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Historical Phrase

January 10, 49 BC

Guy Julius Caesar, standing with one legion in front of the Rubicon River in northern Italy, which separated him from the ancestral possessions of Rome, turned to his friends:
“If I do not cross this river, my friends, then it will be the beginning of disasters for me, and if I cross, it will be the beginning of disasters for all people.”
Having said this, he quickly, as if by inspiration from above, crossed the Rubicon, adding:

"Let the die be cast."
(Latin: "Alea jacta ect").

Thus began the Great Civil War in Republican Ancient Rome.

An analogue of Caesar's phrase is the expression “crossing the Rubicon,” which means some irrevocable decision or risking everything for a great goal.

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Thematic sections of the History of Wars of the Ancient World, articles about which have been compiled and already posted on the site.

Estimated content of the section History of Wars of the Ancient World

THE DAWN OF MILITARY HISTORY. Previously 600 BC.
Military trends. Previously 600 BC.
Mediterranean and Middle East
Egypt, 3100-600 BC
Organization of the Ancient Egyptian army
1294 BC Battle of Kadesh
Ancient Mesopotamia
Sumer, Akkad and Babylon, 3500-1200. BC
Hittite Kingdom, 2000-1200 to P. X.
Assyria, 3000-612 BC
Judea, Palestine and Syria, 1200-700. to P. X.
Media 880-550 BC
Babylonia, Chaldea and the Neo-Babylonian Kingdom 1200-538. BC
Map of the Neo-Babylonian kingdom and Asian countries in 600 BC. BC
Greece, 1600-600 BC
Trojan War, around 1184 BC.
Italy and Rome, 2000-600. BC
South Asia
India, 2000-600 BC
East Asia
China, 1600-600 BC
Urartu, 1300-600. BC
Scythians, 800-600 BC

WAR BECOMES ART. 600-400 BC
Military theory 600-400. BC
Mediterranean - Middle East
Egypt, 600-525 BC
Persia, 600-400 BC
GREECE AND THE IONIAN CITIES 600-494. before. R.H.
Greco-Persian Wars, 499-448. to P. X.
Greece, 480-400 BC
Rome, 600-400 to P. X.
CARTAGE AND SICILY 800-400 BC Carthage and Sicily, 800-400. to P. X.
South Asia
India, 600-400 BC
Ceylon, 500-400 BC
East Asia
China, 600-400 BC

AGE OF GIANTS. 400-200 BC
Military trends 400-200 BC
Eurasia - Middle East
Persia, 400-338 BC
Greece and Macedonia, 400-336. BC
Macedonian military system, 350-320. BC
Alexander's campaigns, 336-323. BC
Battle of Gaugamela (Arbela) October 1, 331 BC.
Diadochi - successors of Alexander, 323-200. BC
Macedonian Antigonids, Persian Seleucids, Egyptian Ptolemies, 281-200. BC
Central Mediterranean
Carthage, 400-200 BC
Magna Graecia (Sicily and Southern Italy), 400-264. BC
Rome, 400-200 BC
First Punic War, 264-241 BC
Between the wars, 241-219. BC
SECOND PUNIC WAR. 219-202 BC
Battle of Cannae August 2, 216 BC.
Battle of Metaurus, 207 BC.
Battle of Zama, 202 BC.
Roman military system, around 220 BC.
South Asia
India, 325-200 BC
Bactria and Parthia, 323-200. BC
East Asia
China, 400-200 BC

THE RISE OF GREAT EMPIRES IN THE EAST AND WEST. 200-1 BC
Military trends. 200-1 BC
Europe and Mediterranean
Rome, Macedonia, Greece and Pergamon, 200-196. BC
Seleucid Persia and Ptolemaic Egypt, 200-50. BC
Judea, 168-66 BC
Rome and the Mediterranean, 150-60. BC
First triumvirate, 60-50. BC
Roman military system, around 50 BC.
Gallic Wars, 58-51. BC
Great Roman Civil War, 50-44. BC
Battle of Pharsalus on August 9, 48 BC.
The struggle for power, 44-43. BC
Wars of the Second Triumvirate, 43-34. BC
Octavian's war against Antony, 33-30. BC
Beginning of Imperial Rome and Pax Romana, 30-1. BC
Southwest Asia
Parthia and Armenia
Bactria and the Hellenic states in the East
South Asia
North India and Deccan
South India
Ceylon (modern Sri Lanka)
East Asia
China

