Tatars or Mongols: which of them attacked Rus'? Mongol-Tatar invasion of Rus'.

Chronology

• 1123 Battle of the Russians and Cumans with the Mongols on the Kalka River
• 1237 - 1240 Conquest of Rus' by the Mongols
• 1240 The defeat of the Swedish knights on the Neva River by Prince Alexander Yaroslavovich (Battle of the Neva)
• 1242 The defeat of the crusaders on Lake Peipsi by Prince Alexander Yaroslavovich Nevsky (Battle of the Ice)
• 1380 Battle of Kulikovo

The beginning of the Mongol conquests of the Russian principalities

In the 13th century the peoples of Rus' had to endure a difficult struggle with Tatar-Mongol conquerors, who ruled the Russian lands until the 15th century. (last century in a milder form). Directly or indirectly, the Mongol invasion contributed to the fall of the political institutions of the Kyiv period and the rise of absolutism.

In the 12th century. There was no centralized state in Mongolia; the unification of the tribes was achieved at the end of the 12th century. Temuchin, the leader of one of the clans. At the general meeting (“kurultai”) of representatives of all clans in 1206 he was proclaimed great khan with the name Genghis(“limitless power”).

Once the empire was created, it began its expansion. The organization of the Mongol army was based on the decimal principle - 10, 100, 1000, etc. An imperial guard was created that controlled the entire army. Before the advent of firearms Mongol cavalry prevailed in the steppe wars. She was better organized and trained than any army of nomads of the past. The reason for the success was not only the perfection of the military organization of the Mongols, but also the unpreparedness of their rivals.

At the beginning of the 13th century, having conquered part of Siberia, the Mongols began to conquer China in 1215. They managed to capture its entire northern part. From China, the Mongols brought the latest military equipment and specialists for that time. In addition, they received a cadre of competent and experienced officials from among the Chinese. In 1219, Genghis Khan's troops invaded Central Asia. Following Central Asia there was Northern Iran captured, after which Genghis Khan’s troops made a predatory campaign in Transcaucasia. From the south they came to the Polovtsian steppes and defeated the Polovtsians.

The Polovtsians' request to help them against a dangerous enemy was accepted by the Russian princes. The battle between the Russian-Polovtsian and Mongol troops took place on May 31, 1223 on the Kalka River in the Azov region. Not all Russian princes who promised to participate in the battle sent their troops. The battle ended in the defeat of the Russian-Polovtsian troops, many princes and warriors died.

In 1227 Genghis Khan died. Ögedei, his third son, was elected Great Khan. In 1235, the Kurultai met in the Mongol capital Kara-korum, where it was decided to begin the conquest of the western lands. This intention posed a terrible threat to Russian lands. At the head of the new campaign was Ogedei’s nephew, Batu (Batu).

In 1236, Batu's troops began a campaign against the Russian lands. Having defeated Volga Bulgaria, they set out to conquer the Ryazan principality. The Ryazan princes, their squads and townspeople had to fight the invaders alone. The city was burned and plundered. After the capture of Ryazan, Mongol troops moved to Kolomna. In the battle near Kolomna, many Russian soldiers died, and the battle itself ended in defeat for them. On February 3, 1238, the Mongols approached Vladimir. Having besieged the city, the invaders sent a detachment to Suzdal, which took it and burned it. The Mongols stopped only in front of Novgorod, turning south due to muddy roads.

In 1240, the Mongol offensive resumed. Chernigov and Kyiv were captured and destroyed. From here the Mongol troops moved to Galicia-Volyn Rus'. Having captured Vladimir-Volynsky, Galich in 1241 Batu invaded Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Moravia, and then in 1242 reached Croatia and Dalmatia. However, Mongol troops entered Western Europe significantly weakened by the powerful resistance they encountered in Rus'. This largely explains the fact that if the Mongols managed to establish their yoke in Rus', Western Europe only experienced an invasion and then on a smaller scale. This is the historical role of the heroic resistance of the Russian people to the Mongol invasion.

The result of Batu’s grandiose campaign was the conquest of a vast territory - the southern Russian steppes and forests of Northern Rus', the Lower Danube region (Bulgaria and Moldova). The Mongol Empire now included the entire Eurasian continent from the Pacific Ocean to the Balkans.

After Ogedei's death in 1241, the majority supported the candidacy of Ogedei's son Hayuk. Batu became the head of the strongest regional khanate. He founded his capital at Sarai (north of Astrakhan). His power extended to Kazakhstan, Khorezm, Western Siberia, Volga, North Caucasus, Rus'. Gradually the western part of this ulus became known as Golden Horde.

The struggle of the Russian people against Western aggression

When the Mongols occupied Russian cities, the Swedes, threatening Novgorod, appeared at the mouth of the Neva. They were defeated in July 1240 by the young prince Alexander, who received the name Nevsky for his victory.

