom - Ionic, at the top - composite) there is a single two-light hall, along the perimeter of which there is a balcony, which provides a logical connection between the exterior and the interior. Despite all the similarity to the Palladian facades, there are significant differences here: both tiers are the same in height, which is never found in the Vincentian master, and the large glazing area with small recessed windows (an echo of local half-timbered construction) deprives the wall of the plasticity characteristic of the Italian prototypes, giving it a clearly national look. English features. The luxurious ceiling of the hall, with deep coffers ( later painted by Rubens), differs significantly from the flat ceilings of English palaces of that time, decorated with light reliefs of decorative panels.

With name Inigo Jones, a member of the Royal Building Commission since 1618, is associated with the most important urban planning event for the 17th century - laying out of the first London square created according to a regular plan. Already its common name is Piazza Covent Garden- speaks about the Italian origins of the idea. Placed along the axis of the western side of the square, the Church of St. Paul (1631), with its high pediment and two-columned Tuscan portico in the antes, is an obvious, naive in its literalness, imitation of the Etruscan temple in the image of Serlio. Open arcades in the first floors of the three-story buildings that framed the square from the north and south are presumably echoes of the square in Livorno. But at the same time, the homogeneous, classicist design of the urban space could have been inspired by the Parisian Place des Vosges, built just thirty years earlier.

St. Paul's Cathedral on the square Covent Garden (Covent Garden), the first temple built line by line in London after the Reformation, reflects in its simplicity not only the desire of the customer, the Duke of Bedford, to fulfill cheaply his obligations to the members of his parish, but also the essential requirements of the Protestant religion. Jones promised the customer to build “the most beautiful barn in England.” Nevertheless, the facade of the church, restored after the fire of 1795, is large-scale, majestic despite its small size, and its simplicity undoubtedly has a special charm. It is curious that the high doorway under the portico is false, since on this side of the church there is an altar

The Jones ensemble, unfortunately, has been completely lost, the space of the square has been built up, the buildings have been destroyed, only the building erected later, in 1878, in the northwestern corner allows us to judge the scale and nature of the original plan.

If Jones's first works suffer from a dry rigorism, then his later, estate buildings are less constrained by the ties of classical formalism. With their freedom and plasticity, they partly anticipate the English Palladianism of the 18th century. This is, for example, Wilton House (Wilton House, Wiltshire), burned down in 1647 and rebuilt John Webb, Jones's longtime assistant.

I. Jones’s ideas were continued in subsequent projects, of which the architect’s London reconstruction project should be highlighted Christopher Wren (Christopher Wren) (1632-1723) being the first grandiose reconstruction project of a medieval city after Rome (1666), which was almost two centuries ahead of the grandiose reconstruction of Paris. The plan was not implemented, but the architect contributed to the general process of the emergence and construction of individual nodes of the city, completing, in particular, the ensemble conceived by Inigo Jones hospital in greenwich(1698-1729). Ren's other major building is Cathedral of St. Paul's in London- London Cathedral of the Church of England. Cathedral of St. Pavel is the main urban development focus in the area of ​​the reconstructed City. Since the consecration of the first Bishop of London, St. Augustine (604), according to sources, several Christian churches were erected on this site. The immediate predecessor of the current cathedral, the old cathedral of St. St. Paul's, consecrated in 1240, was 175 m long, 7 m longer than Winchester Cathedral. In 1633–1642 Inigo Jones carried out extensive renovations to the old cathedral and added a west façade in classical Palladian style. However, this old cathedral was completely destroyed during the Great Fire of London in 1666. The present building was built by Christopher Wren in 1675-1710; The first service took place in the unfinished church in December 1697.

From an architectural point of view, the Cathedral of St. Paul's is one of the largest domed buildings in the Christian world, ranking on a par with the Florence Cathedral, the Cathedrals of St. Sophia in Constantinople and St. Peter's in Rome. The cathedral has the shape of a Latin cross, its length is 157 m, width 31 m; transept length 75 m; total area 155,000 sq. m. In the middle cross at a height of 30 m, the foundation of a dome with a diameter of 34 m was laid, which rises to 111 m. When designing the dome, Ren used a unique solution. Directly above the middle cross, he erected the first dome in brick with a 6-meter round hole at the top (oculus), completely commensurate with the proportions of the interior. Above the first dome, the architect built a brick cone that serves as a support for a massive stone lantern, the weight of which reaches 700 tons, and above the cone is a second dome covered with lead sheets on a wooden frame, proportionally correlated with the external volumes of the building. An iron chain is placed at the base of the cone, which takes on the lateral thrust. A slightly pointed dome, supported by a massive circular colonnade, dominates the appearance of the cathedral.

