Traditional crafts and folk crafts. Brief history of crafts

1) Craft- - handmade, mainly industrial products. Predominated before the advent of large machine industry. For R. we: simple tools, the decisive personal skill of the artisan, the nature of production. In a broad sense - professions.

2) Craft- - handmade industrial products for exchange or sale.

3) Craft- - handmade industrial products that existed before the advent of large machine industry (and partially survived along with it). For Russia we have: simple tools of labor, the decisive personal skill of the artisan, the nature of production (the artisan works alone or with a limited number of assistants).

4) Craft - manual industrial products with m simple tools. Craft depends on personal skill, but is not always equivalent to it. People said: “Craft is the patrimony, the craft of the breadwinner”, “Craft does not hang over your shoulders (does not burden you)”, “Craft is not a rocker, it will not weigh on your shoulders”, “Craft does not ask for drink, does not ask for food, but feeds it itself”, “Every craft honestly, except for theft”, “Know one craft and take care not to get overgrown with hops”, “Wine is not a friend to the craft.” The Russian peasant was not only a farmer. From time immemorial he was engaged in various crafts, which gave him a good income. “We don’t live without a trade,” the peasants said. Without exaggeration, this phenomenon can be called a peasant craft industry, the activity of which developed, as a rule, after agricultural work was completed, and its range was unusually wide. In the northern provinces, wood processing industries were especially developed. The peasants smoked resin, built wooden ships, cut wooden dishes, spinning wheels and many other things they needed. Much depended on the location. In Olonets province. carpentry, carriage, and tar trades were found everywhere in the villages. In the Kargopol and Vytegorsk districts, peasants were known as good potters, but were also engaged in tailoring, shoemaking and blacksmithing. Perm peasants in Verkhotursky district. were engaged in the manufacture of furniture, and in Krasnoufimskoye - the production of agricultural implements. In Shenkursky district Arkhangelsk province. - leather and sheepskin industry, in Novoladozhsky district. Petersburg province. - manufacturing of wooden utensils, as well as the production of fishing gear and ship accessories. In Vyatka province. - carpentry crafts, making toys, famous throughout Russia, weaving. However, weaving was widely developed among all Russian peasant women. In Central Russia, closer to the Volga, in particular in the Nizhny Novgorod province, peasants were engaged in spoon-making, nail-making and fulling crafts, in the Simbirsk province. - making products from forest materials, in Saratov - wheel, carriage and shoe making, and also worked with a potter's wheel. In Orenburg province. They made numerous products from goat down - primarily the famous Orenburg shawls, shawls, and scarves. In addition, they produced leather, felted felt boots, and wove carpets. In Astrakhan province. peasants made cloth, and exclusively on homemade weaving mills (it was very cheap - 9-15 kopecks per arshin). And the peasants of this province were even great craftsmen in making mittens, stockings and socks. An extraordinary variety of peasant crafts could be seen in the Moscow and adjacent provinces. In Volokolamsk district. the peasants were famous for the production of gauze and woven blankets, gold leaf, carpentry and flower crafts, in Zvenigorod - for the production of violins and guitars, carpentry, metalwork, weaving, as well as brush crafts, in Gorokhovetsky district. Vladimir province. - knitting wares and stitching linen, in Likhvinsky district. Kaluga province. - making locks and locksmith work, in Skopinsky and Mikhailovsky districts of the Ryazan province. - lace-making, embroidery, ceramic crafts, woodworking, carriage and rope crafts, in Yegoryevsk and Spassky - making bags and matting. However, the matting industry, as well as weaving, was developed throughout peasant Russia. O. Platonov

5) Craft- - handmade industrial products, for which but household, simple tools. In a craft, the personal skill of the artisan and the nature of production are decisive - the artisan works either alone or with a very small number of assistants.

6) Craft- - handmade industrial products, which dominated before the advent of large machine industry and survived along with it. The history of crafts dates back to the beginning of human production. In the conditions of the primitive communal form of organization of people's lives, home crafts dominated (production of products from stone, wood, bone, pottery, etc.). With the transition of mankind to an agricultural-pastoral economy and a sedentary way of life, when craft technology became more complex and new branches of production appeared, there was a emergence of artisans specially engaged in some type of craft. This was the first step towards separating crafts from agriculture, which gave a great impetus to the development of handicraft production. With the emergence of professional urban crafts, a new social stratum appears - urban artisans, who played an important role in the development of society. In Kievan Rus already in the 12th century. More than 40 craft specialties were known (carpenters, coopers, joiners, icon painters, shoemakers, etc.). However, the process of development of crafts in the 13th century. in most Russian lands it was interrupted by the Horde yoke and began to resume only after liberation from it. But in the specific conditions of the formation of the Russian centralized state, the process of forming an association of artisans in organizations, unlike Western Europe, did not develop. Basically, the craft was concentrated in the estates of landowners-boyars, in state-owned urban settlements. During the 16th century. In the country, the number of craft specialties in the processing of metal, leather, wood, etc. sharply increased, and an increasing number of products were produced for the market. Intensive development of small-scale production in the 17th century. largely paved the way for economic transformations in the first quarter of the 18th century. Moreover, handicraft production coexisted with the manufacturing industry. In the 18th century crafts appeared that duplicated manufactories. Handicraft production of the 18th - early 19th centuries. in Russia, in terms of the form of labor organization, it often acted as a decentralized manufactory. In the 19th century In connection with the agricultural overpopulation in the country, handicraft industry (crafts) in the countryside became widely developed. In general, the development of machine production led to a decrease in the share of handicraft products in the total mass of goods on the market.

Synonyms: craft, specialty, handicraft

Craft

Small hand-made production, mainly industrial products. Predominated before the advent of large machine industry. R. is characterized by: the use of simple tools, the decisive importance of the personal skill of the artisan, and the individual nature of production. In a broad sense, it is synonymous with profession.

Small hand production of industrial products for exchange or sale.

Small-scale manual production of industrial products that existed before the advent of large-scale machine industry (and partially survived along with it). Characteristic for Russia are: the use of simple tools, the decisive importance of the personal skill of the artisan, the individual nature of production (the artisan works alone or with a limited number of assistants).

small-scale manual production of industrial products using simple tools. Craft depends on personal skill, but is not always equivalent to it. People said: “Craft is the patrimony, the craft of the breadwinner”, “Craft does not hang over your shoulders (does not burden you)”, “Craft is not a rocker, it will not weigh on your shoulders”, “Craft does not ask for drink, does not ask for food, but feeds it itself”, “Every craft honestly, except for theft”, “Know one craft and take care not to get overgrown with hops”, “Wine is not a friend to the craft.” The Russian peasant was not only a farmer. From time immemorial he was engaged in various crafts, which gave him a good income. “We don’t live without a trade,” the peasants said. Without exaggeration, this phenomenon can be called a peasant craft industry, the activity of which developed, as a rule, after agricultural work was completed, and its range was unusually wide. In the northern provinces, wood processing industries were especially developed. The peasants smoked resin, built wooden ships, cut wooden dishes, spinning wheels and many other things they needed. Much depended on the location. In Olonets province. carpentry, carriage, and tar trades were found everywhere in the villages. In the Kargopol and Vytegorsk districts, peasants were known as good potters, but were also engaged in tailoring, shoemaking and blacksmithing. Perm peasants in Verkhotursky district. were engaged in the manufacture of furniture, and in Krasnoufimskoye - the production of agricultural implements. In Shenkursky district Arkhangelsk province. - leather and sheepskin industry, in Novoladozhsky district. Petersburg province. - manufacturing of wooden utensils, as well as the production of fishing gear and ship accessories. In Vyatka province. - carpentry crafts, making toys, famous throughout Russia, weaving. However, weaving was widely developed among all Russian peasant women. In Central Russia, closer to the Volga, in particular in the Nizhny Novgorod province, peasants were engaged in spoon-making, nail-making and fulling crafts, in the Simbirsk province. - making products from forest materials, in Saratov - wheel, carriage and shoe making, and also worked with a potter's wheel. In Orenburg province. They made numerous products from goat down - primarily the famous Orenburg shawls, shawls, and scarves. In addition, they produced leather, felted felt boots, and wove carpets. In Astrakhan province. peasants made cloth, and exclusively on homemade weaving mills (it was very cheap - 9-15 kopecks per arshin). And the peasants of this province were even great craftsmen in making mittens, stockings and socks. An extraordinary variety of peasant crafts could be seen in the Moscow and adjacent provinces. In Volokolamsk district. the peasants were famous for the production of gauze and woven blankets, gold leaf, carpentry and flower crafts, in Zvenigorod - for the production of violins and guitars, carpentry, metalwork, weaving, as well as brush crafts, in Gorokhovetsky district. Vladimir province. - knitting wares and stitching linen, in Likhvinsky district. Kaluga province. - making locks and locksmith work, in Skopinsky and Mikhailovsky districts of the Ryazan province. - lace-making, embroidery, ceramic crafts, woodworking, carriage and rope crafts, in Yegoryevsk and Spassky - making bags and matting. However, the matting industry, as well as weaving, was developed throughout peasant Russia. O. Platonov

