Methods for measuring perception. In some pathological cases, there is a sharp split between the direct experience of duration and the indirect assessment of time.

There are quite a few of these methods, but none of them meet the criterion of universality. Each method or group of methods, as a rule, is selected or created anew when solving special research problems.

1. Perhaps the most commonly used methods are called tachistoscopy.

From two words: tachisto - fast, scopia - look. This is a method that was developed in the mid-19th century in connection with the invention of the tachistoscope - a special device that allows you to accurately measure the time of presentation of information. The tachistoscope was the following device: an external screen with a slot - this is what the subject observed. A heavy curtain was installed on the back of the screen, which fell down under the influence of various weights. The greater the weight of the weight, the faster the curtain moved. It's something like a guillotine. The curtain also had a slot. When the curtain fell and the slits aligned, the observer was able to see what was shown on the third screen. A geometric figure, an image of a person, a word or something else. By changing the weights and their weight, the experimenter varied the speed of movement of the curtain, and therefore the time of presentation of visual information. This was the device in the mid-19th century, and by the 20th century electronic tachistoscopes appeared, which worked on different principles, but provided the same function. The unit of measurement for events that are perceived using a tachistoscope is 1 millisecond, which is equal to a thousandth of a second. The measurement of perception is carried out precisely in these units. So that you have a more or less complete idea: a glance cast at an object or person involves only 300 milliseconds, i.e. third of a second. 2 - 3 times per second we move our gaze from one position to another, but, as a rule, we do not know about it.

2. The second method, called reaction time study.

Reaction time is the time the subject responds to certain sensory inputs. This method also appears in the mid-19th century, when it was discovered that reaction times to events of varying complexity change. The more complex the event, the longer the reaction time to it. In classic studies of the 19th and first half of the 20th century, reaction times were determined by having the subject press a telegraph key. Since the mid-20th century, reaction times have been assessed either using a special device or using one of the buttons on a computer keyboard.

3. A group of methods called: method of optical (acoustic) transformations. This group includes:

- Invertoscopy.

We are talking about the use of special optical devices in a psychological experiment, which are mounted either directly on the head or in a spectacle frame. This refers to either a system of mirrors or a system of prisms, which forms an unusual image of the projection of objects on the retina.

Here is an object that is illuminated by an external light source. Light is reflected from the surface of an object and enters the eyeball, where a reduced inverted image of the object is formed at the surface of the retina. This fact was known back in the 16th century. And since the 16th century, philosophers, physicists and artists have asked the same question: what will happen if the image on the retina is made normal? Normal - in the sense of being as direct as the image of an object. The invertoscope allows you to achieve this goal.

An American psychologist named Stratton was the first to reverse the image on the retina and make it normal. Stratton himself wore special devices - invertoscopes on his head and was convinced that for at least three days the perceived world seemed to be turned upside down, and moreover, it shifted along with any turn of the head or movement of the torso. Only three days later Stratton realized the stability of the perceived world and its habitual orientation. Stratton's experiment was repeated many times throughout the 20th century and was neither completely refuted nor fully confirmed.

The second type of optical transformation methods is called (pseudoscope ), pseudoscopy.

Pseudoscopy is a method based on the fact that near objects are perceived as distant, and distant objects as close. This device is also a system of prisms that are mounted in a spectacle frame. When you look at a convex object, you perceive it as concave and vice versa. For example, when you look at masks, a convex mask is perceived as concave. But when you look at a human face, it is never perceived as concave. This suggests that there is a system of norms to which our perception is subject. And pseudoscopy is a method that allows you to establish these standards. What are they, how exactly do they manifest themselves?

Finally, the third method from this group, from the group of optical transformations, is called stereoscopy.

The method is based on a device called a stereoscope. Stereo means surround. The purpose of this device is to transform planar images into three-dimensional ones. Let us imagine that the observer perceives two separated circles with asymmetrically placed points. This is a kind of dividing screen that allows each eye to perceive its own image.