The interior is mainly finished with marble cladding, and since there is little color, it looks austere. Along the walls there are numerous tombs of famous generals and naval commanders. The glass mosaics of the vaults and walls of the choir were completed in 1897.

Huge scope for construction activities opened up after the fire of London in 1666. The architect presented his city ​​reconstruction plan and received an order to restore 52 parish churches. Ren proposed various spatial solutions; some buildings are built with truly baroque pomp (for example, St. Stephen's Church in Walbrook). Their spiers along with the towers of St. Paul form a spectacular panorama of the city. Among these are the churches of Christ in Newgate Street, St. Bride's in Fleet Street, St. James's in Garlick Hill and St. Vedast in Foster Lane. If special circumstances required it, as in the construction of St Mary Aldermary or Christ Church College in Oxford (Tom's Tower), Wren could use late Gothic elements, although, in his own words, he did not like to “deviate from the best style”.

In addition to the construction of churches, Ren carried out private orders, one of which was the creation of a new library Trinity College(1676–1684) in Cambridge. In 1669 he was appointed chief warden of the royal buildings. In this position he received a number of important government contracts, such as the construction of hospitals in the Chelsea and Greenwich areas ( Greenwich Hospital) and several buildings included in Kensington Palace complexes And Hampton Court Palace.

During his long life, Wren was in the service of five successive kings on the English throne and left his position only in 1718. Wren died at Hampton Court on February 26, 1723 and was buried in St. John's Cathedral. Pavel. His ideas were picked up and developed by the next generation of architects, in particular N. Hawksmore and J. Gibbs. He had a significant influence on the development of church architecture in Europe and the USA.

Among the English nobility, a real fashion arose for Palladian mansions, which coincided with the philosophy of the early Enlightenment in England, which preached the ideals of rationality and orderliness, most fully expressed in ancient art.

Palladian English villa was a compact volume, most often three-story. The first one was rusticated, the main one was the front floor, there was a second floor, it was combined on the facade with a large order with the third - the residential floor. The simplicity and clarity of Palladian buildings, the ease of reproducing their forms, made similar ones very common both in suburban private architecture and in the architecture of urban public and residential buildings.

The English Palladians made a great contribution to the development of park art. In place of fashionable, geometrically correct " regular"The gardens have arrived" landscape parks, later called “English”. Picturesque groves with foliage of different shades alternate with lawns, natural ponds, and islands. The paths of the parks do not provide an open perspective, and behind each bend they prepare an unexpected view. Statues, gazebos, and ruins hide in the shade of trees. Their main creator in the first half of the 18th century was William Kent

Landscape or landscape parks were perceived as the beauty of natural nature intelligently corrected, but the corrections did not have to be noticeable.

French classicism

Classicism in France was formed in more complex and contradictory conditions, local traditions and the influence of the Baroque had a stronger impact. The emergence of French classicism in the first half of the 17th century. took place against the backdrop of a peculiar refraction in architecture of Renaissance forms, late Gothic traditions and techniques borrowed from the emerging Italian Baroque. This process was accompanied by typological changes: a shift in emphasis from the non-urban castle construction of the feudal nobility to the urban and suburban construction of housing for the official nobility.

The basic principles and ideals of classicism were laid in France. We can say that everything started from the words of two famous people, the Sun King (i.e. Louis XIV), who said “ The state is me!” and the famous philosopher Rene Descartes, who said: “ I think, therefore I exist"(in addition and counterbalance to Plato's saying - " I exist therefore I think"). It is in these phrases that the main ideas of classicism lie: loyalty to the king, i.e. to the fatherland, and the triumph of reason over feeling.

The new philosophy demanded its expression not only in the mouth of the monarch and philosophical works, but also in art accessible to society. Heroic images were needed, aimed at instilling patriotism and rationality in the thinking of citizens. Thus began the reform of all facets of culture. Architecture created strictly symmetrical forms, subjugating not only space, but also nature itself, trying to get at least a little closer to the created Claude Ledoux utopian ideal city of the future. Which, by the way, remained exclusively in the architect’s drawings (it is worth noting that the project was so significant that its motifs are still used in various movements of architecture).