Small-scale manual production of industrial products, which are characterized by the use of household, simple tools. In a craft, the personal skill of the artisan and the individual nature of production are of decisive importance - the artisan works either alone or with a very small number of assistants.

Small-scale manual production of industrial products, which dominated before the advent of large-scale machine industry and survived along with it. The history of crafts dates back to the beginning of human production. In the conditions of the primitive communal form of organization of people's lives, home crafts dominated (production of products from stone, wood, bone, pottery, etc.). With the transition of mankind to an agricultural-pastoral economy and a sedentary way of life, when craft technology became more complex and new branches of production appeared, there was a emergence of artisans specially engaged in some type of craft. This was the first step towards separating crafts from agriculture, which gave a great impetus to the development of handicraft production. With the emergence of professional urban crafts, a new social stratum appears - urban artisans, who played an important role in the development of society. In Kievan Rus already in the 12th century. More than 40 craft specialties were known (carpenters, coopers, joiners, icon painters, shoemakers, etc.). However, the process of development of crafts in the 13th century. in most Russian lands it was interrupted by the Horde yoke and began to resume only after liberation from it. But in the specific conditions of the formation of the Russian centralized state, the process of forming an association of artisans in organizations, unlike Western Europe, did not develop. Basically, the craft was concentrated in the estates of landowners-boyars, in state-owned urban settlements. During the 16th century. In the country, the number of craft specialties in the processing of metal, leather, wood, etc. sharply increased, and an increasing number of products were produced for the market. Intensive development of small-scale production in the 17th century. largely paved the way for economic transformations in the first quarter of the 18th century. Moreover, handicraft production coexisted with the manufacturing industry. In the 18th century crafts appeared that duplicated manufactories. Handicraft production of the 18th - early 19th centuries. in Russia, in terms of the form of labor organization, it often acted as a decentralized manufactory. In the 19th century In connection with the agricultural overpopulation in the country, handicraft industry (crafts) in the countryside became widely developed. In general, the development of machine production led to a decrease in the share of handicraft products in the total mass of goods on the market.

Ushakov's Dictionary

Craft

craft, crafts, pl. crafts, Wed Work that requires special skills to make some products by hand, in an artisanal way. Shoemaking craft. Furrier craft. Bookbinding craft.

| trans. Profession, occupation. “It occurred to the toothy pike to take up the cat’s craft.” Krylov.

Modern economic dictionary. 1999

CRAFT

1) small-scale, predominantly manual production of goods, requiring considerable skill;

2) mastery of the art of making certain types of things, having a corresponding profession.

The medieval world in terms, names and titles

Craft

small-scale commercial production of industrial products, based on the labor of an artisan and manual technology. There was no division of labor in the craft workshop; production was individual in nature. Craftsmen either worked at home, in a workshop, or went to customers’ houses and worked for them (for example, a cooper, a grinder, etc.). With the development of commodity production, artisans also began to work for the market.

Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language

Craft

The craft doesn’t hang behind you- the craft does not burden or burden a person

Reference Commercial Dictionary (1926)

Encyclopedia of Judaism

Craft

(Mlaha)

"Mlakha" - occupation, labor, craft. Khazal* glorified the occupation of R. Said R. Shim"on ben Elazar: "...even Adam, the first man, did not taste anything in life until he took up a craft, as it is said: "... and [the Lord] placed it in the Garden of Eden to cultivate it and keep it ". And only after this is it said: “...you may eat from every tree of the garden.” Said R. Tarfon: “The All-Holy One, blessed be He, did not overshadow Israel with His grace until they took up R., for it is said: “And they will build Me a Sanctuary, and I will dwell among them” (Icx.XXV, 8).

Days when practicing R. is prohibited: Saturday, holidays, Passover eve* (afternoon).

The craftsman who received the work at home is responsible for it and is obliged to pay if the item is stolen. If the product is completed and announced to the customer, the artisan is not responsible for the theft.

If a craftsman receives a thing to be repaired and damages it, he is obliged to compensate the owner for the loss. If a craftsman received wood from a customer to make a casket and broke the casket, he is obliged to pay its cost. A craftsman who makes or repairs a product is its co-owner until he receives payment for his work.

A clerk who made mistakes in a document; a teacher who did not teach a student anything or taught incorrectly, and a craftsman who damaged a product and did not compensate for the loss, can be removed from work without warning (Shulchan Aruch).

Mitzvah* - pay an employee on time; It is a sin to be late with payment.

Dictionary of economic terms

Craft

1) small-scale, predominantly manual production of goods, requiring considerable skill;

2) mastery of the art of making certain types of things, having a corresponding profession.

Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language (Alabugina)

Craft

A, m.

Professional occupation, making products by hand.

* Blacksmith craft. *

|| adj. artisan, oh, oh.

* Craft work. *

♦ Take up an old craft . Return to the unseemly old deeds.

Thesaurus of Russian business vocabulary

Craft

Syn: occupation, profession, specialty

encyclopedic Dictionary

Craft

small-scale manual production of industrial products, which dominated before the advent of large-scale machine industry (and then partially survived along with it). The craft is characterized by: the decisive importance of the personal skill of the artisan, the individual nature of production (the artisan works alone or with a limited number of assistants).

Ozhegov's Dictionary

CRAFT ABOUT, A, pl. crafts, sat, slam, Wed

1. Professional occupation of making products by hand, in an artisanal way.

2. In general, profession, occupation (colloquial). Secrets of the writing craft.

Take up an old craft(colloquial disapproval) return to previous unseemly deeds and actions.

| adj. craft, oh, oh (to 1 value).

Efremova's Dictionary

Craft

1. Wed
   1. Work requiring special skills to produce something. products by hand, in an artisanal way.
   2. trans. Work without creative initiative, according to the established template.
   3. :
      1. Profession, occupation.
      2. What kind of occupation, business.

Encyclopedia of Brockhaus and Efron

Craft

1. Craft(Handwerk, mé tier, handicraft) is a system of production in the manufacturing industry in which a manufacturer creates exchange values, usually to order and for a limited local market, with the participation of persons belonging to the same social class. From R. must be distinguished on the one hand homemade or artisanal a production system in which its producer, being also the owner of the instruments of production, creates at home, from his own or someone else’s material, at a certain price or for a certain reward, objects of mass consumption, with the complicity of members of his family and sometimes strangers, at a relatively a vast and unknown market, and on the other hand - factory a production system in which a person, physical or legal, being the owner of all material factors of production, attracts outsiders to create consumer goods in special premises, for a certain fee, using, in most cases, machines and consistently implementing the principle of division of labor. In real life, we see, moreover, a number of intermediate production systems that do not fit into a specific scheme. Production can retain its craft character when working on a foreign side or at home, not on order, but on stock, with the use of machines (motors of various kinds) and with the sale of works from a special trading premises, often even along with items of factory origin. Other artisans work for a certain large entrepreneur, involving their household members in the work. The impossibility of accurately distinguishing existing production systems explains the purely mechanical method of defining these systems, which is practiced in many Western European countries and consists of classifying industrial establishments into one category or another depending on the number of workers they employ. The latest laws usually do not provide definitions of R. The experience of our charter on the craft industry, defining crafts as “occupations whose object is the processing of things through manual work” (Article 273), should also be considered unsuccessful. The only attribute established here - manual work - is completely obscured when compared, in the 2nd article of the Charter on the factory and plant industry (ed. 1893), a craft establishment with a factory: “manufactures, factories and factories differ from crafts in that they have V large view establishments and cars; artisans do not have them, except for hand-held machines and tools." The new provision on the state trade tax establishes a number of external and internal criteria for determining the degree of profitability of an enterprise, without taking into account the specified definitions of R. and factory.