PAX ROMANA 1-200
Military trends
Europe and Mediterranean
Roman world
Southwest Asia
Parthian Empire
South Asia
Northern India
Central and South India
Waging wars between Tamils ​​and Indians, around 200
Ceylon (modern Sri Lanka)
East Asia

THE DECLINE OF ROME AND THE RISE OF THE CAVALRY 200-400.
Military trends 200-400
Europe - Mediterranean
Roman Empire, 200-235
Chaos in the Empire, 233-268.
Renaissance under the Illyrian emperors, 268-305.
Roman military system, around 300
Rome and the Barbarians, 305-400
Second Battle of Adrianople 9 August 378
Southwest Asia
Decline of Parthia, 200-226
Sasanian Persia, 226-400.
Arabia and Abyssinia, 200-400.
South Asia
East Asia
China

The phenomenon of decisive battle, according to Victor David Hanson and his followers, is a characteristic part of the “Western way of warfare.” Elements of this tradition, such as the concentration of large forces of both sides, offensive actions with the aim of defeating or destroying enemy forces, the desire to decide the outcome of the confrontation on the battlefield in short-term hand-to-hand combat, have run like a red thread through European military history over the past three millennia. Archaeologists' discovery at the endThe 20th century made it possible to push the origin of this tradition back several hundred years into the depths of history. In northern Germany, scientists have discovered what may be the oldest battlefield known to date.

High-profile discovery by archaeologists

In 1996, on the banks of the small Tollensee River in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, 60 km from the Baltic Sea coast, amateur archaeologist Hans-Dietrich Borgwardt and his son Ronald discovered a number of bones that belonged to a human skeleton. The finders believed that these were the remains of a soldier who died during the Second World War, until they noticed a flint arrowhead embedded in one of the bones. More bones were soon discovered, as well as two wooden clubs. Professional scientists became interested in the find, and in 2008, systematic excavations began in the Tollensee Valley, carried out with the support of the University of Greifswald and the German Research Society.

Archaeologists explored the river bank for approximately 2 km, and a team of professional divers was brought in to inspect the river bottom. Thanks to the joint efforts of specialists, over 8 years of work, more than 9,000 bones belonging to at least 125 individuals were discovered. The vast majority of remains discovered are those of young men under the age of 30. However, there are also several bones that belonged to children and women. About 40 traces of damage of varying severity were found on the bones, which indicates that the death of these people was violent.

Radiocarbon dating of the finds indicates that they belong to the Bronze Age, the period between 1300 and 1200 BC. BC. At this time, the Mediterranean region and the Middle East already had an advanced civilization, a bureaucratic state, a large population and intensive trade. But the northern part of Europe remained a sparsely populated swampy region, in which traces of monumental buildings or any large settlements had not yet been identified.

According to archaeologists, the population density at that time did not exceed 5 people per km2, and from 70 to 115 thousand people lived throughout the entire territory of modern Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. The discovery of the remains of so many people in this wasteland needed an explanation. Archaeologists immediately rejected the hypothesis of a large burial ground, since funeral customs of that time in this region included cremation of the dead, followed by placing the collected ashes in a clay urn and placing it under the mound along with the simplest grave goods. No traces of urns or accompanying offerings were found here.

In addition, the bodies of the dead were not burned, but lay rather randomly. At the very beginning of the excavations, on a small ledge of the coast in an area of ​​only 12 m2, archaeologists discovered the largest concentration of remains - 1,478 bones, more than 20 skulls. What could have happened here, why were the bodies of the murdered people dumped in a heap?

To date, archaeologists have found approximately 9,000 bones belonging to at least 125 individuals on the banks of the Tollensee.

The most plausible interpretation of the finds was the hypothesis that archaeologists discovered not just the burial of war victims, but found the battlefield itself - the oldest known to date in Europe. In those days, the groundwater level was higher than today, the Tolensee was much wider and richer in water, and its banks were swampy, which, by the way, is another argument against identifying the location of the find as a burial ground. In addition, there are practically no traces of the teeth and claws of scavengers on the bones, which would have been inevitable if the bodies of the dead had spent some time in the air.