At the same time, the Roman Church made acquisitions in the Baltic Sea countries. Back in the 12th century, German knighthood began to seize lands belonging to the Slavs beyond the Oder and in the Baltic Pomerania. At the same time, an attack was carried out on the lands of the Baltic peoples. The Crusaders' invasion of the Baltic lands and North-Western Rus' was sanctioned by the Pope and German Emperor Frederick II. German, Danish, Norwegian knights and troops from other northern European countries also took part in the crusade. The attack on Russian lands was part of the doctrine of “Drang nach Osten” (pressure to the east).

Together with his squad, Alexander liberated Pskov, Izborsk and other captured cities with a sudden blow. Having received news that the main forces of the Order were coming towards him, Alexander Nevsky blocked the path of the knights, placing his troops on the ice of Lake Peipsi. The Russian prince showed himself to be an outstanding commander. The chronicler wrote about him: “We win everywhere, but we won’t win at all.” Alexander placed his troops under the cover of a steep bank on the ice of the lake, eliminating the possibility of enemy reconnaissance of his forces and depriving the enemy of freedom of maneuver. Considering the formation of the knights in a “pig” (in the form of a trapezoid with a sharp wedge in front, which was made up of heavily armed cavalry), Alexander Nevsky arranged his regiments in the form of a triangle, with the tip resting on the shore. Before the battle, some of the Russian soldiers were equipped with special hooks to pull knights off their horses.

On April 5, 1242, a battle took place on the ice of Lake Peipsi, which became known as the Battle of the Ice. The knight's wedge pierced the center of the Russian position and buried itself in the shore. The flank attacks of the Russian regiments decided the outcome of the battle: like pincers, they crushed the knightly “pig”. The knights, unable to withstand the blow, fled in panic. The Russians pursued the enemy, “flogged, rushing after him as if through the air,” the chronicler wrote. According to the Novgorod Chronicle, in the battle “400 Germans and 50 were captured”

Persistently resisting Western enemies, Alexander was extremely patient with regard to the eastern onslaught. Recognition of the Khan's sovereignty freed up his hands to repel the Teutonic Crusade.

Tatar-Mongol yoke

Persistently resisting Western enemies, Alexander was extremely patient with regard to the eastern onslaught. The Mongols did not interfere in the religious affairs of their subjects, while the Germans tried to impose their faith on the conquered peoples. They pursued an aggressive policy under the slogan “Whoever does not want to be baptized must die!” Recognition of the Khan's sovereignty freed up forces to repel the Teutonic Crusade. But it turned out that the “Mongol flood” is not easy to get rid of. RThe Russian lands, devastated by the Mongols, were forced to recognize vassal dependence on the Golden Horde.

During the first period of Mongol rule, the collection of taxes and the mobilization of Russians into the Mongol troops was carried out on the orders of the Great Khan. Both money and recruits were sent to the capital. Under Gauk, Russian princes went to Mongolia to receive a label to reign. Later, a trip to Sarai was enough.

The continuous struggle waged by the Russian people against the invaders forced the Mongol-Tatars to abandon the creation of their own administrative authorities in Rus'. Rus' retained its statehood. This was facilitated by the presence in Rus' of its own administration and church organization.

To control the Russian lands, the institution of Baskaq governors was created - leaders of military detachments of the Mongol-Tatars who monitored the activities of the Russian princes. Denunciation of the Baskaks to the Horde inevitably ended either with the prince being summoned to Sarai (often he was deprived of his label, or even his life), or with a punitive campaign in the rebellious land. Suffice it to say that only in the last quarter of the 13th century. 14 similar campaigns were organized in Russian lands.

In 1257, the Mongol-Tatars undertook a population census - “recording the number.” Besermen (Muslim merchants) were sent to the cities, who were in charge of collecting tribute. The size of the tribute (“output”) was very large, only the “tsar’s tribute”, i.e. the tribute in favor of the khan, which was first collected in kind and then in money, amounted to 1,300 kg of silver per year. The constant tribute was supplemented by “requests” - one-time exactions in favor of the khan. In addition, deductions from trade duties, taxes for “feeding” the khan’s officials, etc. went to the khan’s treasury. In total there were 14 types of tribute in favor of the Tatars.

The Horde yoke slowed down the economic development of Rus' for a long time, destroyed its agriculture, and undermined its culture. The Mongol invasion led to a decline in the role of cities in the political and economic life of Rus', urban construction stopped, and fine and applied arts fell into decay. A serious consequence of the yoke was the deepening disunity of Rus' and the isolation of its individual parts. The weakened country was unable to defend a number of western and southern regions, which were later captured by Lithuanian and Polish feudal lords. The trade relations between Rus' and the West were dealt a blow: only Novgorod, Pskov, Polotsk, Vitebsk and Smolensk retained trade relations with foreign countries.

