The life of a peasant family (XVIII - early XX centuries). What was life like for townspeople at the end of the 18th century in Russia?

The 18th century in Europe is the century of reason and enlightenment, the century of philosophers and bourgeois revolutions. But if you look away from lofty matters to the life of ordinary citizens, you understand that there was little sublime in him. Our review contains 9 facts from life in enlightened Europe of the 18th century that may shock a modern person.

1. Personal hygiene

2. Deodorant

3. Depilation

European women in the 18th century did not pay any attention to body hair until the 1920s. It probably didn't annoy anyone.

4. Toilets

There was often a persistent smell of sewage in the houses. The fact is that there were no sewerage or running water in European cities in the 18th century, and most people relieved themselves right in the room, and threw the contents of the pot out the window. And even when outdoor toilets became common, potties were still used at night in the Victorian era.

5. Toilet paper

Toilet paper didn't come into existence until the late 1800s, and until then people used what they had at hand. The rich had the luxury of wiping themselves with strips of cloth. The poor used old rags, moss, and leaves.

6. Bedbugs

In the 18th century, bedbugs were a real scourge. The stale bed linen probably contributed to this. True, in the Victorian era, women were advised not to keep their bed clean, but to wipe the bottom of the bed with kerosene to kill all insects.

7. Dirty streets

The streets in large cities “smelled” with a mixture of manure, human feces and grass rotting under these substances. It was from those times that the tradition came that a gentleman should walk closer to the edge of the road. This was simply necessary in order to protect his lady from the splashes of passing carriages.

8. Oral hygiene

Poor people used toothpicks and wiped their gums with a cloth. The Italian company Marvis began making toothpaste for the wealthy in the early 1700s.

9. Mercury as a hygiene product

Another scourge of the 18th century was lice. They got rid of them at that time in a very extravagant, by today's standards, way. Mercury was used as a means of getting rid of lice. This liquid metal was eaten and rubbed into the skin. True, some died faster than the lice.

However, mercury is not an isolated example of this. at that time they seemed to people the most common practice.

In the 18th century great changes occurred not only in government affairs and artistic culture, but also in the everyday life of Russian people, especially the privileged class - the nobility. In today's lesson you will learn about housing, clothing, food and leisure of the main strata of Russian society.

Topic: Russia in the XVII-XVIII centuries.

Lesson: Everyday life inXVIIIcentury

In housing construction of the 18th century. Class differences are most clearly manifested. The state palaces of the Russian emperors at the end of the century had nothing in common not only with the royal mansions of the 17th century, but also with the modest dwellings of the Peter the Great era. To illuminate just one of them on holidays, at least 20 thousand candles and 150 thousand lamps were required. Built in the Baroque style, they were richly decorated with stucco patterns, wall paintings, mirrors, paintings, gilding, carpets, and weapons. The dwellings of the simple urban population and peasants were still built of wood. When even a small fire occurred in the city, there was a threat of burning out entire neighborhoods and even cities. For the first time in the 18th century. numbering of houses on the streets appeared (previously it was not sequential and next to house No. 24 there could be house No. 3265). The city houses themselves were now built differently. If previously there was a stove in the center of the house, around which the living quarters were located, now the central place was occupied by a corridor into which most of the rooms opened. Increasingly, even in poor city houses, glass was inserted into the windows, and not mica, as before. Peasant houses were built and maintained in the old way.

Rice. 1. Landowner's estate of the 18th century. ()

XVIII century was marked by a revolution in the dress of the nobility. The study of Peter's legislation made it possible to draw conclusions, on the one hand, about the breadth of the reforms that had begun, and on the other, about the caution and correctness in carrying out the “costume” reform. The national adjustment of European clothing standards was expressed in the use of predominantly cloth, furs, and a bright palette of costumes. During the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna, fashionable French standards were finally established. Catherine II tried to introduce English trends along with French fashions, and correlated both with national traditions. The nobles wore thin shirts with lace, ties and bows, short and narrow camisoles. On top they wore caftans made of velvet or thick silk. The sleeves were decorated with gold embroidery and pearls. The most fashionable shoes were square-toed shoes with low heels. Their buckles were even decorated with diamonds. Accessories were mandatory items of clothing: gloves, watches, canes, powdered wigs. An indispensable attribute of a lady's outfit was a corset; they tightened it with all their might so that the waist seemed very thin. Skirts were worn full, with crinolines (frames). Dresses were made from expensive fabrics. In society it was considered indecent to appear several times in the same outfit. Society ladies wore jewelry. Such luxury was not available to small-scale nobles and poor officials. However, they also sought to follow fashion, at least in clothing styles. The peasants continued to wear the same sheepskin sheepskin coats, army coats, and zipuns.