2. Already in the ancient world there are the beginnings of craft activity, manifested in the processing of known objects, mostly at the home of the owner of the material and by the hands of slaves. We have evidence from Homer about this nature of handicraft labor in Greece. Given the contempt of the Greeks for craft labor, which was recognized as unworthy of a free person, labor, as a permanent professional activity, was the work of a very limited contingent of people, not counting the metoiki and slaves who were part of the house (οίκος). Some crafts in Greece, however, rose to a high level, despite the use of the simplest tools and tools. Over time, consumer goods became widespread not only for luxury goods, but also for satisfying the everyday needs of the lower classes of the population. Already in Greece, artisans sometimes experienced competition from relatively large industries that arose from the middle of the 5th century BC. In general, handicraft production was of the same nature in Rome. Given the existence of isolated, closed farms that satisfied their needs through the specialization of slave labor, there was no basis in Rome for the development of labor as a free professional activity; in the absence of a contingent of people who would constantly need the products of other people's labor and would be able to pay for them, Roman artisans (artifices) had to fill the ranks of the proletarians. Only with the availability of certain property that served as a source of income (usually a small plot of land) could an artisan live comfortably and earn extra income by fulfilling random orders. With the formation of large estates, which absorbed a significant part of the small land plots, artisans, whose ranks were mainly replenished by freedmen, had to look for work on the side and perform it at the customer’s home.

3. As a system for the production of exchange values, serving as a source of livelihood for a significant part of the urban population, trade gained its significance only in the Middle Ages. Its history in England, which, earlier than the continental states, and, moreover, depending only on the growth of its own economic forces, passed through all the phases of industrial development known to us, is especially instructive. Having arisen, as on the continent, in the depths of family production, agriculture developed and strengthened in England already in the Anglo-Saxon period and in the 11th century, thanks to the rapid growth of cities, it became an important factor in the economic life of the British. Designed to satisfy the needs of a certain circle of consumers, it provided everyone who had undergone a certain school of training with a sure source of existence, and society with the appropriate contingent of people who produced good-quality objects. During the Norman period, the requirements that must be met by those engaged in handicrafts and the handicraft products themselves were regulated in some detail, and public authority control over the work of artisans was established. The period of dominance of the craft production system lasted until the end of the 16th century. The craft statute of 1562 dates back to this time: “An Act containing divers Orders for Artifices, Labourers, Servants of Husbandry and Apprentices,” which sets itself the task of coordinating the interests of masters, their apprentices and apprentices and, without retreating even before forced labor free poor citizens, to counteract the spirit of exclusivity among the craft class. R.'s seven-year training, the exact determination of the number of hours of work and the amount of remuneration of apprentices, the establishment, in the interests of the latter, of a known relationship between them and the number of students - these were the most important measures taken during the reign of Elizabeth. The free development of the state, in the absence of devastating enemy attacks, the length of the coastline, the abundance of navigable rivers, the enterprise and energy of the British - all this led to the expansion of the market for which R. worked, and to the preparation of a large form of production. The combination of these reasons explains the emergence of capitalist enterprises already in the 2nd half of the 15th century. Russia soon felt their economic strength, and requests for protection were heard from artisans. Already in 1555, a law was passed that allowed cloth makers outside cities and towns to own only one loom, cloth weavers outside the cities - only two machines, and completely forbade fullers from possessing them. Weavers, who were required to work on no more than 2 looms, had the right to keep only 2 students, with the obligatory observance of the seven-year training period. The purpose of this law was to help the artisan, who was already experiencing the burden of competition from the capitalist. In cloth making, however, already in the second half of the 16th century. The home system of large-scale production was firmly established. By the middle of the 17th century, in many branches of weaving production, the master handed over the half-finished product to a regular buyer, who, for his part, hired special workers for final processing. Aikin, in “Description of the country round Manchester” (L., 1795), reports that children were also involved in such work. Soon after its development into a domestic production system, clothmaking began to unite scattered workers under one roof. At the beginning of the 17th century. there are manufactories with hundreds of looms. Gradually, R. is losing its dominance in the production of wool, linen, plush, silk, hemp, hosiery, thread, iron, leather, hats, hats, felt, jewelry, watchmaking, etc. At the same time, the rules on the terms of training have lost their force. the number of students, remuneration rates, etc. In 1719, a petition was submitted to the House of Commons to repeal various laws that prevented an increase in the size of production. Cloth factories were set up in different places (Halifax, Leeds, etc.), against which the artisans waged a fierce attack. There were also attempts on the part of the latter to organize the sale of products on a broader basis (for this purpose, the establishment of cloth galleries in Leeds). All this did not prevent the victory of the big capitalists. At the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th centuries. artisans and handicraftsmen, mistaking the effect for the cause, directed their indignation against machines, the introduction of which was accompanied by a number of strong unrest (see Machines). The Clothier Institution demanded that the factories be banned and threatened to burn them down. There was also agitation in favor of the renewal of the old craft system and mandatory compliance with its norms. Despite various restrictions, cars paved the way for themselves. The decisive moment in this regard was the introduction of machines in cotton spinning, which prepared for their triumph in weaving.