The turning point came in 1380, when Mamai’s army of thousands was defeated on the Kulikovo Field.

Rus' began to strengthen, its dependence on the Horde weakened more and more. The final liberation occurred in 1480 under Emperor Ivan III. By this time the period had ended, the gathering of Russian lands around Moscow and.

The Tatar-Mongol invasion of Rus' began in 1237, when Batu’s cavalry invaded the territory of the Ryazan lands. As a result of this attack, Rus' found itself under the yoke of two centuries. This interpretation is set out in most history textbooks, but in reality the relationship between Russia and the Horde was much more complicated. In the article, the yoke of the Golden Horde will be considered not only in the usual interpretation, but also taking into account its controversial issues.

Beginning of the Mongol-Tatar invasion

For the first time, the squads of Rus' and the Mongol hordes began to fight at the end of May 1223 on the Kalka River. The Russian army was led by the Prince of Kiev Mstislav, and the Horde was commanded by Jebe-noyon and Subedei-bagatur. Mstislav's army was not only defeated, but practically completely destroyed.

In 1236, the Tatars began another invasion of the Polovtsians. In this campaign they won many victories and by the end of 1237 they came close to the lands of the Ryazan principality.

Mongol conquest of Rus', which took place from 1237 to 1242, is divided into two stages:

1. 1237 – 1238 – invasion of the northern and eastern territories of Rus'.
2. 1239 – 1242 – campaign in the southern territories, which led to further yoke.

Chronology of events up to 1238

The Horde cavalry was commanded by Khan Batu (Batu Khan), the grandson of the famous Genghis Khan, who had about 150 thousand soldiers under his command. Together with Batu, Subedei-Baghatur, who fought with the Russians earlier, took part in the invasion. The invasion began in the winter of 1237, its exact date is unknown. Some historians claim that the attack occurred in late autumn of the same year. Batu's cavalry moved at high speed across the territory of Rus' and conquered cities one after another.

The chronology of Batu’s campaign against Rus' is as follows:

• Ryazan was defeated in December 1237 after a six-day siege.
• Before the conquest of Moscow, Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich of Vladimir tried to stop the Horde near Kolomna, but was defeated.
• Moscow was conquered in January 1238, the siege lasted four days.
• Vladimir. After an eight-day siege, it was conquered in February 1238.

Capture of Ryazan - 1237

At the end of the autumn of 1237, an army of about 150 thousand under the leadership of Batu Khan invaded the territory of the Ryazan principality. Arriving at Prince Yuri Igorevich, the ambassadors demanded tribute from him - a tenth of what he owns. They were refused, and the Ryazan residents began to prepare for defense. Yuri turned to Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich of Vladimir for support, but received no help.

At the same time, Batu defeated the vanguard of the Ryazan squad and in mid-December 1237 besieged the capital of the principality. The first attacks were repulsed, but after the invaders used battering rams, the fortress, which held out for 9 days, was defeated. The Horde invaded the city, carrying out a massacre.

Despite the fact that the prince and almost all the inhabitants of the fortress were killed, the resistance of the Ryazan residents did not stop. Boyar Evpatiy Kolovrat gathered an army of about 1,700 people and set off in pursuit of Batu’s army. Having caught up with her, Kolovrat’s warriors defeated the rearguard of the nomads, but later they themselves fell in an unequal battle.

Battle of Kolomna, capture of Moscow and Vladimir - 1238

After the fall of Ryazan, the Tatars attacked Kolomna, a city that at that time was an important strategic center. Here was the vanguard of the troops of Prince Vladimir, commanded by Vsevolod. Having entered into an unequal battle with Batu’s troops, the Russians suffered a crushing defeat. Most of them died, and Vsevolod Yuryevich with the surviving squad retreated to Vladimir.

Batu reached Moscow in the third decade of 1237. At this time, there was no one to defend Moscow, since the base of the Russian army was destroyed near Kolomna. At the beginning of 1238, the Horde burst into the city, completely destroyed it and killed everyone, young and old. Prince Vladimir was taken prisoner. After the defeat of Moscow, the invading troops set off on a campaign against Vladimir.

At the beginning of February 1238, an army of nomads approached the walls of Vladimir. The Horde attacked him from three sides. Having destroyed the walls using battering devices, they burst into the city. Most of the residents were killed, including Prince Vsevolod. And the eminent townspeople were locked in the Church of the Virgin Mary and burned . Vladimir was plundered and destroyed.

How did the first invasion end?