Nutrition of the main part of the population of Russia in the 18th century. remained traditional. The rich and middle urban population now have new innovations on their tables: sausages and sausages, zrazy, salads, sausages, cutlets. The main principle of the pre-Petrine “separate” food system was violated. If earlier the whole bird or pig carcass was roasted on a spit, now the meat was cut into pieces, for which stoves and frying pans were used for the first time. Western cooking was popular among aristocrats. The French chef Olivier invented the recipe for the most famous salad today. Following Western fashion in food led to the fact that the nobles consumed ordinary Russian dishes at home. Cabbage soup and stews disappeared from official receptions and dinners. Broths and soups were served instead. Russian pies have been replaced by puff pastries in the French style.

Nobles took part in balls, masquerades, and dinner parties. At the same time, they considered themselves very busy. It was customary to dance at balls. Going to the theater was fashionable. In 1756, a theater was created in St. Petersburg - the Russian Imperial Drama Theater. The theater has firmly entered into the life of Muscovites. Theater advertisements are published in each issue of Moskovskie Vedomosti. On December 30, 1780, the Petrovsky Theater (named after the street) was opened. One of the most popular activities in high society was collecting paintings, sculptures, snuff boxes, jewelry, canes, etc. The townspeople took part in the celebrations of the aristocrats. On coronation days, people were treated to beer, pies, mead, and fireworks were displayed. The townspeople really liked the folk festivities - New Year's, Maslenitsa; There was a circus, a carousel, and booths.

The peasants had no free time. In their free time from work, they most often did housework or went to church. On winter holidays we rode from the mountains; on Christmas Eve - from Christmas to Epiphany - they caroled and danced in circles.

In everyday life, in the everyday life of Russians, the contradictions between high society and the poor strata of society are increasingly deepening.

List of literature on the topic "Everyday life in XVIIIcentury":

1. History of the state and peoples of Russia. XVI-XVIII centuries - M.: Bustard, 2003

2. Krasnobaev B.I. Essays on Russian culture of the 18th century. - M., 1987

3. Culture and life of Russia from ancient times to the twentieth century. / Author-compiler M. V. Korotkova. - M.: Bustard, 2009

4. Markov B.V. Culture of everyday life. Textbook allowance / B.V. Markov. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2008

5. Tereshchenko A.V. History of culture of the Russian people / A.V. Tereshchenko. - M.: Eksmo, 2007

3. Russian general education portal ().

Homework

1. What changes have occurred in the construction of palaces and estates for aristocrats?

2. What's new in the clothing of nobles?

3. What changes have occurred in the food of Russians and methods of cooking?

4. Describe the leisure time of representatives of the upper classes?

5. Why changes in everyday life in the 18th century? mainly affected only the upper strata of society?

The estates of Russian nobles in the 18th century were a manorial estate with villages, forests, meadows, arable land, and a river.

The estate of a wealthy landowner, a noble nobleman

In the center of the estate there is a two-story manor house. It is built of stone in a fashionable classicism style. The main facade of the building is decorated with a portico with columns. The owner's coat of arms and his monogram are placed on the pediment. The entrance of the manor house faces the park, which is the pride of the owner. Linden, maple, oak, and spruce trees are planted in small groves. Trees planted along the paths form alleys. Exquisite bridges span the small river. And here is the greenhouse, in which exotic southern plants grow - oranges, bananas, pomegranates, laurel... Among the greenery of the park, the contours of fashionable buildings appear: on a hillock there is a stone round gazebo, on the river bank - a mill, and in a small ravine - the tower, or rather its artificial ruins. It was precisely these romantic park structures that architects built at the end of the 18th century. Next to the manor's dwelling there is a house (outbuilding) for servants. At some distance there are a church and outbuildings - a cookhouse, barns, glaciers and cellars, stables, a kennel, a barnyard, a bathhouse.

Lord's house

Climbing up the porch and passing through the oak doors of the manor house, we find ourselves in a spacious lobby. A suite of rooms radiates from it in both directions: a state hall, a living room, an office, a library, a dining room. The pantry stores tablecloths, napkins and dishes. We go up a wide staircase to the second floor: here are the bedrooms, a children's room, a boudoir - a ladies' room... The ceilings of the rooms are high, decorated with stucco and paintings. The floors are made of expensive parquet. The walls of many rooms are covered with damask (silk), and in the library and office they are trimmed with wood. Instead of stoves, the house has fashionable fireplaces. The furniture is made from valuable wood. The house is decorated with floor and wall clocks, many paintings and mirrors, various lighting fixtures - chandeliers, wall sconces, candlesticks on tables and fireplaces.