4. On the continent, with the weaker and slower development of economic forces, agriculture, as a special production system, emerged much later, when England had already moved from it to other, higher economic forms. Continental countries, therefore, did not have to completely go through that difficult process of successive transition from one system of production to another, which took place in England as a result of its early economic and cultural progress. The use of England's great inventions in the field of transportation and production technology allowed economically lagging countries to take rapid steps towards creating consumer goods and becoming active participants in global commodity exchange. Typical in this regard is the example of Germany. Before the great migration of peoples, there was hardly any other form of processing of objects other than what usually took place within the family or clan. Later, especially after the final establishment of the feudal system, a special class of people appeared, in the person of slaves and serfs, devoting themselves exclusively to the processing of objects obtained by other subjects of the feudal owner. They are also joined by the owners of land plots, who became dependent on the feudal owner for the sake of using his protection. To fulfill their labor duties, they also had to work in the workshops of the feudal owner or in the women's department of his house, producing various items necessary for the household. Ancient German acts mention household blacksmiths, foundry workers, tailors, shoemakers, carpenters, carpenters, gold and silversmiths, etc. Technical advances contributed to the formation of a special class among the quitrents who lived on their own land, which from generation to generation began to cultivate specific branch of the manufacturing industry. Over time, feudal owners began to allow their serf artisans to perform, for a fee, work commissioned by various individuals. With the gradual weakening of feudal dependence, such workers began to approach free artisans who lived in communities and worked exclusively for their own benefit. The development of cities contributed to the development of Russia, which, in turn, strengthened the foundations of urban life. At first, city dwellers continue to engage in agriculture, but the center of gravity shifts more and more to the manufacturing industry. A lively exchange ensues between the city and surrounding places. Fairs and markets enable the peasant to sell his surplus products to the townspeople, receiving from the latter what he could not do at home himself. The feudal owners sought to ensure that such urban centers arose on their lands, and did not prevent their unfree artisans from acquiring freedom here. The opportunity to process other people's materials at the customer's home (auf die St ö r gehen) served as an attractive force for anyone who wanted free independent activity. From the 12th century artisans begin to acquire the importance of an independent industrial class in the cities. General improvements in production processes and techniques increased the wealth of this class. Craftsmen are provided with benefits for the acquisition of city land property, exemption from taxes and duties, transportation of products, etc. With the development of industrial technology, cities become the main or even exclusive suppliers of industrial products. The economic position of artisans is strengthening. Already in the 14th century. Quite noticeable signs of capitalization appear in Russia. Working capital is beginning to play a fairly prominent role. The master begins to receive not only remuneration for his work, but also a special income as the head of a craft establishment. Personal participation in the work ceases to be an indispensable responsibility of the craftsmen; they are more interested in public affairs, limiting themselves to supervising the work of apprentices. The chances and hopes of apprentices to become independent masters decrease significantly over time; hence their struggle with the masters and partly with the city government (see Journeyman). In the 17th century We meet with large enterprises for that time, which, without encroaching on the handicraft production system, are trying to expand the sales market. The artisan begins to work not only for sales in a given city, but also in other areas. At the same time, it loses its basic character. By the middle of the 18th century. R.'s technique ceases to develop; The economic situation of artisans is deteriorating. Many leave their occupations or combine them with agricultural work, as hired laborers. In many districts, a significant surplus of workers is formed, despite the illegal denial of access to the workshop organization for many (see Workshop). New needs arise in society, satisfied by resettled foreigners. In Berlin, for example, the French introduced a number of new industries (in 1690 there were about 43 of them). This fully corresponded to the views of the government, which tried, through various measures (granting the right of citizenship and the title of master, exemption from duties for several years, supply of construction materials, etc.), to attract foreigners. Along with this, governments (in Prussia, Saxony, Austria, etc.) provided support to those sectors of national production that were of a handicraft-manufacturing nature, for example, the weaving and iron-making industries. And in Germany, it was not the introduction of machines, but the desire to create products for an unknown market that took away from Russia the “golden soil” that it had under the dominance of urban farming. In 1787, the first steam engine was brought from England to Germany; others soon followed and gave a powerful impetus to the development of large-scale production. In the 19th century, under the influence of the rapid growth of improved communications and the formation of the German customs union, Germany entered a phase of capitalist development that England had gone through in the last century. All this inevitably had to affect the position of artisans. Some of their groups benefited from the changing conditions of economic life and trade, but many paid for their independence. When, in the forties, a trade crisis broke out in Germany, many artisans found themselves in a hopeless situation; The so-called artisan movement (Handwerkerbewegung) began, which continues to this day. Limiting the number of craftsmen in one point or another, prohibiting peddling sales, assigning all artisans working in factories to a craft association, limiting the activities of each person to one R., granting only members of a craft association the right to petty sale of handicraft products, prohibiting joining a union with persons who do not belong to it, the prohibition of state, public and joint-stock craft workshops, the cessation of the assignment of work at public auction to persons offering the lowest price, and its replacement by the distribution of work through the industrial council, the prohibition of using the services of more than two apprentices, the imposition of taxes on factories the benefit of the craft, the introduction of compulsory training for all, wandering, theoretical and practical examinations - these are the main requirements of the artisans' program, from which, however, one or another group makes concessions from time to time.

5. In Russia, with the weak development of urban centers and their insignificant cultural significance, in pre-Petrine times there was almost completely no soil for the emergence and development of R., just as there is none now, under similar conditions, in a number of other states (southern Slavic, Scandinavian, Hungary, Romania, etc.). Back in the first quarter of the 18th century. Our urban population was considered to be only 328 thousand people, that is, only 3%; and in most cities, which arose solely to satisfy military needs, the population was in no way different from purely rural ones, and industries played the same secondary, auxiliary role as in rural settlements. Only a few cities - Arkhangelsk, Astrakhan, Moscow, Novgorod, Pskov - became centers of true urban life and commercial and industrial turnover. With an extremely small number of urban settlements, a system of production to order and for a specific consumer could not develop. Each family satisfied its simple needs on its own. Only princes and churches needed objects that required special art and technical perfection. Already from the 10th century. the princes called on foreign craftsmen (from Byzantium and then German countries) to satisfy the needs of the court and church for luxury goods, the production of which was inaccessible to Russian artisans. Just as the Russian artisans’ work technique was imperfect, so was their socio-economic position. Despite their limited number, despite their ownership of land, our ancient artisans were often deprived of the means of subsistence and were forced, during their free time from agricultural activities, to wander in search of consumers, going in whole “bands” to the busiest points. Along with these wandering artisans, Russia has also known handicrafts since ancient times. Many villagers produced items of low technical quality, which they sold to one specific buyer (a neighboring peasant or a traveling merchant); the latter, in turn, sold these products not to individual consumers, but to a wealthy merchant who, living in a shopping center, controlled the sales market. Fairs have become the most important channels for the movement of these products. The development of this production system was facilitated in the 17th century by restrictions on freedom of movement and a general deterioration in the economic situation of the peasantry. The increase in the density of the population, which has now become more sedentary, began to provide more than before the opportunity to use the processing of objects as a source of income. Depending on local conditions, centers for the processing of wool, flax, hemp, wood, iron, pottery, glove making, furriers, shoe making, etc. are created. Handicraft production, like factory production, from the time of Peter the Great was introduced in our country by government measures that cared about improving technology R., about the spread of craft training, about the introduction of some new R. These concerns did not have the same consequences as the government's encouragement of the factory industry. This is explained by the fact that for manufacturing and factory production a permanent buyer was found in the person of the state itself, and handicraft production was left to its own devices in finding consumers, who continued to make up an insignificant part of the urban population. The absolute number of the urban population was 802 thousand (3.1%) in 1782, 1301 thousand (4.1%) in 1796, 1653 thousand (4%) in 1812, - 3025 thousand (5.8%), in 1851 - 3482 (7.8%), in 1870 - 6091 thousand (9.2%), in 1890 - 13948 thousand (12 .8%), in 1897 - 16,289 thousand (12.8%). In the mistaken assumption that European cities achieved their development and high importance thanks to the proper organization of the classes of the urban population, Peter the Great and his successors attached particular importance to the organization of the craft class and the introduction of the guild system. Meanwhile, a significant part of Russian cities, not really representing the centers of urban life, could not serve as a basis for the development of the handicraft industry, which even now plays a relatively modest role in our country. In 1896, there were only 36,772 craft establishments; the number of occupied hands is unknown with certainty. Judging by the memorial books published by the provincial statistical committees, there are very few provinces where the craft class (as, for example, in Kyiv) would exceed the figure of 100,000 people. In many provinces, such as Nizhny Novgorod, it is expressed in several thousand and rarely exceeds the first ten thousand. Comparing this with the fact that, according to information collected by the economic department of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, a complete guild system exists only in 71 cities, and a simplified one in 37, while in all the rest the craft system does not exist at all, one cannot help but admit that R. continues and still occupy a secondary place in the field of small-scale production. The burning question of the fate of the latter is explained by the fact that it also includes handicraft production, which employs 4-4½ million people.