After the conquest of Vladimir, almost the entire territory of the northern and eastern lands came under the power of Batu Khan. He took cities one after another: Dmitrov, Suzdal, Tver, Pereslavl, Yuryev. In March 1238, Torzhok was taken, which opened the way for the Tatar-Mongols to Novgorod. But Batu Khan decided not to go there, but sent his army to storm Kozelsk.

The siege of the city lasted seven weeks and ended only when Batu offered to surrender to the defenders of Kozelsk in exchange for saving their lives. They accepted the conditions of the Tatar-Mongols and surrendered. Khan Batu did not fulfill his word and gave the order to kill everyone, which was done. Thus ended the first invasion of the Tatar-Mongols on the lands of Rus'.

Invasion of 1239 – 1242

A year and a half later, in 1239, a new campaign of troops under the command of Batu against Rus' began. This year the main events take place in Chernigov and Pereyaslav. Batu did not advance as quickly as in 1237, due to the fact that he was actively fighting against the Polovtsians in the Crimean lands.

In the fall of 1240, Batu leads the army directly to Kyiv. The ancient capital of Rus' was unable to hold out resistance for long, and in early December 1240 the city fell under the onslaught of the Horde. There was nothing left of him; Kyiv was actually “wiped off the face of the earth.” Historians speak of particularly brutal atrocities committed by the invaders. The Kyiv that has survived to this day, has absolutely nothing in common with the city destroyed by the Horde.

After the destruction of Kyiv, the Tatar troops were divided into two armies, one headed for Galich, and the other for Vladimir-Volynsky. After capturing these cities, the Tatar-Mongols set off on a European campaign.

Consequences of the invasion of Rus'

All historians give an unambiguous description of the consequences of the Tatar-Mongol invasion:

• The country was divided and was completely dependent on the Golden Horde.
• Rus' paid tribute to the Khanate every year (in people, silver, gold and furs).
• The state stopped its development due to the difficult situation.

The list can be continued further, but the general picture of what is happening is already clear.

In short, this is exactly how the period of the Horde yoke in Rus' is presented in the official historical interpretation found in textbooks. Next, we will consider the arguments given by L.N. Gumilyov, a historian-ethnologist and orientalist. A number of important issues will also be touched upon, giving an understanding of how much more complex the relationship between Russia and the Horde was than is commonly believed.

How did nomads conquer half the world?

Scientists often raise the question of, how a nomadic people, who just a few decades ago lived in a tribal system, were able to create a huge empire and conquer almost half the world. What goals did the Horde pursue in its campaign against Rus'? Historians claim that the purpose of the invasion was to plunder the lands and subjugate Rus', and they also say that the Tatar-Mongols achieved this.

But in reality this is not entirely true, because in Rus' there were three very rich cities:

• Kyiv is one of the largest European cities, the capital of ancient Rus', captured and destroyed by the Horde.
• Novgorod is the largest trading city and, at that time, the richest. It did not suffer at all from the invasion of the Tatar-Mongols.
• Smolensk, like Novgorod, was a trading city, and in terms of wealth it was compared with Kiev. He also did not suffer from the Horde.

It turns out that two of the three largest cities of ancient Rus' did not suffer in any way from the Golden Horde.

Explanations of historians

If we consider the historians' version - to destroy and plunder as the main goal of the Horde's campaign against Rus', then there is no logical explanation. Batu captures Torzhok, the siege of which takes two weeks. This is a poor city, its main task was the protection and defense of Novgorod. After the capture of Torzhok, Batu he is going not to Novgorod, but to Kozelsk. Why do you need to waste time and energy besieging an unnecessary city, instead of just going to Kozelsk?

Historians give two explanations:

1. Heavy losses during the capture of Torzhok did not allow Batu to go to Novgorod.
2. The move to Novgorod was prevented by spring floods.

The first version seems logical only at first glance. If the Mongols suffered heavy losses, then it was advisable to leave Rus' to replenish the army. But Batu goes to besiege Kozelsk. There he suffers colossal losses and quickly leaves the lands of Rus'. The second version is also difficult to accept, since in the Middle Ages, according to climatologists, in the northern regions of Rus' it was even colder than it is now.

Paradox with Kozelsk

An inexplicable and paradoxical situation has developed with Smolensk. As described above, Khan Batu, after the conquest of Torzhok, goes to besiege Kozelsk, which at its core was a simple fortress, a poor and small town. The Horde tried to capture it for seven weeks, suffering thousands of losses. There was absolutely no strategic or commercial benefit from the capture of Kozelsk. Why such sacrifices?

Just a day of riding on horseback and you could find yourself at the walls of Smolensk, one of the richest cities of ancient Rus', but Batu for some reason does not go in this direction. It is strange that all the above logical questions are ignored by historians.