Celebration in the Tauride Palace in 1791

This is exactly what Prince Potemkin did when in April 1791 he organized a gala reception at the Tauride Palace in St. Petersburg. Three thousand people, led by the empress, were invited to the holiday. Near the palace, tables were set where people from the people could eat. The halls of the palace were illuminated by 140 thousand lamps and 20 thousand candles. In the winter garden, among the orange trees, rose bushes and jasmine, there was a fountain that flowed with lavender water. The nightingales began to sing. In the center of the garden there was a marble gazebo with a statue of Catherine II in the form of a legislator. As soon as the guests filled the hall, the music started playing. 300 musicians and singers were invited. At the first sounds of music, 24 dancing couples appeared in the hall, led by the Grand Dukes Alexander and Konstantin, Catherine’s grandchildren. This was followed by a theatrical performance. A ball follows. And at the end - dinner. 50 tables were set in different parts of the palace. The empress's table was set with gold dishes. Potemkin personally served the guest. The holiday cost the owner 200 thousand rubles.

31 facts about the life and everyday life of Russian people of the 18th century from the first Japanese book about our country.

For ten years, the Japanese captain Daikokuya Kodayu lived in Russia and wrote down everything he saw and heard: from the appearance of people to the rules of castration of animals.
Based on these records, the Japanese scientist Hoshu Katsuragawa wrote the book “Brief Information about the Northern Regions” (“Hokusa Bunryaku”), in which he described in great detail and scrupulously the life of the Russian people and the appearance of the country as a whole.

1. There are 31 letters in the Russian alphabet, all letters have a sound, but have no meaning. Connected together, several letters form one word, and only then does the meaning appear.
2. In Russia the production of five grain plants is very small, so all salaries are paid in money.
3. Churches are much taller than the houses of ordinary people, and are built in such a way that they gradually taper towards the top. The roofs are round, like an inverted pot, and in the center there is a cross covered with brass. The main building of the temple and the bell tower are the same. There are many round holes made around the roof for pigeons.
4. Russians have blue eyes, very large noses, and brown hair. Russians grow their hair from the day they are born, so it is very thin and soft. Both noble and ordinary people shave their beards; only among the peasants can you meet people with beards.
5. The inhabitants of Siberia have black hair and eyes. The men dress generally like the Dutch.
6. The women all dress according to the German pattern. They consider women with ruddy faces to be beautiful.

View of Red Square, 1795. Hilferding, colored engraving.

1. Across the country in the summer, people go to bed from 8 to 10 pm and get up from 3:30 to 5:30 in the morning.

   In winter, they go to bed from 9 to 11 o'clock in the evening, and get up from 12 o'clock to 2 hours 40 minutes in the afternoon. This is explained by the fact that the day at this time is very short and the night is very long.

2. In Moscow and St. Petersburg, and not only there, but throughout the country, the old Russian language is not used, but is often mixed with French and German. Etiquette is entirely based on French rules.
3. Since the country is located close to the north, it is very cold there. Usually snow falls from the end of September and remains until April-May.
4. It is especially cold in Yakutsk and St. Petersburg because they are located closer to the north. It is often so cold there that ears and noses fall off, and sometimes you are even left without arms and legs.
5. In summer there is no particular heat; even in cloth clothes without lining it is usually not hot. In such a cold country, of course, five grains do not grow. Only buckwheat, tobacco, cucumbers, watermelons, beans, radishes, carrots, turnips and lettuce are sown. Rice is brought from Turkey, so rice there is very expensive.
6. Officials attach a flower woven from silk to their hats: the military - a white flower, the civilians - a black one.

The old building of Moscow State University, view from the Kremlin across the Neglinnaya River, 1795. Hilferding, colored engraving.

1. Both men and women, after doing their hair, sprinkle it with powder, and the hair turns gray. People of the lower classes use potato powder for this.
2. Both men and women ride horses, but women, when sitting in the saddle, bend one leg and place it on top of the saddle, and hang the other. However, lower class women ride the same way as men, sitting on horseback.
3. Babies lie in hanging boxes, covered with a cloth mattress filled with bird down. When the child cries, the box is rocked.
4. For everyone - both noble and simple - one husband has one wife, and they do not have concubines.
5. Foreigners are allowed to marry Russians, but to do this they must accept the Russian faith and change their first and last name. Otherwise, the marriage is not permitted.
6. When a child is born, all the relatives come to inquire about his health and bring money. A richer person is chosen from among relatives and acquaintances, and he gives the newborn a name as the betrothed father.