6. Although Russia has lost its dominant role in economically strong states, it does not cease to serve today as a source of livelihood for a significant part of the population. Having ceded some categories of productive processes to large-scale production (for example, the production of objects from fibrous substances), R. continues to wage a stubborn struggle with it in a number of others and firmly retains some positions in the creation of exchange values. Nowadays, the consumer wants, whenever possible, to immediately have items that can serve to satisfy his needs. Hence the desire to avoid orders, which, in addition, are associated with risk. In the finished product, the consumer sees in advance the item he is looking for and is ready, as a result, to give up requirements of a purely individual nature. Hence the general possibility of mass production, the products of which, being cheap and easily transportable, can penetrate into wide sections of the population. These same qualities pave the way for them into the circle of the wealthy class, especially when they satisfy rapidly changing needs (for example, in fashion items). R., as production for a specific consumer, finds the basis for development only in cities, thanks to the concentration in them of a permanent contingent of consumers and the availability of a reliable sales market. Large-scale production deprives R., in some cases, of the initial processing of the material, since it, requiring a large expenditure of physical effort, encourages the introduction of machine production (for example, a carpenter receives ready-made door and window frames). Using semi-finished products, a craftsman can put a larger number of pieces into final processing and earn an amount no less than what he previously received from processing a whole object. But purchasing a manufactured product requires certain working capital. Regardless of the introduction of a certain capitalist element into the craft production itself, this fact also has the important significance that the initial factory processing of an object deprives a certain contingent of artisans of the opportunity to have a reliable source of livelihood. Entire branches of one or another industry are moving into the area of ​​large-scale production (a locksmith does not make locks, a coppersmith does not make vessels, a brush maker does not make toothbrushes, etc.). The emergence of new types of raw materials also contributes to the expansion of large-scale production at the expense of craft (competition of gutta-percha with leather, enamelware with clay, iron wire with hemp rope, new silver with copper, brass, silver vessels, etc.). d.). To this should be added the benefits from the disposal and processing - possible only with a large scale of production - of various so-called waste ("waste", "knop", oil residues, etc.), as well as the combination of representatives of several R. into one institution to create any whole product, carried out on the initiative and with the help of a representative of large capital (for example, basket makers, carpenters, saddle makers, mechanics, blacksmiths and carriage makers - in one carriage factory). The involvement of individual artisans for permanent special work in factories has a heavy impact on other representatives of this industry, who are deprived of loyal customers. It is now difficult to point out a significant factory in Russia that would not have, for example, its own metalworking workshop; many even set up several workshops, the running of which is entrusted to persons in the same position as factory workers. The economic strength and dominance of R. was reflected, to a certain extent, by the final triumph in the industrial legislation of various European countries of the principle of freedom of trade: it significantly contributed to increased competition in the ranks of small producers and the undermining of the foundations of their well-being. It does not follow from this, however, that production in all its forms will have to give way to factory production. There are industries where R. can find an application rather than large-scale production. There is a huge number of objects and works that must be manufactured or performed at separate, quite numerous points and in small quantities. The most important of these branches of labor are food preparation and construction crafts. Limited sales, the need to manufacture an item close to the consumer, the repetition of needs from day to day or at certain periods of the year counteract the dominance of large-scale industry here. Its attempts to create a source of mass consumption by making portable houses are unlikely to interfere with the existence of a significant contingent of masons, plasterers and other artisans involved in the construction of various structures. Glaziers, painters and many other artisans also have no reason to fear factory competition. R. occupies a prominent place where it satisfies individual requirements and personal tastes. Factory production tailored to needs average person; elegance is primarily a matter of craft, and the art industry tends to preserve the craft character of production. Luxury goods are rarely made in factories the way an artisan can. In France, for example, products made of bone, horn, and wood (the so-called “articles de Paris”), produced in huge quantities, still occupy a huge number of hands, not only maintaining, but even expanding their dominance in this area. R. even seems to be winning back an area that was considered completely lost to him (artistic blacksmithing, plumbing, pottery, etc.). Some branches of handicraft production, due to the predominance of artistic elements in them, provide a means of subsistence for a significant number of people in the woodworking, paper, leather and even weaving industries. Moreover, many artisans find work not in creating new objects, but in altering and repairing existing ones. The production of a huge number of low-quality items also increases the number of repairs. A number of R., crowded in big cities, moved their activities to small towns and even large villages, where they find enough consumers. In Germany, more than half of the artisans live in such settlements. Habit and routine also help to maintain the scope of craft work. Finally, large-scale production often creates conditions that increase the need for handicraft labor (such, for example, in Russia is the influence of the oil industry on the development of cooperage). New conditions of cultural life and technology have left their mark on R., which must adapt to them in order to defend its existence. The craftsman began to work not only to order, but also to stock, trying to expand his sales market beyond the local area. He also strives for a division of labor between apprentices or workers in general. He specializes in the manufacture of one or some of those items that are included in his R. Hence the emergence of new independent categories of artisans who raised R. to a fairly significant height of perfection (in bookbinding, carpentry, tinsmithing, etc.). Some artisans began to use gas, kerosene, electric and other low-power engines. Many people are trying to open their own stores. The master wants to receive remuneration not only for work, but also for organizing production, as well as interest on capital. The modern artisan is no stranger to speculation.

7. The important role played in state life by the middle class of the population entails the obligation to facilitate the utilization of the economic gains of modern times by artisans. Hence the desire for a rational organization of technical, general and even commercial education of artisans. Special craft schools, workshops, museums and exhibitions should equip the artisan with the necessary amount of knowledge and practical experience. An invaluable service in this regard can be provided by schools aimed at raising artistic taste and developing artistic skills. The experience of a number of countries, especially Germany, has proven that the craft production system, in those industries where the above conditions for its application are present, can successfully compete with large production. The need to work largely for stock requires the artisan to be able to draw up accounts, keep books, present cost estimates (when accepting a contract), etc. General education, in connection with at least the elementary principles of commercial knowledge, is equally important therefore, for a craftsman, as well as a special craft education. Given the extremely unsatisfactory results of the apprenticeship system, the state and local public authorities are left with the responsibility of creating a network of vocational schools. Next to them, in view of the rapid growth of technology, various additional classes for adults should be established. Another important means of helping the craft is the wide organization of partnerships pursuing a wide variety of economic goals. In order to work on stock and buy semi-processed objects, it is necessary to have a certain amount of capital. The spread of small credit institutions, close and accessible to small producers, therefore acquires paramount importance. The life of artisans should be organized on such corporate principles that they could easily satisfy their most diverse needs. Credit partnerships are of particular importance; Along with them, raw materials and warehouse partnerships are needed, which give artisans the opportunity to both buy and sell under the most favorable conditions. The formation of partnerships can also facilitate the introduction of machines into the artisan’s workshop. A number of inventions in the field of using gas, water, warm air, and electrical energy for the use of small machines make it easier for industrial production to compete with large-scale production, although for the latter the use of each unit of this or that energy is many times cheaper (from 2 to 3.7 times).

8. Consideration of the fate of R. in some particularly typical countries and its current situation makes it possible to establish both its world-historical and contemporary significance. The imparting to objects, by the simple application of muscular forces, of a higher exchange value created the sphere independent existence for such persons who were previously subordinate to the master's authority. The most energetic part of the peasant masses, placed in difficult economic and legal conditions, turned into a special class of artisans, who made a significant contribution to the general cultural treasury. R.'s important merit lies, first of all, in the fact that it proved personality value and at complete absence she had property assets, at a time when the powerful hand of the feudal lord weighed down on everyone. The concentration of a large number of people at one point contributed to the emergence and ensured the development of cities. Cities owe much of their political, economic and cultural significance to that class of population whose task it was to process objects to satisfy human needs. R. was a necessary link in the chain of economic forces that contributed to the gradual transformation of a natural economy into a money economy. Politically, R. gave life middle class, the existence of which determines the proper functioning of the state mechanism. R., at the best time of its history, formed a class of people with simple morals and healthy needs, within which there were no too sharp deviations from the general property level. Representing a production system that in all respects met the conditions of the urban economy, R. could not maintain its significance with the emergence of conditions that contributed to the transition to higher forms of creating exchange values. The fulfillment of this cultural task had to fall on other economic forces, which, having pushed R. into the background, continue to fight with him for dominance in a number of industries. In the most industrially developed countries, R., however, continues to exist. In England, France, Austria, Germany, a huge class of the population continues to find its livelihood in the application of its labor in its own workshop. In Germany, despite the decrease in the number of artisans (in 1895 - 287,389, instead of 339,644 in 1882), there is a huge contingent of artisans (approximately 3 million people). In order to retain those positions where it alone can work successfully, R. must join in the use of those cultural and economic gains that have served as a powerful lever for modern progress. Already in its current state, there are visible signs of its entry into a new path of development, inevitably accompanied by the loss of old specific features. The future fate of Russia depends to a large extent on the adaptation of the artisans themselves to new conditions of the time; but the state and society have the responsibility to remove obstacles to the free development of the economic forces of the middle class of the population, whose existence is associated with very important economic and cultural interests.