Nomads do not fight in winter

There is another interesting fact that orthodox history simply does not pay attention to because it cannot explain it. Both one and the other Tatar-Mongol invasions of Ancient Rus' were committed in winter or late autumn. Let's not forget that Batu Khan's army consisted of nomads, and they, as you know, began their military campaigns only in the spring and tried to finish the battle before the onset of winter.

This is due to the fact that the nomads rode horses, which needed food every day. How was it possible to feed tens of thousands of Mongolian horses in the snowy winter conditions of Rus'? Many historians call this fact insignificant, but it cannot be denied that the success of a long campaign directly depends on the supply of troops.

How many horses did Batu have?

Historians say that the army of nomads ranged from 50 to 400 thousand cavalry. What kind of support should such an army have?

As far as we know When going on a military campaign, each warrior took with him three horses:

• a sled on which the rider constantly moved during the campaign;
• a pack on which weapons, ammunition and warrior’s belongings were transported;
• combat, which went without any load, so that at any time the horse with fresh strength could enter the battle.

It turns out that 300 thousand horsemen equal 900 thousand horses. Plus horses used in transporting rams and other weapons and provisions. That's over one million. How is it possible to feed such a herd in a snowy winter, during the Little Ice Age?

What was the number of nomads?

There is conflicting information about this. They talk about 15, 30, 200 and 400 thousand people. If we take a small number, then it is difficult to conquer a principality with such a number, the squad of which includes 30 - 50 thousand people. Moreover, the Russians resisted desperately, and many nomads died. If we talk about large numbers, then the question of provision of food arises.

Thus, apparently, things happened differently. The main document used to study the invasion is the Laurentian Chronicle. But it is not without flaws, which was recognized by official history. Three pages of the chronicle describing the beginning of the invasion were changed, which means they are not original.

This article examined conflicting facts, and suggested that you draw your own conclusions.

Genghis Khan(in childhood and adolescence - Temujin, Temujin) is the founder and also the first Great Khan of the Mongol Empire. During his reign, he, like Prince Oleg and other Russian princes, united many disparate tribes (in this case, Mongolian and partially Tatar) into one powerful state.

Genghis Khan's whole life after gaining power consisted of many campaigns of conquest in Asia and later in Europe. Thanks to this, in 2000, the American edition of the New York Times named him the man of the millennium (meaning the period from 1000 to 2000 - during this time he created the largest empire in human history).

By 1200, Temujin united all the Mongol tribes, and by 1202 - the Tatar ones. By 1223-1227, Genghis Khan simply wiped out many ancient states from the face of the earth, such as:

• Volga Bulgaria;
• Baghdad Caliphate;
• Chinese Empire ;
• the state of the Khorezmshahs (the territories of present-day Iran (Persia), Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Iraq and many other small states of Central and South-West Asia).

Genghis Khan died in 1227 from inflammation after a hunting injury (or from a virus or bacteria not native to East Asia - let's not forget about the level of medicine at that time) at the age of about 65 years.

The beginning of the Mongol invasion.

By the early 1200s, Genghis Khan was already planning the conquest of Eastern Europe. Later, after his death, the Mongols reached Germany and Italy, conquering Poland, Hungary, Ancient Rus' and so on, including attacking the Baltic states and other lands of northern and northeastern Europe. Long before this, on behalf of Genghis Khan, his sons Jochi, Jebe and Subedei set off to conquer the territories adjacent to Rus', simultaneously testing the soil of the Old Russian state .

The Mongols, using force or threats, conquered the Alans (present-day Ossetia), the Volga Bulgars and most of the lands of the Cumans, as well as the territories of the South and North Caucasus, and Kuban.

After the Polovtsians turned to the Russian princes for help, a council gathered in Kyiv under the leadership of Mstislav Svyatoslavovich, Mstislav Mstislavovich and Mstislav Romanovich. All the Mstislavs then came to the conclusion that, having finished off the Polovtsian princes, Tatar-Mongols will take over Rus', and in the worst case scenario, the Polovtsians will go over to the side Mongols, and together they will attack the Russian principalities. Guided by the principle “it is better to beat the enemy on foreign soil than on your own,” the Mstislavs gathered an army and moved south along the Dnieper.

Thanks to intelligence Mongol-Tatars learned about this and began to prepare for the meeting, having previously sent ambassadors to the Russian army.

The ambassadors brought the news that the Mongols did not touch Russian lands and were not going to touch them, saying they only had scores to settle with the Polovtsians, and expressed a desire that Rus' would not interfere in affairs that were not their own. Genghis Khan was often guided by the principle of “divide and conquer,” but the princes did not fall for this move. Historians also admit that stopping the campaign could, at best, delay the Mongol attack on Rus'. One way or another, the ambassadors were executed, and the campaign continued. A little later, the Tatar-Mongols sent a second embassy with a repeated request - this time they were released, but the campaign continued.