Most likely, they were either thrown into the water by the victors immediately after the battle ended, or remained where they died if the battle took place in the swampy floodplain of the river. Some researchers believe that the battle itself took place slightly upstream, and that the bodies were carried by the river to where they ended up. Their opponents object that in this case the bodies would inevitably disintegrate and archaeologists would only get large bones, whereas in reality scientists have at least a certain number of whole bodies at their disposal.

Wounds and weapons used to inflict them

Damage to bones makes it possible to reconstruct the nature of the wounds inflicted in battle. One of the finds of archaeologists is a skull, in the frontal part of which there is a round hole the size of a child’s fist. The skull was fractured as a result of a blow from a blunt, heavy object—possibly a wooden club like the one discovered by Hans-Dietrich Borgwardt.

Broken skull found at the battle site

Another skull found by archaeologists was pierced by a bronze arrowhead, which entered 30 mm into the brain. Another arrowhead, made of flint, was found embedded in the humerus. A cross-shaped cut on one of the femurs was most likely left by a bronze arrowhead, and a diagonal split on the other femur is not a fracture from a fall from a horse, as was previously thought, but a trace of a blow inflicted by some kind of sharp weapon, possibly an arrowhead. spears.

Some damage is visible to the naked eye, others are only small chips on the bones. Most of the damage does not show signs of subsequent healing; a small number of healed injuries indicate that some of the participants in the battle had previously participated in similar skirmishes. In general, the number of damaged bones discovered by archaeologists - 40 examples - is very small against the general background of a large number of finds. In this regard, the researchers indicate that the cause of death could be damage to soft tissues and wounds that did not leave corresponding marks on the bones. In addition to human remains, the remains of at least four horses were identified among the bone finds.

A wooden club in the shape of a croquet mallet, made from thorn wood.

Among the finds of weapons with which wounds were inflicted, first of all, two wooden batons should be highlighted, one of which was shaped like a baseball bat, 73 cm long and was carved from ash. The second resembled a croquet mallet with a handle 53 cm long, the material for which was thorn wood. The most common group of finds are arrowheads, both bronze and made of flint.

A total of 49 bronze tips were found here. The uniqueness of this find is evidenced by the fact that before the start of excavations on the bank of the Tollensee, only 28 arrowheads were known throughout Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, 3 arrowheads were known in Schleswig-Holstein, and not a single one was known in the entire Scandinavian Peninsula. Although the hypothesis attributing flint points to local residents and bronze points to newcomers looks very tempting, it must still be recognized that both types of points were used at that time in both Northern and Southern Europe.

Bronze arrowheads found in the Tollensee Valley

Thus, bows and arrows were a common type of weapon of ordinary warriors, which is poorly or not represented at all during excavations of burials. On the contrary, such weapons as a bronze sword or a battle ax, which, thanks to the excavations of princely burials, became an element of our ideas about what a Bronze Age warrior should look like, were not found. Such weapons were apparently rare and were possessed only by members of the nobility. If it was used during the battle, then after the battle everything was collected by the victors. However, one of the fragments found by archaeologists is interpreted as part of the blade of a bronze sword or dagger.

Number and composition of opponents

During the construction of the A20 motorway, which runs approximately 3 km to the east parallel to the Tollensee, traces of a small Bronze Age settlement were discovered. About 10 km downstream there is a burial ground of 35 mounds dating from the same period as the remains of the battle. All this speaks of the presence of a settled population, and therefore of neighboring conflicts and disputes.

At the very beginning of the excavations, archaeologists believed that they had found traces of a clash between neighboring groups that did not share the territory with each other. However, as soon as the true scale of the find became clear to them, this hypothesis had to be adjusted. Although the remains of 125 people have been identified so far, archaeologists believe this represents only a fraction of what remains to be found. They estimate the total number of those killed in the battle to be at least 800 people. Based on the proportion of casualties of 20–25 percent of personnel, it turns out that from 3,000 to 4,000 people could have taken part in the battle on the river bank.