The most prominent figure in the architecture of early French classicism was Nicolas Francois Mansart(Nicolas François Mansart) (1598-1666) - one of the founders of French classicism. His merit, in addition to the direct construction of buildings, is the development of a new type of urban dwelling for the nobility - a “hotel” - with a cozy and comfortable layout, including a vestibule, a main staircase, and a number of enfiladed rooms, often enclosed around a courtyard. The Gothic-style vertical sections of the facades have large rectangular windows, a clear division into floors and rich order plasticity. A special feature of the Mansar hotels are the high roofs, under which additional living space was located - the attic, named after its creator. An excellent example of such a roof is a palace Maison-Laffite(Maisons-Laffitte, 1642–1651). Mansar's other works include: Hotel de Toulouse, Hotel Mazarin and Paris Cathedral Val de Grace(Val-de-Grace), completed according to his design Lemerce And Le Muet.

The heyday of the first period of classicism dates back to the second half of the 17th century. The concepts of philosophical rationalism and classicism put forward by bourgeois ideology represented by absolutism Louis XIV takes as official state doctrine. These concepts are completely subordinate to the will of the king and serve as a means of glorifying him as the highest personification of the nation, united on the principles of reasonable autocracy. In architecture, this has a twofold expression: on the one hand, the desire for rational order compositions, tectonically clear and monumental, freed from the fractional “multi-obscurity” of the previous period; on the other hand, an ever-increasing tendency towards a single volitional principle in the composition, towards the dominance of an axis that subordinates the building and adjacent spaces, to the subordination to the will of man not only of the principles of organizing urban spaces, but also of nature itself, transformed according to the laws of reason, geometry, “ideal” beauty . Both trends are illustrated by two major events in the architectural life of France in the second half of the 17th century: the first - the design and construction of the eastern facade of the royal palace in Paris - Louvre (Louvre); the second - the creation of a new residence of Louis XIV, the most grandiose architectural and landscape ensemble in Versailles.

The eastern façade of the Louvre was created as a result of a comparison of two projects - one that came to Paris from Italy Lorenzo Bernini(Gian Lorenzo Bernini) (1598-1680) and Frenchman Claude Perrault(Claude Perrault) (1613-1688). Preference was given to Perrault's project (implemented in 1667), where, in contrast to the baroque restlessness and tectonic duality of Bernini's project, the extended façade (length 170.5 m) has a clear order structure with a huge two-story gallery, interrupted in the center and on the sides by symmetrical risalits . The paired columns of the Corinthian order (height 12.32 meters) carry a large, classically designed entablature, completed with an attic and balustrade. The base is interpreted in the form of a smooth basement floor, the design of which, as in the elements of the order, emphasizes the structural functions of the main load-bearing support of the building. A clear, rhythmic and proportional structure is based on simple relationships and modularity, and the lower diameter of the columns is taken as the initial value (module), as in the classical canons. The height dimensions of the building (27.7 meters) and the overall large scale of the composition, designed to create a front square in front of the facade, give the building the majesty and representativeness necessary for a royal palace. At the same time, the entire structure of the composition is distinguished by architectural logic, geometricity, and artistic rationalism.

Ensemble of Versailles(Château de Versailles, 1661-1708) - the pinnacle of architectural activity of the time of Louis XIV. The desire to combine the attractive aspects of city life and life in the lap of nature led to the creation of a grandiose complex, including a royal palace with buildings for the royal family and government, a huge park and a city adjacent to the palace. The palace is a focal point in which the axis of the park converges - on one side, and on the other - three rays of the city's highways, of which the central one serves as the road connecting Versailles with the Louvre. The palace, the length of which from the side of the park is more than half a kilometer (580 m), with its middle part is sharply pushed forward, and in height it has a clear division into the basement part, the main floor and the attic. Against the background of order pilasters, Ionic porticos play the role of rhythmic accents that unite the facades into a coherent axial composition.

The axis of the palace serves as the main disciplinary factor in the transformation of the landscape. Symbolizing the boundless will of the reigning owner of the country, it subjugates elements of geometric nature, alternating in strict order with architectural elements for park purposes: stairs, pools, fountains, and various small architectural forms.