In real life this is difficult to do because there is a mechanism called convergence and accommodation. Convergence is the bringing together of the visual axes. The axes are aligned in such a way that the object being fixed can be seen most clearly with both the right and left eyes. There is just the opposite process, the process of moving the axes apart. It's called divergence. Accommodation of the eye is constantly involved in the process of bringing the axes together and moving apart. We are talking about changing the curvature of the lens, i.e. front lens.

In the case when the axes of each eye, right and left, are directed towards their own independent object, a phenomenon called fusion occurs - the merging of two images into a single whole. When this happens, flat images are perceived as three-dimensional. Let's say that in what I depicted, the observer will see a cone oriented towards the observer. Without knowing this mechanism, it is very difficult to come to such a conclusion. Using the stereoscopy method, spatial vision, its organization and functioning are studied.

4. Psychophysical methods.

These are methods that make it possible to determine the thresholds of sensations and perceptions, the working range of sensory sensitivity, and also to assess the perceived: perceived size, shape, distance, color. In order to make this assessment, two objects or two events must be presented. Based on how one event differs from another or how one object is larger or smaller than another, a conclusion is made about their perceived properties. An example with an individual amplifier, which is created specifically for the sensitivity of a particular person.

5. Psychophysiological methods.

Most often we are talking about recording eye movements, less often – about recording movements of the head or fingers.

Methods for recording eye movements (oculography methods) - from oculus - eye, graphy - image.

We are talking about registering the position and movement of the eyes in space. There are several types of eye movements.

The first group is called micro movements eye. This group includes tremor eye - these are very fast low-amplitude tremors of the eyeball. Eye movements, in particular tremor, cannot be interrupted, and strictly speaking, the eye cannot be stopped. Research shows that as long as there are eye movements, in particular tremor, the visual function of the eye is preserved, but as soon as the tremor is removed, the person goes blind.

There are studies that show that eye tremor is generally associated with vital processes and human death is primarily manifested in the absence of eye tremor. Curious thing!

The group of eye micromovements includes microhorses or as they are usually called microsaccades. This French word is saccade, which means a sudden change in position. In psychology, it is common to evaluate and measure eye movements in angular degrees. The magnitude of the microsaccade does not exceed one angular degree.

The third micro-movement is called eye drift or simply drifting. This is also a movement, also with an amplitude of no more than one degree, but very slow. The average drift speed is 15 – 20 arc minutes per second. During drift, as well as during microsaccades, tremor persists. To give you an idea: the amplitude of the tremor does not exceed 1 - 2 arc seconds. It's a very small vibration. And the tremor frequency can reach up to 200 Hz. This is a very high frequency. The eye is one of the most mobile biological organs. It changes dynamically.

So, tremor constitutes something like a background; microsaccades and drift unfold against this background. Both microsaccades and drift are needed in order to provide us with optimal conditions for viewing objects or events. They take place when we look at or, in professional language, fix an object. Microsaccades and drift very often combine to form a complex form of movement called micronystagmus. This is the fourth - derived form.

Micronystagmus is a drift, i.e. a smooth movement, by the way very small, and a sharp movement in the opposite direction. Then again the drift and again a sharp movement. Micronystagmus is sometimes called physiological nystagmus.

The second group is called macro movements. Their distinctive feature is amplitude. The amplitude of both saccades and smooth movements is more than 1 degree. 1 degree is like a limit. But the border is very arbitrary.

These include: macrosaccades or simply saccades. The average amplitude of saccades when viewing images is about 6–10 angular degrees. Saccades are designed to change fixation position. Those. look at different parts of the subject. For example, looking around the room or reading text.

The second type of movement is called tracking movements. They occur when the object we are looking at begins to move. The tracking movements seem to stick to the object and reproduce the trajectory of its movement, provided that this movement does not exceed 90 angular degrees per second. This is a very high speed. The speed of macrosaccades is much greater. It can reach 600 degrees per second. A derivative of saccades and pursuit movements is the so-called railway nystagmus. You have observed this type of movement when you were looking at a moving train, trying to fix the cars. Your eyes move smoothly and then snap back. This is a large amplitude movement, unlike micronystagmus. The speed and amplitude of this railway nystagmus is 10 times, i.e. differs by an order of magnitude from the speed and amplitude of physiological nystagmus.