Battle of the Kalka River.

In the Azov region, somewhere in the territory of the present Donetsk region, a clash occurred, known in history as Battle of Kalka. Before this, the Russian princes defeated the vanguard of the Mongol-Tatars and, emboldened by their success, entered into battle near the river now known as Kalchik (which flows into the Kalmius). The exact number of troops on both sides is unknown. Russian historians call the number of Russians from 8 to 40 thousand, and the number of Mongols from 30 to 50 thousand. Asian chronicles talk about almost a hundred thousand Russians, which is not surprising (remember how Mao Zedong boasted that Stalin served him at a tea ceremony, although the Soviet leader only showed hospitality and handed him a mug of tea). Adequate historians, based on the fact that Russian princes usually gathered from 5 to 10 thousand soldiers on a campaign (maximum 15 thousand), came to the conclusion that there were about 10-12 thousand Russian troops, and about 15-25 thousand Tatar-Mongols ( Considering that Genghis Khan sent 30 thousand to the west, but some of them were defeated as part of the vanguard, as well as in previous battles with the Alans, Cumans, etc., plus a discount for the fact that not everyone available to the Mongols could have participated in the battle reserves).

So, the battle began on May 31, 1223. The beginning of the battle was successful for the Russians; Prince Daniil Romanovich defeated the advanced positions of the Mongols and rushed to pursue them, despite his injury. But then he encountered the main forces of the Mongol-Tatars. By that time, part of the Russian army had already managed to cross the river. The Mongol forces closed in and defeated the Russians and Cumans, while the rest of the Cuman forces fled. The rest of the Mongol-Tatar forces surrounded the troops of the Prince of Kyiv. The Mongols offered to surrender with the promise that then “no blood would be shed. Mstislav Svyatoslavovich fought the longest, who surrendered only on the third day of the battle. The Mongol leaders kept their promise extremely conditionally: they took all the ordinary soldiers into slavery, and executed the princes (as they promised - without shedding blood, they covered them with planks along which the entire Mongol-Tatar army marched in formation).

After this, the Mongols did not dare to go to Kyiv, and went to conquer the remnants of the Volga Bulgars, but the battle progressed unsuccessfully, and they retreated and returned to Genghis Khan. The Battle of the Kalka River was the beginning

1. In 1223 and in 1237 - 1240. Russian principalities were attacked by the Mongol-Tatars. The result of this invasion was the loss of independence by most of the Russian principalities and the Mongol-Tatar yoke that lasted for about 240 years - the political, economic and, in part, cultural dependence of the Russian lands on the Mongol-Tatar conquerors. The Mongol-Tatars are an alliance of numerous nomadic tribes in East and Central Asia. This union of tribes received its name from the name of the dominant tribe of the Mongols, and the most warlike and cruel tribe of the Tatars.

Tatars of the 13th century should not be confused with modern Tatars - descendants of the Volga Bulgars, who in the 13th century. Along with the Russians, they were subjected to the Mongol-Tatar invasion, but subsequently inherited the name.

At the beginning of the 13th century. under the rule of the Mongols, neighboring tribes were united, which formed the basis of the Mongol-Tatars:

- Chinese;

- Manchus;

- Uyghurs;

- Buryats;

- Transbaikal Tatars;

— other small nationalities of Eastern Siberia;

- subsequently - the peoples of Central Asia, the Caucasus and the Middle East.

The consolidation of the Mongol-Tatar tribes began at the end of the 12th - beginning of the 13th centuries. The significant strengthening of these tribes is associated with the activities of Genghis Khan (Temujin), who lived in 1152/1162 - 1227.

In 1206, at the kurultai (congress of the Mongolian nobility and military leaders), Genghis Khan was elected all-Mongolian kagan (“khan of khans”). With the election of Genghis Khan as kagan, the following significant changes occurred in the life of the Mongol tribe:

— strengthening the influence of the military elite;

- overcoming internal disagreements within the Mongolian nobility and its consolidation around military leaders and Genghis Khan;

- strict centralization and organization of Mongolian society (population census, unification of the mass of scattered nomads into paramilitary units - tens, hundreds, thousands, with a clear system of command and subordination);

- the introduction of strict discipline and collective responsibility (for disobedience to the commander - the death penalty; for the offenses of an individual soldier, the entire ten were punished);

- the use of scientific and technical achievements that were advanced for that time (Mongolian specialists studied methods of storming cities in China, and battering guns were also borrowed from China);

- a radical change in the ideology of Mongolian society, the subordination of the entire Mongolian people to a single goal - the unification of neighboring Asian tribes under the rule of the Mongols, and aggressive campaigns against other countries in order to enrich and expand the habitat.

Under Genghis Khan, a unified and binding written legislation was introduced for all - Yasa, violation of which was punishable by painful types of death penalty.