The principle of axial space inherent in Baroque and Ancient Rome is realized here in the grandiose axial perspective of green parterres and alleys descending in terraces, leading the observer’s gaze deeper into the canal located in the distance, cruciform in plan, and further to infinity. Bushes and trees trimmed in the shape of pyramids emphasized the linear depth and artificiality of the created landscape, turning into natural only beyond the border of the main perspective.

Idea " transformed nature" corresponded to the new way of life of the monarch and the nobility. It also led to new urban planning plans - a departure from the chaotic medieval city, and ultimately to a decisive transformation of the city based on the principles of regularity and the introduction of landscape elements into it. The consequence was the spread of the principles and techniques developed in the planning of Versailles to the reconstruction of cities, especially Paris.

André Le Nôtre(André Le Nôtre) (1613-1700) - creator of the garden and park ensemble Versailles- came up with the idea of ​​regulating the layout of the central area of ​​Paris, adjacent to the Louvre and Tuileries palaces from the west and east. Louvre - Tuileries axis, coinciding with the direction of the road to Versailles, determined the meaning of the famous “ Parisian diameter", which later became the main thoroughfare of the capital. The Tuileries Garden and part of the avenue - the avenues of the Champs Elysees - were laid out on this axis. In the second half of the 18th century, the Place de la Concorde was created, uniting the Tuileries with the Avenue des Champs-Élysées, and in the first half of the 19th century. The monumental Arch of the Star, placed at the end of the Champs Elysees in the center of the round square, completed the formation of the ensemble, the length of which is about 3 km. Author Palace of Versailles Jules Hardouin-Mansart(Jules Hardouin-Mansart) (1646-1708) also created a number of outstanding ensembles in Paris at the end of the 17th and beginning of the 18th centuries. These include round Victory Square(Place des Victoires), rectangular Place Vendôme(Place Vendome), complex of the Invalides hospital with a domed cathedral. French classicism of the second half of the 17th century. adopted the urban development achievements of the Renaissance and especially the Baroque, developing and applying them on a more grandiose scale.

In the 18th century, during the reign of Louis XV (1715-1774), the Rococo style developed in French architecture, as in other forms of art, which was a formal continuation of the pictorial trends of the Baroque. The originality of this style, close to baroque and elaborate in its forms, was manifested mainly in the interior decoration, which corresponded to the luxurious and wasteful life of the royal court. The state rooms acquired a more comfortable, but also more ornate character. In the architectural decoration of premises, mirrors and stucco decorations made of intricately curved lines, flower garlands, shells, etc. were widely used. This style was also greatly reflected in furniture. However, already in the middle of the 18th century there was a move away from the elaborate forms of Rococo towards greater rigor, simplicity and clarity. This period in France coincides with a broad social movement directed against the monarchical socio-political system and which received its resolution in the French bourgeois revolution of 1789. The second half of the 18th and the first third of the 19th centuries in France mark a new stage in the development of classicism and its wide spread in European countries.

CLASSICISM OF THE SECOND HALF OF THE XVIII century in many ways developed the principles of architecture of the previous century. However, the new bourgeois-rationalist ideals - simplicity and classical clarity of forms - are now understood as a symbol of a certain democratization of art, promoted within the framework of the bourgeois enlightenment. The relationship between architecture and nature is changing. Symmetry and axis, which remain the fundamental principles of composition, no longer have the same importance in the organization of the natural landscape. Increasingly, the French regular park is giving way to the so-called English park with a picturesque landscape composition imitating the natural landscape.

The architecture of buildings is becoming somewhat more humane and rational, although the huge urban scale still determines a broad ensemble approach to architectural tasks. The city with all its medieval buildings is considered as an object of architectural influence as a whole. Ideas for an architectural plan for the entire city are put forward; At the same time, the interests of transport, issues of sanitary improvement, location of trade and industrial facilities, and other economic issues begin to occupy a significant place. In work on new types of urban buildings, much attention is paid to multi-story residential buildings. Despite the fact that the practical implementation of these urban planning ideas was very limited, increased interest in the problems of the city influenced the formation of ensembles. In a large city, new ensembles try to include large spaces in their “sphere of influence” and often acquire an open character.