Macro movements include the so-called vergent movements are convergent and divergent movements. Convergent convergence of the axis, divergent – separation of the axis.

Finally, the last type of movement was called torsion- from the word torsion - rotation. This is the rotation of the eye around its axis.

Registration of this kind of eye movements provides the researcher with information about the distribution of attention across objects or events, information about ways to solve visual and intellectual problems, as well as information about the most informative areas of the visual field.

Other physiological methods quite often used in the study of perception include evoked potentials. An evoked potential is a response that is recorded in the visual cortex immediately after stimulation of the retina. The evoked potential lasts for several hundred milliseconds, and its shape indicates the various phases or stages of visual image formation.

6. Very often in the psychology of perception they use projective methods, primarily Rorschach blots and the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT).

Similar methods are used when trying to study perception in connection with personality structure. First of all, in connection with certain human needs and motives. We see what interests us.

Finally, it is necessary to note the drawing tests, i.e. drawings, images that allow you to reveal the semantic content of what is perceived. In the psychology of perception, it is customary to differentiate the objective meaning of what is perceived and the meaning. Subject meaning is a functional characteristic of an object that is present in it objectively, regardless of you. For example, this is a book, but my attitude towards this book will be very different and, perhaps, different from the attitude towards this book of each of you. This relationship in psychology is called the special term meaning.

If the value objectively, then meaning always subjective. The objective meaning of this thing that I am holding is the same for you and for me, but the meaning of this object turns out to be different for each of us. That's the difference!

There are quite a few drawing tests and their main purpose is to establish the motivational basis of what is perceived and to establish the personal meaning of what is perceived.

Medical psychology. Full course Polin A.V.

Perception Research

To study perception, clinical and experimental psychological methods are used.

The main situations in which the clinical method is used are the following:

1) determination of the state of pain and tactile sensitivity, which is carried out using special needles, hairs, bristles of different thicknesses and sharpness;

2) determination of the state of temperature, vibration sensitivity, as well as the state of auditory and visual sensitivity;

3) use of an audiometer to study auditory sensitivity and its threshold values. Experimental psychological techniques are used to determine the state of more complex auditory and visual functions. There are 2 main options for such techniques:

1) techniques that study the simple aspects of different stages of the action of analyzers;

2) techniques used to study more complex complex activities. In addition to those listed, there are also less common and used ones.

The technique used to study visual agnosia is interesting. It uses sets of all kinds of objects and their graphic images. At the first stage of the study, clear images are presented to the patient for analysis, and the patient must say whether he recognizes the object. At the next stage, Poppelreiter tables are presented to the patient. They are complex drawings consisting of crossed out, superimposed or blurred images. The subject must recognize all the objects depicted. Test analysis is based on the number and nature of errors. To determine the state of auditory perception, the tachistoscopic method is used. It consists in the fact that the patient is offered sound recordings on which various sounds are recorded: the murmur of water, the sound of broken glass, the rustling of leaves or pages of a book being read, whispering, etc. The patient is also presented with various images. Its task is to identify both records and images. Using this method, it is sometimes possible to identify the mechanisms of illusions and hallucinations in various mental illnesses.

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The methods described below make it possible to assess the child’s perception from various angles, identifying, simultaneously with the characteristics of the perceptual processes themselves, the child’s ability to form images, make conclusions related to them, and present these conclusions in verbal form. The last two characteristics were introduced into the psychodiagnostics of children's perception because the main trend in the development of perception is precisely its gradual intellectualization.

Method 1. “What is missing from these pictures?”

The essence of this technique is that the child is offered a series of drawings presented in Fig. 11. Each of the pictures in this series is missing some essential detail. The child is given the task to identify and name the missing part as quickly as possible.

The person conducting the psychodiagnostics uses a stopwatch to record the time spent by the child on completing the entire task. The work time is assessed in points, which then serve as the basis for a conclusion about the level of development of the child’s perception.