A bronze arrowhead that pierced the skull bone and embedded itself in the victim's brain

However, it can be assumed that most of the remains belonged to the soldiers of the losing side, and the victors, who controlled the battlefield, were able to carry away some of their bodies in order to bury them in accordance with custom. And in this case, the total number of units could be even greater. Given that the population of even a large Bronze Age village was hardly more than 100–200 people, in order to assemble armies of this size, large-scale mobilization had to be carried out over a very large area.

The secret of who the participants in the battle were, whether they were relatives or fellow countrymen, can be revealed by analyzing the DNA of the fallen extracted from the bones. While this research is still not completed; A strontium isotope extracted from tooth enamel suggests that they most likely came from different geographic areas.

Inhabitants of Northern Europe of the Bronze Age, modern reconstruction

The carbon isotope d13C found in the bones of many fallen individuals indicates the predominance of millet in their diet. Since the locals lived primarily on fish and seafood, archaeologists believe that at least some of the participants in the battle may have been foreigners who came from somewhere in the south. The two bronze brooches found on the battlefield are typical of the Bronze Age archaeological culture of Silesia, which lies 400 km southeast of the site. This fact may also indicate that the conquerors, whoever they were, were newcomers to this region.

Battle location

In 2012, in the southern part of the excavated area, researchers discovered the remains of an earthen embankment on the river bank, as well as wooden piles driven into the bottom and traces of wooden flooring. All this could be the remains of a bridge that was built in this place across the river. Dendrochronological analysis of the find allows us to date it to approximately 1700 BC, that is, a time that precedes the probable date of the battle by 400 years. This suggests that in those distant times a trade route could have passed along the Tollensee coast, connected, for example, with salt or ore trade.

A sign of the extensive lines of communication that connected remote areas of the European continent together are the bronze weapons of the participants in the battle. Bronze is an alloy containing such a rare metal as tin. It was mined, among other things, in Silesia, from where it was then transported over vast distances along trade routes. It is noteworthy that among the finds discovered by archaeologists at the bottom of the river were two gold spiral bracelets and two bracelets made of pure tin. The latter are almost certainly either goods intended for exchange or a means of payment.

Map of excavations in the Tollensee Valley indicating where the finds were concentrated

The battle, in which very large forces at that time fought each other, hardly happened by chance at the place where the river was crossed. Most likely, there was an ambush here, which was arranged for the enemy by local warriors who, it seems, had some superiority of forces. Whether the enemy was a military detachment that launched a raid for booty to the north, but was intercepted on the way by those whom they themselves planned to take by surprise, or, on the contrary, local natives attacked a trade caravan from the south - it is impossible to say for sure. Most likely, the battle was long and stubborn. Fighters wounded by arrows were finished off with clubs.

It appears that the newcomers from the south, whether they were aggressors or victims of an attack by robbers, were defeated. The winners, having killed a large number of their opponents, took possession of the battlefield. Here they collected the spoils of war, leaving the bodies of the dead to lie in the place where they were discovered by archaeologists more than three thousand years later.

Literature:

• Brinker U., Flohr S., Piek J. & Orschiedt J. Human remains from a Bronze Age site in the Tollense valley – victims of a battle? // Routledge Handbook of the Bioarchaeology of Human Conflict. Ed. Knüsel C. & Smith M.J. .London-New York, 2013. – P. 146–160.
• Jantzen D., Brinker U., Orschiedt J., Heinemeier J., Piek J., Hauenstein K., Krüger J., Lidke G., Lübke H., Lampe R., Lorenz S., Schult M., Terberger T .A Bronze Age battlefield? Weapons and trauma in the Tollense Valley, north-eastern Germany. / Antiquity 2011, vol. 85, pp. 417–433.
• Terberger T., Dombrowsky A., Dräger J., Jantzen D., Krüger J., Lidke G. Professionelle Krieger in der Bronzezeit vor 3300 Jahren? Zu den Überresten eines Gewaltkonfliktes im Tollensetal, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. // Gewalt und Gesellschaft. Dimensionen der Gewalt in ur- und frühgeschichtlicher Zeit. Internationale Tagung vom 14–16 March 2013 an der Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg. Link T., Peter-Röcher H. (Hrsg.). Universitätsforschungen zur Prähistorischen Archäologie 2014, Bd. 259 – S. 93–109.

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