View across the Dnieper to the Frolov Gate of Smolensk in 1787.

1. Medicine is not divided into therapy and surgery: one person deals with the treatment of eye, dental, women's and children's diseases. In addition, there are pharmacists, called apothecaries, who run pharmacies.
2. In the capital, the families of officials and the rich always keep blacks, sometimes three or four people, and sometimes seven or eight. It also happens that they marry black men and women so that they can have children. Their faces are black, like black varnish, their noses are wide, their lips are turned out and very red, only the soles of their feet are white.
3. About five versts from St. Petersburg there is a large island, where foreign merchant ships flock in a continuous stream all the time. This explains that, although almost nothing is produced in Russia, everything is completely satisfied with the products of other countries.
4. The author translates the Russian words “vodka”, “wine”, “beer” in his dictionary in a descriptive way: for him, vodka is “good sake”, wine is “bad sake”, beer is “cloudy sake”.
5. The order of meals on ordinary days is as follows: first they eat ham with bread, then chicken soup, then beef, then fish broth, after which they eat round dough balls filled with milk.

   Following this, roast goose is served, and finally thin porridge is eaten. Finally, sweets are served, then they wash their hands, rinse their mouths, drink coffee, smoke and leave the table. After lunch, both noble and common people go to bed for an hour.

6. A lot of sugar and butter are added to foods. Before cooking, fish and poultry are stuffed with grapes, white plums, oranges sprinkled with sugar, as well as rice or cereal.

Veliky Novgorod in the 1780s. Balthazar Traverse

1. For the common people, lunch consists of one dish - meat or fish with bread. Radish is eaten raw, sprinkled with salt. Utensils consist of tin or wooden bowls, and spoons are made of copper or wood. Beef is an everyday food at both the top and bottom.
2. Women's roles in theaters are played by real women, as a result of which sometimes there are cases of debauchery in the theater.
3. There are three brothels in St. Petersburg and three on Vasilyevsky Island. In addition, there are also secret lairs of individual prostitutes in various places. The rules there are very strict, and if such an illegal prostitute is discovered, then not only she, but also her guest is punished.
4. In Russia, neither the New Year nor the five seasonal holidays are celebrated at all, and the Empress's birthday is considered a joyful holiday, celebrated throughout the country by both noble and ordinary people . The birthdays of the heir to the throne and the empress's grandchildren are celebrated in the same way.
5. In Russia, many domestic animals are castrated. Thanks to this, they fatten well and the color of their coat becomes more beautiful.
6. St. Petersburg is the new capital of Russia, it was built extremely beautifully. The houses are all brick, four to five floors high. The homes of ordinary residents are not particularly different from the homes of government officials.
7. Russians are tall, large, with correct posture, distinguished by a respectful and peaceful character, but at the same time they are courageous, decisive and stop at nothing. They do not like idleness and idleness.

Russian culture in the 18th century is undergoing remarkable changes. If before this time there was an accumulation of scientific knowledge, now it is turning into science itself. Dramatic changes are taking place in all areas. Providentialism in the interpretation of natural and social phenomena (based on God's providence and conduct) gives way to rationalism.

If in the 17th century. While only the first attempts and experiments in depicting the inner life of a person, his thoughts, passions, aspirations, virtues and vices are observed, in the 18th century they made great strides forward in this regard. This applies to literature, painting, sculpture, and culture in general. Characteristic of this time is the desire for secularism, a humanistic perception of reality.

Already in this century, Russia is beginning at an accelerated pace to eliminate the lag in cultural development, so characteristic of past centuries (starting from the era). Domestic scientists and writers, poets and painters, architects and sculptors made possible the titanic rise of Russian culture that occurred in the next century, which is rightly called the golden age of Russian culture.

Enlightenment in Russia in the 18th century. also affected the sphere of education. To train specialists, schools were opened: Navigation, artillery, engineering in both capitals; mountain - in the Urals; diocesan and digital, garrison and admiralty - in the provinces. There was a school of foreign languages ​​in Moscow. The Maritime Academy was founded in St. Petersburg. Nobles were sent to Germany and the Netherlands, Italy and England to study science.