Literature. Pibbius, "The Industrial History of England" (1890); Cunningham, "The Growth of English Industry and Commerce during the early and middle ages" (2nd ed., Cambridge, 1890); Toynbee, "Lectures on the Industrial Revolution in England" (L., 1884); Levy, "History of British Commerce" (2nd ed., Leningrad, 1880); Ochenchowski, "Englands wirtschaft. Entwickelung im Ausgange des Mittelalters" (1849); Schwabe, "Die Förderung der Kunstindustrie in England" (B., 1866); Held, “Zwei Bü cher zur socialen Geschichte Englands” (L., 1881); Schmoller, "Zur Geschichte deutscher Kleingewerbe" (Halle, 1870); "Protokolle über die Verhandlungen der Delegirtentage des Vereins selbständiger Handwerker u. Fabrikanten Deutschlands" (1872-81); "Verhandlungen des allgemeinen deutschen Handwerkertages zu Magdeburg" (1882); "Protokolle über die Verhandlungen der allgemeinen deutschen Handwerkertage u. der Delegirtentage des allgemeinen deutschen Handwerkerbundes" (1883-1889); Bobertag, "Die Handwerkerfrage im Jahre 1886"; Hampke, "Der Befä higungsnachweis" (Jena, 1892); Eug. Jaeger, "Die Handwerkerfrage" (B., 1887); Dannenberg, "Das deutsche Handwerk" (1872); Droste, "Die Handwerkerfrage"; Haushofer, "Das deutsche Kleingewerbe"; Hitze, "Schutz dem Handwerk" (1883); Kolb, "Der Handwerker nac h den Forderungen der Gegenwart"; Bö ttger, "Das Programm der Handwerker" (Braunschweig, 1893); Karl Bücher, "Die Entstehung der Volkswirtschaft" (chap. II-IV, Tübingen, 1898); Dietrici, "Handbuch der Statistik des preussischen Staates", (B., 1861); his, “S tatistische Uebersicht der wichtigsten Gegenstände des Verkehrs” (1831-36); Levasseur, "Histoire des classes ouvrières en France depuis la conquête de Jules Cé sar jusqu"a la r é volution" (P., 1859); his, "Histoire des classes ouvrières en France depuis 1789 jusqu"a nos jours" (1867); Korsak, “On the Forms of Industry” (1861); Dityatin, “The structure and management of cities in Russia” (1875-77); “Proceedings of the commission established in 1859 to revise the factory and craft regulations” (St. Petersburg, 1865); “Proceedings of the commission established under the chairmanship of S. A. Olkhin” (published by the Department of Trade and Manufactures of the Ministry of Finance); Ordega, "Die Gewerbepolitik in Russland von Peter I bis Katharine II" (1885); Stellmacher, "Ein Beitrag zur Darstellung der Hausindustrie in Russland" (1886); Yanzhul and Chuprov, "Economic assessment of public education"; A. Yadrov, “In defense of Russian guilds” (1897).

G. Belkovsky.

Russian language dictionaries

The section is very easy to use. Just enter the desired word in the field provided, and we will give you a list of its meanings. I would like to note that our site provides data from various sources - encyclopedic, explanatory, word-formation dictionaries. Here you can also see examples of the use of the word you entered.

Meaning of the word craft

craft in the crossword dictionary

Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language, Dal Vladimir

craft

old craft cf. handicraft, handicraft skill, manual labor, work and skill by which bread is obtained;

The very occupation by which a person lives, his trade, requires more bodily than mental labor. You don’t carry your craft behind you (behind your back), but goodness goes with it. And that is a craft if someone knows how to make an oar. You can't go wrong with the craft. Without craft, without hands. Not in crafts, but in fishing, trappers, fishermen. Forestry craft, arcs, rims, shafts, etc. Their craft is under the bridge, they rob passers-by. Our craft is overgrown with old days, or there was a craft, but it was overgrown with old days, there was a craft, but it was flooded with wine. The plow feeds, the craft gives water, the trades clothe and put on shoes. Every trade is honest, except theft. A bad craft is better than good theft. And theft is a craft (except for grain). Craft is respected everywhere. The craft does not hang over your shoulders (does not weigh you down). The craft is a patrimony. The breadwinner's craft. Know one craft, but be careful not to get overgrown with hops! There was a craft, but it was overgrown with hops. The craft does not ask for food and drink, but goodness comes with it (it feeds itself). The craft is not a rocker, it will not drag your shoulders. Crafts have been taken to dogs. Such a craft that has gone to hell (hops). This is the craft that shook the whole house! Whoever steals has a craft. A thief is not a tradesman, and not without a trade. Man is fed with bread alone, but not with craft alone. More craft, more evil (i.e. business, trouble). Going for a craft means orphaning the earth. Craftsman, artisan people, craftsman, -nitsa, and old. a craftsman who makes his living by craft, etc. shoemaker, furrier, blacksmith, carpenter, etc. in general, a craftsman. Crafts Authority. Craft classes. Handicrafts. -nikov and -nitsyn, everything that is personal to them; -nobody, -nic, related to crafts and artisans. Craftsmanship -nichestvo cf. skill, handicrafts, handicrafts. To be a craftsman, to engage in crafts, especially among the peasantry.

Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. D.N. Ushakov

craft

crafts, pl. crafts, cf. Work requiring special skills to produce something. products by hand, in an artisanal way. Shoemaking craft. Furrier craft. Bookbinding craft.

trans. Profession, occupation. It occurred to the toothy pike to take up the cat's craft. Krylov.

Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. S.I.Ozhegov, N.Yu.Shvedova.

craft

Ah, plural crafts, -sel, -rent, cf.

Professional occupation - making products by hand, in an artisanal way.

In general, profession, occupation (colloquial). Secrets of the writing craft. * Take up the old craft (colloquial disapproved) - return to previous unseemly deeds and actions.

adj. craft, -aya, -oe (to 1 value).

New explanatory dictionary of the Russian language, T. F. Efremova.

craft

Work requiring special skills to produce something. products by hand, in an artisanal way.

trans. Work without creative initiative, according to the established template.

1. Profession, occupation.

   What kind of occupation, business.

Encyclopedic Dictionary, 1998

craft

small-scale manual production of industrial products, which dominated before the advent of large-scale machine industry (and then partially survived along with it). The craft is characterized by: the decisive importance of the personal skill of the artisan, the individual nature of production (the artisan works alone or with a limited number of assistants).

craft

CRAFT Vasily Nikolaevich (1907-83) Russian breeder, academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1974) and VASKhNIL (1964), twice Hero of Socialist Labor (1966, 1977). He developed selection methods that made it possible to create high-yielding varieties of wheat (“Mironovskie”). Lenin Prize (1963), USSR State Prize (1979).

Craft (disambiguation)

Craft:

• Craft is a small-scale manual production based on the use of hand tools.
• Craft, Vasily Nikolaevich (1907-1983) - Ukrainian Soviet breeder.

Craft

Craft- small-scale manual production, based on the use of hand tools, the personal skill of the worker, which allows the production of high-quality, often highly artistic products.

The craft arose with the beginning of human production activity, and has gone through a long historical path of development, taking various forms: a) home craft - in a subsistence economy; b) crafts to order - in conditions of decomposition of the natural economy; c) craft to market. The emergence and development of cities as craft and trade centers is associated with the emergence of crafts to order and especially for the market. Home craft is often called home industry, craft to order and for the market - handicraft industry. In Russian statistical literature, often all artisans of the 19th-20th centuries. were called artisans.

Domestic crafts have been widespread throughout the history of pre-capitalist societies. The rural population produced most of the handicrafts it consumed. Gradually, crafts made to order and the market began to play a leading role. In ancient Greece, ancient Rome, and in the countries of the ancient East, there were a significant number of artisans who ran independent households and manufactured products to order or for the market.