The largest and most characteristic architectural ensemble of French classicism of the 18th century - Place de la Concorde in Paris, created according to the project Ange-Jacques Gabriel (Ange-Jacque Gabriel(1698 - 1782) in the 50-60s of the 18th century, and received its final completion during the second half of the 18th - first half of the 19th century. The huge square serves as a distribution space on the banks of the Seine between the Tuileries Garden adjacent to the Louvre and the wide boulevards of the Champs Elysees. Pre-existing dry ditches served as the boundary of a rectangular area (dimensions 245 x 140 m). The “graphic” layout of the square with the help of dry ditches, balustrades, and sculptural groups bears the imprint of the planar layout of the Versailles Park. In contrast to the closed squares of Paris in the 17th century. (Place Vendôme, etc.), Place de la Concorde is an example of an open square, limited only on one side by two symmetrical buildings built by Gabriel, which formed a transverse axis passing through the square and the Rue Royale formed by them. The axis is fixed in the square by two fountains, and at the intersection of the main axes a monument to King Louis XV was erected, and later a high obelisk). The Champs Elysees, the Tuileries Garden, the space of the Seine and its embankments are, as it were, a continuation of this architectural ensemble, enormous in scope, in a direction perpendicular to the transverse axis.

Partial reconstruction of centers with the establishment of regular “royal squares” also covers other cities of France (Rennes, Reims, Rouen, etc.). The Royal Square in Nancy (Place Royalle de Nancy, 1722-1755) especially stands out. Urban planning theory is developing. In particular, it is worth noting the theoretical work on city squares by the architect Patt, who processed and published the results of the competition for Place Louis XV in Paris, held in the mid-18th century.

The space-planning development of buildings of French classicism of the 18th century cannot be conceived in isolation from the urban ensemble. The leading motif remains a large order that correlates well with the adjacent urban spaces. The constructive function is returned to the order; it is more often used in the form of porticoes and galleries, its scale is enlarged, covering the height of the entire main volume of the building. Theorist of French classicism M. A. Laugier M. A. fundamentally rejects the classical column where it really does not bear the load, and criticizes placing one order on top of another if it is really possible to get by with one support. Practical rationalism receives broad theoretical justification.

The development of theory has become a typical phenomenon in the art of France since the 17th century, since the establishment of the French Academy (1634), the formation of the Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture (1648) and the Academy of Architecture (1671). Particular attention in theory is paid to orders and proportions. Developing the doctrine of proportions Jacques Francois Blondel(1705-1774) - a French theorist of the second half of the 17th century, Laugier creates a whole system of logically substantiated proportions, based on the rationally meaningful principle of their absolute perfection. At the same time, in proportions, as in architecture in general, the element of rationality, based on speculatively derived mathematical rules of composition, is enhanced. Interest in the heritage of antiquity and the Renaissance is growing, and in specific examples of these eras they strive to see a logical confirmation of the principles put forward. The Roman Pantheon is often cited as an ideal example of the unity of utilitarian and artistic functions, and the most popular examples of Renaissance classics are the buildings of Palladio and Bramante, in particular the Tempietto. These samples are not only carefully studied, but also often serve as direct prototypes of the buildings being erected.

Built in the 1750s-1780s according to the design Jacques Germain Soufflot(Jacques-Germain Soufflot) (1713 - 1780) Church of St. Genevieve in Paris, which later became the national French Pantheon, one can see the return to the artistic ideal of antiquity and the most mature examples of the Renaissance inherent in this time. The composition, cruciform in plan, is distinguished by the consistency of the overall scheme, the balance of the architectural parts, and the clarity and clarity of construction. The portico goes back in its forms to the Roman to the Pantheon, a drum with a dome (span 21.5 meters) resembles a composition Tempietto. The main façade completes the vista of a short, straight street and serves as one of the most prominent architectural landmarks in Paris.

Interesting material illustrating the development of architectural thought in the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries is the publication in Paris of competitive academic projects awarded the highest award (Grand prix). A common thread running through all these projects is reverence for antiquity. Endless colonnades, huge domes, repeated porticos, etc., speak, on the one hand, of a break with the aristocratic effeminacy of Rococo, on the other, of the flowering of a unique architectural romance, for the implementation of which, however, there was no basis in social reality.

The eve of the Great French Revolution (1789-94) gave rise in architecture to a desire for austere simplicity, a bold search for monumental geometricism, and a new, orderless architecture (C. N. Ledoux, E. L. Bullet, J. J. Lequeu). These searches (also marked by the influence of the architectural etchings of G.B. Piranesi) served as the starting point for the later phase of classicism - Empire style.