2. From 1211 and in the next 60 years, the Mongol-Tatar campaigns of conquest were carried out. Conquests were carried out in four main directions:

- conquest of Northern and Central China in 1211 - 1215;

- conquest of the states of Central Asia (Khiva, Bukhara, Khorezm) in 1219 - 1221;

- Batu’s campaign against the Volga region, Rus' and the Balkans in 1236 - 1242, the conquest of the Volga region and Russian lands;

- Kulagu Khan’s campaign in the Near and Middle East, the capture of Baghdad in 1258.

The empire of Genghis Khan and his descendants, stretching from China to the Balkans and from Siberia to the Indian Ocean and including Russian lands, lasted about 250 years and fell under the blows of other conquerors - Tamerlane (Timur), the Turks, as well as the liberation struggle of the conquered peoples.

3. The first armed clash between the Russian squad and the Mongol-Tatar army occurred 14 years before Batu’s invasion. In 1223, the Mongol-Tatar army under the command of Subudai-Baghatur went on a campaign against the Polovtsians in close proximity to Russian lands. At the request of the Polovtsians, some Russian princes provided military assistance to the Polovtsians.

On May 31, 1223, a battle took place between Russian-Polovtsian troops and Mongol-Tatars on the Kalka River near the Sea of ​​Azov. As a result of this battle, the Russian-Polovtsian militia suffered a crushing defeat from the Mongol-Tatars. The Russian-Polovtsian army suffered heavy losses. Six Russian princes died, including Mstislav Udaloy, the Polovtsian Khan Kotyan and more than 10 thousand militiamen.

The main reasons for the defeat of the Russian-Polish army were:

- the reluctance of the Russian princes to act as a united front against the Mongol-Tatars (most Russian princes refused to respond to the request of their neighbors and send troops);

- underestimation of the Mongol-Tatars (the Russian militia was poorly armed and was not properly prepared for battle);

— inconsistency of actions during the battle (Russian troops were not a single army, but scattered squads of different princes acting in their own way; some squads withdrew from the battle and watched from the sidelines).

Having won a victory on Kalka, the army of Subudai-Baghatur did not build on its success and went to the steppes.

4. After 13 years, in 1236, the Mongol-Tatar army led by Khan Batu (Batu Khan), the grandson of Genghis Khan and the son of Jochi, invaded the Volga steppes and Volga Bulgaria (the territory of modern Tataria). Having won a victory over the Cumans and Volga Bulgars, the Mongol-Tatars decided to invade Rus'.

The conquest of Russian lands was carried out during two campaigns:

- the campaign of 1237 - 1238, as a result of which the Ryazan and Vladimir-Suzdal principalities - the northeast of Rus' - were conquered;

- the campaign of 1239 - 1240, as a result of which the Chernigov and Kiev principalities and other principalities of southern Rus' were conquered. The Russian principalities offered heroic resistance. Among the most important battles of the war with the Mongol-Tatars are:

- defense of Ryazan (1237) - the very first large city to be attacked by the Mongol-Tatars - almost all residents participated and died during the defense of the city;

- defense of Vladimir (1238);

- defense of Kozelsk (1238) - the Mongol-Tatars stormed Kozelsk for 7 weeks, for which they called it the “evil city”;

- Battle of the City River (1238) - the heroic resistance of the Russian militia prevented the further advance of the Mongol-Tatars to the north - to Novgorod;

- defense of Kyiv - the city fought for about a month.

December 6, 1240 Kyiv fell. This event is considered the final defeat of the Russian principalities in the fight against the Mongol-Tatars.

The main reasons for the defeat of the Russian principalities in the war against the Mongol-Tatars are considered to be:

- feudal fragmentation;

— lack of a single centralized state and a unified army;

- enmity between princes;

- the transition of individual princes to the side of the Mongols;

- the technical backwardness of the Russian squads and the military and organizational superiority of the Mongol-Tatars.

5. Having won a victory over most of the Russian principalities (except for Novgorod and Galicia-Volyn), Batu’s army invaded Europe in 1241 and marched through the Czech Republic, Hungary and Croatia.

Having reached the Adriatic Sea, in 1242 Batu stopped his campaign in Europe and returned to Mongolia. The main reasons for the end of the Mongol expansion into Europe

— fatigue of the Mongol-Tatar army from the 3-year war with the Russian principalities;

- clash with the Catholic world under the rule of the Pope, who, like the Mongols, had a strong internal organization and became a strong competitor to the Mongols for more than 200 years;

- aggravation of the political situation within the empire of Genghis Khan (in 1242, Genghis Khan’s son and successor Ogedei, who became the all-Mongol Kagan after Genghis Khan, died, and Batu was forced to return to take part in the struggle for power).