The emergence of professional crafts, especially in cities, led to the emergence of a new sphere of production and a new social stratum - urban artisans. The emergence of developed forms of their organization, which protected the interests of this layer, created especially favorable conditions for the development of urban crafts in the Middle Ages. The leading branches of urban craft were: clothmaking, production of metal products, glass products, etc. During the industrial revolution (mid-18th century - first half of the 19th century), the factory industry, based on the use of machines, replaced crafts. The craft was preserved in industries associated with serving the individual needs of the consumer or with the production of expensive artistic products - pottery, weaving, artistic carving, etc.

To a greater extent, the craft has been preserved in underdeveloped countries. However, here too it is being replaced by factory industry as a result of the industrialization of these countries. Folk arts and crafts related to tourism services and exports are preserved.

Since ancient times, humanity has known such crafts as:

• blacksmith craft
• pottery production
• carpentry
• joinery
• tailoring
• weaving
• spinning
• furrier's
• saddlery
• bakery
• shoemaking
• stove
• jewelry

and many others.

In Russia, after 1917, the number of artisans and handicraftsmen sharply decreased; they were united into industrial cooperation. Only a few world-famous folk art crafts have survived: Gzhel ceramics, Dymkovo toys, Palekh miniatures, Khokhloma painting, etc.

Examples of the use of the word craft in literature.

Madame Rosa had no idea who Banania, who was also called Toure, was a Malian, Senegalese, Guinean or anyone else - his mother, before leaving for the house of patience in Abidjan, fought for life on the Rue Saint-Denis, and with this craft go figure it out.

The classes were made up of boys and girls trained in the Palanesian tradition: good manners, agriculture, arts and crafts, and even medicine borrowed from folklore, psychology and biology based on grandmother’s fairy tales and belief in magic.

Let the neophyte know what assonance and alliteration are, rhyme adjacent and distant, simple and complex, just as we have the right to expect from a musician that he knows harmony and counterpoint, and all the other little details of his crafts.

Only forty years of doing my own thing craft did not allow a grimace of hatred to distort the face of Amerigo Bonasera.

He looked at this incident as a misfortune connected with apothecary craft, took a napkin, dried himself without saying a word, and left, firmly deciding that he would make me pay the stain remover to whom he, no doubt, was forced to send his suit.

His natural abilities allowed him to quickly master all the intricacies of the gladiatorial crafts, and pretty soon Arak watched with pleasure as Caramon easily dealt with Kiiri and coolly wrapped Peragas in his own net.

For ever since men learned to enchant the spirit of flowers and herbs, trees, resins and secretions of animals, and to retain it in closed bottles, the art of aromatization gradually eluded the few who had a universal mastery craft masters and it was revealed to charlatans who only knew how to keep their nose to the wind - like that stinking ferret Pelissier.

Mouret raised his head and again slapped his friend on the knee, repeating with the respectable cheerfulness of a man who is not at all ashamed of the one who enriched him crafts: - Arshinnik in the full sense of the word!

The bull that brought in the most income was the one that allowed robbers to indulge in their respectable acts with impunity. craft on condition that he give dad part of the loot.

After graduating from elementary school, which he attended with Pastor Boehme, Gottlieb Adler studied weaving craft and at the age of twenty he was already earning a lot.

I heard Kudyk more than once that if Berendey went at least once with a convoy, no craft, you won’t be able to return him to the plow.

Is it because Thackeray’s mental structure tells him to accept the world as it is, or because he knows from his own experience how ungrateful craft reformer, but one way or another, he raised his dispassion to theory, and it can be stated with certainty that in the works that he continued to publish, having already become one of our most famous authors, he, unlike Dickens, almost did not deal with external laws of social life and rarely appeared before the reader as a critic of society and a reformer.

It is only under the guise of a buffoon that a real brute is hiding. craft.

Having admired it, Bulba made his way further along the cramped street, which was cluttered with artisans, who were immediately sending craft their own, and with people of all nations who filled this outskirts of the Sich, which looked like a fair and which clothed and fed the Sich, which only knew how to walk and fire guns.

The door opened with a creak, the switch clicked, and Corso looked around the workshop: the main place was occupied by an antique printing press, next to it stood a zinc table littered with tools, half-stitched or already assembled notebooks, a paper-cutting machine, multi-colored pieces of leather, bottles of glue, binding finishing tools and other accessories crafts.

Craft- small-scale manual production, based on the use of hand tools, which allows the production of high-quality, often.

Craft arose with the beginning of human production activity, went through a long historical path of development, taking various forms: a) home craft- in subsistence farming conditions; b) custom craft- in conditions of decomposition of natural economy; V) craft to market. The emergence and development of cities as craft and trade centers is associated with the emergence of crafts to order and especially for the market. Home craft is often called home industry (that is, the production of non-agricultural products), craft to order and for the market - handicraft industry. In Russian statistical literature, often all artisans of the 19th-20th centuries. were called artisans.

Home craft widespread throughout the history of pre-capitalist societies. The rural population produced most of the handicrafts it consumed. Gradually, crafts made to order and the market began to play a leading role. In ancient Greece, ancient Rome, and in the countries of the ancient East, there were a significant number of artisans who ran independent households and manufactured products to order or for the market.

Becoming professional craft, especially in cities, led to the emergence of a new sphere of production and a new social layer - urban artisans. The emergence of developed forms of their organization (guilds), which protected the interests of this layer, created especially favorable conditions for the development of urban crafts in the Middle Ages. The leading branches of urban craft were: clothmaking, production of metal products, glass products, etc. During the industrial revolution (mid-18th century - first half of the 19th century), the factory industry, based on the use of machines, replaced crafts. Crafts (to order and for the market) have been preserved in industries associated with serving the individual needs of the consumer or with the production of expensive artistic products - pottery, weaving, artistic carving, etc.

To a greater extent, the craft has been preserved in underdeveloped countries. However, here too it is being replaced by factory industry as a result of the industrialization of these countries. Folk arts and crafts related to tourism services and exports are preserved.

Types of crafts

Since ancient times, humanity has known such crafts as:

and many others.

In Russia, after 1917, the number of artisans and handicraftsmen sharply decreased; they were united into industrial cooperation. Only a few world-famous folk art crafts have survived: Gzhel ceramics, Dymkovo toys, Palekh miniatures, Khokhloma painting, etc.

artistic craft

artistic craft- a culture of professional labor skills and technical techniques for artistic processing of various materials (metal, leather, fabrics, etc.), developed in the process of accumulating creative experience of craftsmen who create artistic products. Professional experience in artistic craft was developed through the discovery of the most aesthetically effective techniques and techniques for artistic processing of material, bringing it to perfection. This experience has been accumulated over centuries and passed on from generation to generation. In the old days, the welfare of the country and the general level of its culture were judged by artistic craft. The masters of Ancient Rus' and the Western European Middle Ages were divided into professions, within which they had the universal ability to use various techniques of artistic processing of a particular material. Thus, gold and silversmiths mastered the techniques of forging, casting, embossing, filigree, engraving, silver blackening, and enamel work. They specialized in types of products (weapons, book frames, jewelry, etc.). This kind of specialization took place in pottery, weaving, artistic sewing, etc. In Ancient Kyiv, for example, there were 60 different craft professions. According to their social status, artisans were divided into patrimonial artisans, who worked at the princely court, and monastery artisans, and into urban and townspeople. The first worked to order carefully and for a long time, achieving the highest perfection and skill in their work. Posad artistic craft was reflected in the work of urban craftsmen associated with the market. They developed the ability to achieve an artistic effect using economical means, bringing the product closer to expensive samples. The general aesthetic ideals of the people and the professional artistry of manual labor determined the development of the culture of artistic crafts. Every item was created creatively. The artistry of the master was highly valued; Belonging to the category of masters was determined by the ability to perfectly execute the most difficult artistic work. In Rus' there were craft corporations organized like Western guilds. Their activities were regulated by special rules and laws. Developing on the basis of folk traditions, the artistic craft of each country retained its national identity and at the same time reflected the development of world styles. , since its development is inseparable from the artistic imagery, aesthetics, and culture of each people.