During the years of the revolution, almost no construction was carried out, but a large number of projects were born. The general tendency towards overcoming canonical forms and traditional classical schemes is determined.

Culturological thought, having gone through another round, ended in the same place. The painting of the revolutionary direction of French classicism is represented by the courageous drama of historical and portrait images of J. L. David. During the years of the empire of Napoleon I, magnificent representativeness in architecture increases (C. Percier, L. Fontaine, J. F. Chalgrin)

The international center of classicism of the 18th century - early 19th century was Rome, where the academic tradition dominated in art, with a combination of nobility of forms and cold, abstract idealization, not uncommon for academicism (German painter A. R. Mengs, Austrian landscape painter J. A. Koch, sculptors - Italian A. Canova, Dane B. Thorvaldsen).

In the 17th and early 18th centuries, classicism was formed in Dutch architecture- architect Jacob van Kampen(Jacob van Campen, 1595-165), which gave rise to a particularly restrained version of it. Cross-connections with French and Dutch classicism, as well as with the early Baroque, resulted in a short brilliant flowering classicism in Swedish architecture late 17th - early 18th century - architect Nicodemus Tessin the Younger(Nicodemus Tessin Younger 1654-1728).

In the middle of the 18th century, the principles of classicism were transformed in the spirit of Enlightenment aesthetics. In architecture, the appeal to “naturalness” put forward the requirement for constructive justification of order elements of the composition, in the interior - the development of a flexible layout for a comfortable residential building. The ideal setting for the house was the landscape of an “English” park. The rapid development of archaeological knowledge about Greek and Roman antiquity (excavations of Herculaneum, Pompeii, etc.) had a huge influence on the classicism of the 18th century; The works of I. I. Winkelman, I. V. Goethe, and F. Militsiya made their contribution to the theory of classicism. In French classicism of the 18th century, new architectural types were defined: an exquisitely intimate mansion, a ceremonial public building, an open city square.

In Russia classicism went through several stages in its development and reached an unprecedented scale during the reign of Catherine II, who considered herself an “enlightened monarch,” corresponded with Voltaire and supported the ideas of the French Enlightenment.

The ideas of significance, grandeur, and powerful pathos were close to the classical architecture of St. Petersburg.

The architectural principles of Baroque and Classicism were universal for all countries of Western and Eastern Europe, including Russia. However, in each region, architects interpreted the universal principles slightly differently. Today's material is devoted to the differences between buildings of the 17th and 18th centuries in different countries of Western Europe.

Renaissance architecture gave birth to two opposite directions at once, Baroque and Palladianism, early classicism. The creators of the Baroque era rejected the classical ideas of rigor and obligatory adherence to order. Buildings in this style are characterized by rich decoration, curvilinear forms, and distorted perspectives. Architects sought to merge different spheres of art: thus, sculpture, architecture and landscape art merged in Baroque ensembles.

Baroque originated in Italy, and from there spread throughout Western Europe. It is worth highlighting two main figures who adopted the legacy of the late Renaissance style of mannerism - these are Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini and Francesco Borromini.

Bernini not only designed churches, chapels and secular buildings, he also worked on large objects that combined architecture and sculpture, such as fountains and funerary monuments. His most famous works are the design of St. Peter's Square in the Vatican, as well as the decoration of St. Peter's Basilica and the pulpit there. Bernini worked on the appearance of Rome: he connected the streets and central squares. The oval-shaped arena, formed from two massive semicircular colonnades in Peter's Square, where the city's residents could welcome the pope, is a true Baroque masterpiece. He also designed several fountains, which were always subjects of his interest, in particular the Fountain of Triton and the Fountain of the Four Rivers in Rome.

The second creator of the Italian Baroque era, Franceschi Borromini, completely departed from the classical canons and previous rules. He designed rooms of incredible complexity, and it is he who is considered the heir to the traditions of Michelangelo Buonarotti. It was characterized by a complex interior layout, including differences in levels, as well as the absence of straight lines and an abundance of fancy architectural details. He designed the Palazzo Barberini and also certain elements of St. Peter's Basilica.

In France, Baroque naturally merges with Classicism, using the best of two architectural styles: the harmony of the layout of Classicism and the rich decoration of Baroque. An example of this is the famous Versailles courtyard and its luxurious interior decoration.