Evaluation of results*

10 points - the child completed the task in less than 25 seconds,

while naming all 7 missing items in the pictures.

8-9 points - the child's search for all the missing items took from

26 sec to 30 sec.

6-7 points - the search time for all missing items took from 31 seconds to

4-5 points - the search time for all missing items was 36 seconds

2-3 points - the time to find all the missing items was within

from 41 sec to 45 sec.

0-1 point- the total time spent searching for all missing parts was

more than 45 sec.

Conclusions about the level of development

10 points - very tall.

Points are high.

Points - average.

Balla - low.

The score is very low.

* Ratings are given in points, in a ten-point system and are presented in intervals, which are the direct basis for drawing conclusions about the level of psychological development of the child. Along with such general conclusions, the child, as a result of his examination using one method or another, receives specific assessments that allow him to more accurately judge his level of development.

The exact evaluation criteria in the ten-point system are not specified for the reason that a priori, until sufficient experience in using the methods is gained, it is impossible to determine them. In this regard, the researcher is allowed to add or subtract one or two points (within a given range of scores) for the presence or, accordingly, lack of diligence on the part of the child in the process of his work on psychodiagnostic tasks. This procedure generally has little effect on the final results, but allows better differentiation of children.

Method 2. “Find out who it is?”

Before applying this technique, the child is explained that he will be shown parts, fragments of a certain drawing, from which it will be necessary to determine the whole to which these parts belong, that is, to reconstruct the whole drawing from a part or fragment.

A psychodiagnostic examination using this technique is carried out as follows. The child is shown rice. 12, on which all fragments are covered with a piece of paper, with the exception of fragment “a”. Based on this fragment, the child is asked to say which general pattern the depicted detail belongs to. 10 seconds are allotted to solve this problem. If during this time the child was unable to correctly answer the question posed, then for the same time - 10 seconds - he is shown the next, slightly more complete picture “b”, and so on until the child finally guesses that shown in this figure.

Rice. 12. Pictures for the “Find out who it is?” technique.

The total time spent by the child on solving the problem and the number of fragments of the drawing that he had to look through before making the final decision are taken into account.

Evaluation of results

10 points- the child was able to correctly determine from fragment of image “a” in less than 10 seconds that the whole picture depicts a dog.

7-9 points- the child established that this picture shows a dog only from a fragment of the image “b”, spending a total of 11 to 20 seconds on this.

4-6 points- the child determined that it was a dog only based on fragment “c”, spending 21 to 30 seconds solving the problem.

2-3 points- the child guessed that it was a dog only from the fragment “g”, spending from 30 seconds to 40 seconds.

0-1 point- the child, in more than 50 seconds, could not guess what kind of animal it was, having looked at all three fragments: “a”, “b” and “c”.

Conclusions about the level of development

10 points- very tall.

8-9 points- high.

4-7 points- average.

2-3 points- short.

0-1 point- very low.

Method 3. “What objects are hidden in the drawings?”

The child is explained that he will be shown several contour drawings in which many objects known to him are, as it were, “hidden”. Next, the child is presented with rice. 13 and are asked to consistently name the outlines of all objects “hidden” in its three parts: 1, 2 and 3.

The task completion time is limited to one minute. If during this time the child has not been able to completely complete the task, then he is interrupted. If the child completed the task in less than 1 minute, then the time spent on completing the task is recorded.

Note. If the person conducting the psychodiagnostics sees that the child begins to rush and prematurely, without finding all the objects, moves from one drawing to another, then he must stop the child and ask him to look in the previous drawing. You can move on to the next picture only when all the objects in the previous picture have been found. The total number of all objects “hidden” in Figures 1, 2 and 3 is 14.

Rice. 13. Pictures for the method “What objects are hidden in the pictures?”

Evaluation of results

10 points- the child named all 14 objects, the outlines of which are in all three drawings, spending less than 20 seconds on this.

8-9 points- the child named all 14 objects, spending from 21 to 30 seconds searching for them.

6-7 points- the child found and named all the objects in a time from 31 seconds to 40 seconds.

4-S points- the child solved the problem of finding all the objects in a time from 41 seconds to 50 seconds.