Subsequently, at the end of the 1240s, Batu prepared a second invasion of Rus' (on the Novgorod land), but Novgorod voluntarily recognized the power of the Mongol-Tatars.

In 1237 - 1241 Russian lands were attacked by the Mongol Empire, a Central Asian state that conquered in the first half of the 13th century. a vast territory of the Eurasian continent from the Pacific Ocean to Central Europe. In Europe, the Mongols began to be called Tatars. This was the name of one of the Mongol-speaking tribes that roamed near the border with China. The Chinese transferred its name to all Mongolian tribes, and the name “Tatars” as a designation for the Mongols spread to other countries, although the Tatars themselves were almost completely exterminated during the creation of the Mongol Empire.

The term “Mongol-Tatars”, widespread in historical literature, is a combination of the self-name of the people with the term by which this people was designated by its neighbors. In 1206, at the kurultai - a congress of the Mongolian nobility - Temujin (Temuchin), who took the name of Genghis Khan, was recognized as the great khan of all Mongols. Over the next five years, Mongol troops, united by Genghis Khan, conquered the lands of their neighbors, and by 1215 they conquered Northern China. In 1221, the hordes of Genghis Khan defeated the main forces of Khorezm and conquered Central Asia.

Battle of Kalka.

The first clash of Ancient Rus' with the Mongols occurred in 1223, when a 30,000-strong Mongol detachment marched from Transcaucasia to the Black Sea steppes for reconnaissance purposes, defeating the Alans and Cumans. The Polovtsy, defeated by the Mongols, turned to the Russian princes for help. At their call, a united army led by the three strongest princes of Southern Rus' set out in the steppe: Mstislav Romanovich of Kyiv, Mstislav Svyatoslavich of Chernigov and Mstislav Metis-lavich of Galicia.

May 31, 1223 in the battle on the river. Kalka (near the Sea of ​​Azov), as a result of uncoordinated actions of its leaders, the allied Russian-Polovtsian army was defeated. Six Russian princes died, three, including the Kiev prince, were captured and brutally killed by the Mongols. The conquerors pursued the retreating right up to the Russian borders, and then turned back to the Central Asian steppes. Thus, for the first time in Rus', the military power of the Mongol hordes was felt.

Invasion of the Mongol-Tatars in Rus'.

After the death of the founder of the Mongol Empire, Genghis Khan (1227), according to his will, at the kurultai of the Mongol nobility in 1235, it was decided to begin an aggressive campaign against Europe. The grandson of Genghis Khan, Batu Khan (called Batu in Russian sources), was placed at the head of the united army of the Mongol Empire. The prominent Mongol commander Subedei, who participated in the Battle of Kalka, was appointed its first military commander.

Campaign to North-Eastern Rus' (1237 - 1238).

A year after the start of the campaign, having conquered Volga Bulgaria, the Polovtsian hordes between the Volga and Don rivers, the lands of the Burtases and Mordovians in the Middle Volga in the late autumn of 1237, Batu’s main forces concentrated in the upper reaches of the Voronezh River to invade North-Eastern Rus'.

The number of Batu's hordes, according to a number of researchers, reached 140 thousand soldiers, and the Mongols themselves numbered no more than 50 thousand people. At this time, the Russian princes could gather no more than 100 thousand soldiers from all lands, and the squads of the princes of North-Eastern Rus' amounted to no more than 1/3 of this number.

Inter-princely strife and strife in Rus' prevented the formation of a united Russian army. Therefore, the princes could only resist the Mongol invasion individually. In the winter of 1237, Batu's hordes ravaged the Ryazan principality, whose capital was burned and all its inhabitants exterminated. Following this, in January 1238, Mongol troops defeated the army of the Vladimir-Suzdal land near Kolomna, led by the son of the Grand Duke Vsevolod Yuryevich, captured Moscow, Suzdal, and on February 7 - Vladimir. On March 4, 1238, on the City River in the upper Volga, the army of Grand Duke Yuri Vsevolodich was defeated. The Grand Duke himself died in this battle.

After the capture of the “suburb” of Veliky Novgorod, Torzhok, which bordered the Suzdal land, the road to North-Western Rus' opened before the Mongol hordes. But the approach of the spring thaw and significant human losses forced the conquerors to turn back to the Polovtsian steppes. An unprecedented feat was accomplished by residents of the small town of Kozelsk on the river. Zhizdre. For seven weeks they held the defense of their city. After the capture of Kozelsk in May 1238, Batu ordered that this “evil city” be wiped off the face of the earth and all its inhabitants destroyed.

Batu spent the summer of 1238 in the Don steppes, restoring his strength for further campaigns. In the spring of 1239 he destroyed the Pereyaslavl principality, and in the fall the Chernigov-Seversk land was devastated.