The Baroque style is also found in Austria. At first, the Italian architect Santino Solari, who built the palace in Salzburg, worked there, and the Schönbrunn Palace was built by the Austrian architect von Erlarch. In Germany, the Baroque style was most fully represented in Dresden by the works of the architect Matthaus Peppelmann - the buildings of the Zwinger (a complex for open-air celebrations) and the Frauenkirche.

Before we move on to the history of the development of classicism in Europe, let us recall the basic principles by which the architecture of this style was built. She was characterized by rigor of form and geometric interiors, soft colors and laconicism of external and internal decoration of buildings. Classical architecture is characterized by a symmetrical axial composition of buildings. The houses were decorated with characteristic elements: colonnades, rotundas, porticos, reliefs on the walls and statues on the roofs. The windows were made rectangular, elongated upward without flashy design. The houses were painted in light pastel colors.

The history of classicism in Western Europe began with the Italian architect Andrea Palladio, already familiar to us from past materials. He studied ancient Greek and Roman temples and wrote several treatises on diagrams of architectural orders. Let us remember that an order is a clear sequence of vertical and horizontal elements. The order includes a system of proportions and prescribes the composition and relative position of elements. In the early classical style (later called Palladian), the secular mansions of noble citizens of Venice were built, in particular the Villa Rotunda and Villa Capra. It was Palladio who formulated the basic principles of classicism for the architecture of Western Europe.

The second famous theorist of early classicism is Vincenzo Scamozzi, a student of Palladio. His work “The Idea of ​​Universal Architecture” had a great influence on the English architect Inigo Jones, from whose suggestion Palladianism (and classicism) became the dominant style in English architecture. Jones's work is credited with the beginning of regular urban planning in London according to Italian models: he created the first modern square in Covent Garden. Jones is best known for designing Queens House in Greenwich and St Paul's Cathedral.

The Scottish architect Robert Adam contributed to the further development of classicist architecture in Britain. He developed his own, “Adam’s style,” adding elegant interior design to the classical canons.

At the same time, the French architect Jean-Germain Soufflot proposed using the classicist style as the basis for urban development. His most famous project is the Pantheon building in Paris. Among other figures of classicism in France, it is worth noting Francois Mansart, who, although he built many buildings in the Baroque style, nevertheless adhered to a regular layout. By the way, in his projects he used a steep roof with a break, traditional for French houses, which made it possible to make the rooms under the roof habitable. This is where the name of such spaces comes from - mansar roof, attic.

The most famous monument of classicism (and at the same time baroque) in France, the palace and park complex of Versailles, was designed by the architects Louis Leveau and Jules Arden-Mansart, the grandson of Francois.

In Germany, they also studied the heritage of ancient masters and the experience of Italian colleagues. Berlin and Munich became centers for the spread of classicism. On the one hand, German classicism also gravitated towards ancient canons. On the other hand, he tried to find harmony between form and content, for example, to emphasize the significance and grandeur of architectural monuments. A striking example is the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin by the architect Langhans.

The classicist style evolved: at the beginning of the 19th century, French architects drew inspiration from Roman examples of military glory. This is how the Empire style, the imperial style, appeared. The buildings and monuments were monumental and were supposed to demonstrate the greatness of the French Empire and the power of the army. These objects include the famous Arc de Triomphe, built in honor of Napoleon's victories by the architect Jean Chalgrin, as well as the arch on Place Carrousel.

Late classicism in Germany is represented by the works of the famous architect Leo von Klenze. It is to him that the city of Munich owes its classic appearance. In particular, he designed a square with several galleries: among them were the Pinakothek (art gallery), the Glyptotek (museum of ancient sculpture) and the Propylaea. Von Klenz also worked abroad: in St. Petersburg he built the building of the New Hermitage. Later, the German Empire style became the Biedermeier style, closer to ordinary townspeople, with many interior and exterior decorations.

In Britain the Empire style was also introduced and is known as the Regency style. It received its name from the reign of Prince Regent George III. The most important representative of this style is the architect John Nash. he is the author of many objects. In particular, this is the urban layout of Regent Street and the landscaped Regent Park, as well as the Trafalgar Square complex in London.

In the following materials we will move on to the architecture of the nineteenth century. Stay with us!