2-3 points- the child coped with the task of finding all the objects in a time from 51 seconds to 60 seconds.

0-1 point- in a time greater than 60 seconds, the child was unable to solve the task of finding and naming all 14 objects “hidden” in three parts of the picture.

Conclusions about the level of development

10 points- very tall.

8 -9 points- high.

4-7 points- average.

2-3 score - low.

0-1 point- very low.

Method 4. “How to patch a rug?”

The purpose of this technique is to determine to what extent the child is able, by storing images of what he has seen in short-term and operative memory, to practically use them, solving visual problems. This technique uses the pictures presented in Fig. 14. Before showing it, the child is told that this drawing shows two rugs, as well as pieces of material that can be used to patch the holes in the rugs so that the patterns of the rug and the patch do not differ. In order to solve the problem, from several pieces of material presented in the lower part of the picture, you need to select the one that most closely matches the design of the rug.

Rice. 14. Pictures for the Method "How patch the rug?

Evaluation of results

10 points- the child completed the task in less than 20 seconds.

8-9 points- the child solved all four problems correctly in a time of 21 seconds or more. up to 30 sec.

6-7 points- the child spent from 31 to 40 seconds completing the task.

4-5 points- the child spent from 41 to 50 seconds on completing the task.

2-3 points- the child’s time working on the task took from 51 seconds to 60 seconds.

0-1 point- the child failed to complete the task in more than 60 seconds.

Conclusions about the level of development

10 points- very tall.

8-9 points- high.

4-7 points- average.

2-3 points- short.

0-1 point- very low.

Related information.

32. Methods for studying perception

Phenomenological method. One of the old but relevant methods. The sensory image is considered as an immediate given - a phenomenon.

Method of introspection. This is an introspection of the content of the image of consciousness with an emphasis on their dynamics. Clarity, sharpness, detail, and fading of images are analyzed. Relationship with other relevant objects under different stimulation and observation conditions.

Experimental method. Involves formulating a hypothesis, drawing up an experimental plan, defining and controlling dependent and independent categories, collecting experimental data, testing the hypothesis using statistical procedures.

The following approaches are used in perception experiments:

Tachytoscopy. Strictly dosed and limited exposure time. Control over the speed of detection, recognition and identification of a stimulus.

Chronometry. Measuring reaction time, which is an indicator of perceptual processes. There are motor, verbal, physiological reactions.

Measuring method. Relative or absolute assessment of the stimulation parameter.

Analysis of motor components of perceptual activity. Movements of the perceived organs are recorded, carrying operational information about the process of perception.

Manipulating feedforward and feedback loops in a perceptual system. Using special devices: pseudoscope, pseudophone, vibrators, mirrors. With the help of empirical operations or injections, systematic distortions are introduced into the natural relationships between object and observer.

Genetic method. Identification of stages of development of perceptual abilities. Includes methods of ontogenetic and formative research of perception.

Event analysis. It does not place restrictions on the exposure time, as well as on the mobility of the observer in the process of perception.

Clinical method. Study of perception caused by somatic or mental disorders. The level and functions of sensory motor systems and centers of perceptual mechanisms are assessed.

A method for modeling the work of perceptual prisms. A strictly accurate description of individual perceptual phenomena.

24. Monistic and multiple memory models

Wiener divided memory into current and permanent.

RAM

Broadbent proposed a processing model in which perceptual information arrives in parallel to sensory centers that correspond to different signal modalities, where it is stored for a very short time, and then transferred to the next block, where it is processed into verbal form, this block corresponds to short-term memory.

They proposed the idea of primary and secondary memory; information from primary memory is lost because it doesn't fade. They are displaced by newly received information (interference).

Multiple memory model, Shifrin

In this model, information is not simply pumped from one block to another, but copied by translating it into other codes.

Badeley and Hinch developed a model of working memory based on the idea that storage is maintained in an active state.

Working memory is understood as a system for storing and processing information, which is not modally specific, but multimodal.

The system consists of 3 components:

The central executive component and 2 “enemy systems”. One of which specializes in processing verbal material (articulatory).