Folk arts and crafts

Folk arts and crafts (folk craft) - a wide range of products made using simple improvised materials and simple tools. This traditional type of craft is diverse, where things are created with one’s own hands using skills and ingenuity. The work can be done on fabric, wood, non-ferrous metals, paper, etc. Usually the term is applied to things that have not only aesthetic value, but also have practical application.

Folk craft takes some origins from rural crafts, thanks to which basic necessities were created, including complex structures. Rural crafts have been known since ancient times, in fact, appearing at the moment when humanity needed new tools and household items. In different regions and areas, among different peoples, the arts and cultures differed, therefore, their crafts also differed. Like folk art, folk crafts often depended on religious, cultural, and sometimes even political beliefs.

Many handicrafts are created from natural or near-natural materials, but many modernists also use unusual elements and designs, such as industrial parts and mechanisms.

Products are considered a folk craft until the process of their production is put on stream (factory-type mass production).

Since manual work and similar crafts develop intelligence and various kinds of skills, sometimes special tasks for creating something are introduced into the educational processes of schools and institutes. Many products require certain skills to make, but, as a rule, anyone can learn the craft. Many types of craft become popular some time after their appearance, sometimes not.

History of crafts

Already in the ancient world, the beginnings of craft activity are found, manifested in the processing of known objects, mostly at the home of the owner of the material and by the hands of slaves. We have evidence from Homer about this nature of handicraft labor in Greece.

Given the contempt of the Greeks for handicraft labor, which was recognized as unworthy of a free person, labor, as a permanent professional activity, was the work of a very limited contingent of people, not counting the laborers and slaves who were part of the house.

Some crafts in Greece, however, rose to a high level, despite the use of the simplest tools and instruments. Over time, consumer goods became widespread not only for luxury goods, but also for satisfying the everyday needs of the lower classes of the population.

Already in Greece, artisans sometimes experienced competition from relatively large industries that emerged from the middle of the 5th century BC. e. In general, handicraft production is of the same nature in Rome. Given the existence of isolated, closed farms that satisfied their needs through the specialization of slave labor, there was no basis in Rome for the development of labor as a free professional activity; in the absence of a contingent of people who would constantly need the products of other people's labor and would be able to pay for them, Roman artisans, boodlers, etc. (artifices) had to replenish the ranks of the proletarians. Only if he had certain property that served as a source of income (usually a small plot of land), could an artisan live comfortably and earn extra income by fulfilling random orders. With the formation of large estates, which absorbed a significant part of the small plots of land, artisans, whose ranks were mainly replenished by freedmen, had to look for work on the side and perform it at the customer’s home.

In order to increase production volumes in any artel, the artel could be economically brought under the control or acquired by one or more owners, and then it grew into a factory or plant. With the advent of more and more complex and energy-intensive machines and mechanisms in any craft, and, especially, with the involvement of scientific achievements, the craft grew into industry. The presence of complex and numerous machines and mechanisms and knowledge-intensive processes is precisely the line beyond which fishing ends and industry begins. An example here is the transformation in the 19th century in Russia of Ivanovo, previously a typical settlement consisting mainly of weaving cooperatives, into a city with a large number of weaving factories. Further, with greater use of modern, science-based processes, Ivanovo became the center of the textile industry in Russia. Here are some other examples of the “evolution” of crafts into industry with increasing production volumes, increasing complexity and increasing the number of equipment used, and with the involvement of science:

• baking and milling have each become their own part of the food industry
• shoemaking has evolved over the years into the shoe industry
• weaving and spinning crafts together gave birth to the textile industry
• tailoring has evolved into the clothing industry
• blacksmithing became the progenitor of a number of industries related to metal processing.

Nevertheless, many crafts continue to exist along with the industries they gave birth to, creating a professional environment from which a lot of specialists are recruited into the corresponding industry. For example, highly qualified carpenters or shoemakers use their potential in the furniture or shoe industries.

Everyday ideas about craft as an obsolete phenomenon in modern society are deceptive. And in our time, new crafts continue to appear. In the field of information technology, with the beginning of the development of social networks, the craft of an SMM specialist or, as it is more often called, a community manager, appeared. Such new crafts you can count at least a dozen.

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The guide is dedicated to Russian crafts; each craft is described separately.

You will find articles on relevant topics in the following subsections:

What is craft

In short, it is manual labor, work and skill that is used to earn a living. It is difficult to imagine humanity without craft activities.

The concept of craft is multifaceted. Some people believe that creating works of art is no longer a craft. Others consider the profession of, say, an artist or icon painter, poet or actor, a craft.

One way or another, in any business you can achieve artistic and professional heights, but any professional business begins with a simple necessity, then the skill of a craftsman is achieved, and only then it can turn into a widespread production or glorify an individual master who has achieved perfection.

The peoples of Russia have many examples of this. Our lacquer miniatures, trays, Abramtsevo-Kudrin carvings and much more can easily be considered works of art.

Of course, in a craft, a lot depends on personal skill.

In one of the dictionaries we read:

“Russia is characterized by: the use of simple tools, the decisive importance of the personal skill of the artisan, the individual nature of production (the artisan works alone or with a limited number of assistants).”

For what and why

The history of crafts goes back to the beginning of human production; it has gone through a long historical path of development, taking various forms:

• home craft - in a subsistence economy
• craft to order - in conditions of decomposition of subsistence economy
• craft to market

The development and formation of crafts was greatly influenced by climate, geographical location, political and historical factors.

For example, Byzantium enriched the world with Orthodox culture, which in turn had a significant influence on the development of Russian crafts.

The emergence of professional crafts, especially in cities, led to the emergence of a new sphere of production and a new social stratum - urban artisans.

Construction rituals had a great influence on the spread and development of crafts.

In the 19th century in Russia they began to think more and more about creating a “Russian style”, which was supported by the tsarist government.

In 1904, Polenov created the House of Folk Art, and in 1913 the First Fair of Folk Crafts was held. By the way, then the tsarist government found money to pay for the travel of artisans to this exhibition.

In the early 1920s, the development of handicrafts continued, but in the 1930s they were ended. Their revival began only in 1968, when the corresponding party decree was issued and the corresponding organizations were created. But much has already been lost.

Renaissance

Nowadays, there is an active revival of the crafts and trades of the peoples of Russia. There are many examples of this: according to ancient engravings, thanks to Alexander Anatolyevich Baukin, it was revived; Alexander Nikolaevich, together with art critic Viktor Yakovlevich, revived; fishing has been revived in Odoev.

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Synonyms

• class
• profession
• speciality
• skill
• handicraft
• needlework
• Minerva
• fishing
• skill
• vocation
• Banausia

Minerva

In Roman mythology - the goddess of wisdom, art, patroness of artists and artisans. Therefore, this word can be synonymous with the word “craft”.

Banausia

Greek banausia - craft, the practice of science or art as a craft.

Proverbs

People have many proverbs and sayings related to craft:

You can't go wrong with the craft.

Every trade is honest, except theft, and theft is a trade, but not a grain trade.

Craft is the golden breadwinner.

The craft is not a rocker - it won’t weigh on your shoulders.

“When I’m in business, I hide from fun,

When I'm fooling around, I'm fooling around. And mixing these two crafts

There are tons of skilled people,

I’m not one of them.”

A. Griboyedov, “Woe from Wit”

Crafts in our time

The words are often heard that “crafts die and are forgotten.” This is wrong. Of course, some species simply disappear as unnecessary, for example, the production of goose feathers, which no one has been using to write for a long time. But in general, interest in folk arts and crafts is growing year by year.

In Russia there are many educational institutions where you can get professional craft education.

National wealth

Vasnetsov, Bilibin, Vrubel, Surikov studied the Russian national style, preserved in embroidery patterns, folk costumes, patterns and forms of products of village artisans.

The artists saw in this the national wealth of Russia, what made Russians different from other peoples. This contributed to an unprecedented surge in the development of our art, expeditions began to be carried out, museums were opened, and fairs were held.