According to the model, a certain amount of information is automatically maintained in the articulatory loop.

This amount depends on the time required for vocalization of the material (1-2 seconds), so memory capacity can be expressed either through the number of stimuli or through the total duration of the manifestation.

S – memory capacity

R – reading speed
Ck – coefficients

Suppression of articulation entails a decrease in the capacity of RAM.

Shanin D.A. - the idea of an operational image - an analogue of the operative memory of the visual modality, it emphasizes the characteristics of an object that are essential when performing a specific activity.

5. General properties of sensations

Quality is the main feature of this sensation, distinguishes it from other types and varies within this type of sensation. The qualitative diversity of sensations reflects the diversity of forms of movement of matter.

Intensity is a quantitative characteristic of sensations and is determined by the strength of the current stimulus and the functional state of the receptor.

Duration of sensation. This is its temporary characteristic, determined by the functional state of the sensory organ but mainly by the action of the stimulus. When exposed to a stimulus, sensation occurs after a latent period of sensation. The latent period for different types of sensations is different.

Just as irritation does not arise, but also does not immediately disappear after the cessation of exposure to the stimulus (visual sensation - a trace remains in the form of a consistent image).

There are positive and negative positive images: positive ones remain unchanged after irritation (in cinema we do not notice periods of frame changes, because they are filled with traces of successive images). Negative: when sensing color, sequential images turn into an additional color and a negative sequential image appears, this is explained by a weakening of the sensitivity of the retina.

Analysis carried out by spatial receptors gives us information about the localization of the stimulus in space.

Forms of objective perception. The variety of receptor apparatuses and influences to which these receptors are sensitive determines the existence of various sensations as primary forms of mental reflection. Receptors can be classified according to the nature of their interaction with the stimulus: distant (auditory, visual, olfactory) and contact (temperature, ...

Activity shapes mental processes. Any activity is a combination of internal and external behavioral actions and operations. We will consider each type of mental activity separately. 2. Mental processes as a form of activity Mental processes are the general name for sensations, perceptions, adaptations, attention, memory, thinking, imagination, speech. They all participate in...

Longevity. Thus, the active longevity of an elderly person is facilitated by his development as a socially active personality and as a subject of creative activity. DIFFERENTIAL PSYCHOPHISIOLOGY Differential psychophysiology is a direction in psychology that studies individual psychophysiological differences between people. The term was introduced by V.D. Nebylitsyn (1963). In D. p. two are used...

The ambiguities and ambiguities of the concept are used in this unique definition: “Intelligence is what is measured by intelligence tests.” For example, the American psychologist L. Thurstone, using statistical methods, studied various aspects of general intelligence, which he called primary mental potencies. He identified seven such potencies: 1) counting ability - the ability to count, ...

Perception research is carried out:

1) clinical methods;

2) experimental psychological methods. The clinical method is usually used in the following cases:

1) studies of tactile and pain sensitivity;

2) study of temperature sensitivity;

3) study of hearing and vision disorders.

4) study of thresholds of auditory sensitivity and speech perception.

Experimental psychological methods are usually used to study more complex auditory and visual functions. Thus, E.F. Bazhin proposed a set of techniques, which includes:

1) techniques for studying simple aspects of the activity of analyzers;

2) techniques for studying more complex complex activities.

The following methods are also used:

1) the “Classification of Objects” technique – to identify visual agnosia;

2) Poppelreiter tables, which are images superimposed on each other and are needed to identify visual agnosia;

3) Raven tables - for studying visual perception;

4) tables proposed by M.F. Lukyanova (moving squares, wavy background) - for studying sensory excitability (in organic brain disorders);

5) tachistoscopic method (identification of listened to tape recordings with various sounds: clinking glass, murmur of water, whispering, whistling, etc.) - for the study of auditory perception.

1. Anesthesia, or loss of sensitivity, can involve both individual types of sensitivity (partial anesthesia) and all types of sensitivity (total anesthesia).

2. The so-called hysterical anesthesia is quite common - loss of sensitivity in patients with hysterical neurotic disorders (for example, hysterical deafness).

3. Hyperesthesia usually affects all areas (the most common are visual and acoustic). For example, such patients cannot tolerate sound at normal volume or not very bright light.

4. With hypoesthesia, the patient seems to vaguely perceive the world around him (for example, with visual hypoesthesia, objects for him are devoid of color, look shapeless and blurry).

5. With paresthesia, patients experience anxiety and fussiness, as well as increased sensitivity to skin contact with bedding, clothing, etc.

A type of paresthesia is senestopathy - the appearance of rather ridiculous unpleasant sensations in various parts of the body (for example, a feeling of “transfusion” inside organs). Such disorders usually occur in schizophrenia.

26. Definition and types of perception

Now let's look at the main perception disorders. But first, let’s define how perception differs from sensations. Perception is based on sensations, arises from them, but has certain characteristics.

What is common to sensations and perception is that they begin to function only with the direct impact of irritation on the sense organs.

Perception is not reduced to the sum of individual sensations, but is a qualitatively new stage of cognition.

The following are considered the basic principles of the perception of objects.

1. The principle of proximity (the closer to each other in the visual field the elements are located, the more likely they are to be combined into a single image).

2. The principle of similarity (similar elements tend to unite).

3. The principle of “natural continuation” (elements that act as parts of familiar figures, contours and forms are more likely to be combined into precisely these figures, contours and forms).

4. The principle of closure (elements of the visual field tend to create a closed, integral image).

The above principles determine the basic properties of perception:

1) objectivity – the ability to perceive the world in the form of separate objects that have certain properties;

2) integrity - the ability to mentally complete a perceived object to a holistic form if it is represented by an incomplete set of elements;

3) constancy - the ability to perceive objects as constant in shape, color, consistency and size, regardless of the conditions of perception;

The main types of perception are distinguished depending on the sense organ (as well as sensations):

1) visual;

2) auditory;

3) taste;

4) tactile;

5) olfactory.

One of the most significant types of perception in clinical psychology is a person’s perception of time (it can change significantly under the influence of various diseases). Great importance is also attached to disturbances in the perception of one’s own body and its parts.

27. Basic perception disorders

The main perception disorders include:

1. Illusions are a distorted perception of a real object. For example, illusions can be auditory, visual, olfactory, etc.

Based on the nature of their occurrence, there are three types of illusions:

1) physical;

2) physiological;

3) mental.

2. Hallucinations are disturbances of perception that occur without the presence of a real object and are accompanied by the belief that this object really exists at a given time and place.

Visual and auditory hallucinations are usually divided into two groups:

1. Simple. These include:

a) photopsia - perception of bright flashes of light, circles, stars;

b) acoasms - perception of sounds, noise, crackling, whistling, crying.

2. Complex. These include, for example, auditory hallucinations, which have the appearance of articulate phrasal speech and are usually of a commanding or threatening nature.

3. Eidetism is a disorder of perception in which a trace of just ended excitation in some analyzer remains in the form of a clear and vivid image.

4. Depersonalization is a distorted perception of both one’s own personality as a whole and individual qualities and parts of the body. Based on this, two types of depersonalization are distinguished:

1) partial (impaired perception of individual parts of the body); 2) total (impaired perception of the whole body).

5. Derealization is a distorted perception of the surrounding world. An example of derealization is the symptom of “already seen” (de ja vu).

6. Agnosia refers to impaired recognition of objects, as well as parts of one’s own body, but at the same time consciousness and self-awareness are preserved.

The following types of agnosia are distinguished:

1. Visual agnosia – disorders of recognition of objects and their images while maintaining sufficient visual acuity. Are divided into:

a) object agnosia;

b) agnosia for colors and fonts;

c) optical-spatial agnosia (patients cannot convey the spatial characteristics of an object in a drawing: further - closer, more - less, higher - lower, etc.).

2. Auditory agnosia – impaired ability to distinguish speech sounds in the absence of hearing impairment;

3. Tactile agnosia - disorders characterized by failure to recognize objects by feeling them while maintaining tactile sensitivity.