Teaching aids, textbooks, dictionaries, and primers were published. The foundations of mathematical sciences were expounded by L. F. Magnitsky in his “Arithmetic”(first edition - 1707).

“Vedomosti”, the first printed newspaper in Russia, could be purchased by anyone. A civil font was introduced, which was simpler and more understandable, and the Church Slavonic font was used only in liturgical books. Arabic numerals replaced the old letter designations.

In the middle - second half of the century, there were more and more literate people. By the beginning of the 19th century. There were 550 educational institutions in the country with 62 thousand students. This was a step forward. But Russia lagged far behind many European countries. For example, in France there were up to 8 thousand schools (1794). The duration of training ranged from three to five years. Studied according to “Arithmetic” L. Magnitsky, “Grammar” M. Smotritsky, “First teaching of lines” F. Prokopovich, ABCs, Book of Hours. Psalms. Among the students of secondary schools were the children of peasants and artisans, artisans and soldiers, and sailors. There were special soldiers' schools - for the children of soldiers, which continued the traditions of the digital schools of Peter I.

There were more opportunities for training nobles - private boarding schools, gentry corps (Land, Marine, Artillery, Engineering), an institute for noble maidens (Smolny Institute in St. Petersburg). Children of the Orthodox clergy studied in 66 theological seminaries and schools.

There were special schools: mining, medical, navigating, land surveying, commercial and others, about two dozen in total.

In 1725, the Academy of Sciences appeared in St. Petersburg, with a university and a gymnasium attached to it. In 1755, following the initiative of I. I. Shuvalov and M. V. Lomonosov, Moscow University was founded. The university has graduated a large number of specialists in various fields of knowledge, many prominent scientists have emerged from them. In 1757, the Academy of Arts began training.

In the second half of the century, the authorities made an interesting attempt to reform education and upbringing. Its initiator and active guide to life was Ivan Ivanovich Betskoy. The illegitimate son of Field Marshal I.I. Trubetskoy, he was born in 1704 in Stockholm, where his father was in captivity. Upon returning to Russia, he was sent to Denmark, where he received his education. Traveled a lot around Europe. Then, from 1729, he served in the College of Foreign Affairs. In 1747, having retired, he went to Paris, where he lived for 15 years. He met the encyclopedists; their and Rousseau’s ideas on the education of youth inspired him.

At the beginning of 1762, Emperor Peter III summoned him to St. Petersburg, and he headed the Office of the Construction of Houses and Parks. In this position, he contributed to the decoration of Northern Palmyra - a monument to Peter the Great by Falcone, the lattice of the Summer Garden, one of the Neva bridges and granite embankments appeared in the capital. The accession of Catherine II, whose mother was introduced to Betsky at one time, brought him enormous wealth and command over a number of institutions - the Academy of Arts, the Land Noble Cadet Corps and, most importantly, educational homes in Moscow and St. Petersburg, the Smolny Institute (“educational society for noble maidens” ).

Betskoy based his pedagogical reform on the idea of ​​creating a new breed of people through education. According to his thoughts, borrowed from French educators and supported by the empress, the goal of educating youth is to give them a good general education and moral development ( “ennoblement of the heart”). To do this, students need to be isolated from the inert environment from which they came and placed in closed schools (boarding schools). Thereby “bestial and violent in words and actions” old routiners will not be able to influence them.

Of course, the expectation of isolating students from society was naive - they returned to it after completing their studies. However, Betsky's efforts contributed to the spread of general education. He also laid the foundation for women's education. On his initiative, city schools, educational philistine schools at the Gentry Corps and the Academy of Arts were created.

The science. The development of science was caused by the practical needs of the state, the emergence of a significant number of Russian and foreign scientists, and the expansion of ties with world science. In connection with a large number of expeditions to different parts of the country, its participants draw up maps of the Baltic and Caspian seas, the Don and Kamchatka, etc. I. K. Kirilov brought together geographical discoveries in his “Atlas of the Russian Empire”(1734).

Under Peter I, works on the history of the Northern War were created - “The Book of Mars”, “History of the Northern War”. To promote scientific knowledge, the Kunstkamera was opened in St. Petersburg (1719) with its historical relics, zoological and other collections ( "monsters", all sorts of wonders, rarities). In the second quarter of the 18th century. V. N. Tatishchev created a general work - “Russian History”. It uses a large number of different sources, including Russian chronicles, including those that have not survived to this day. Thus, the excerpts from them given in his work, firstly, provide information about events that are absent in other chronicles known to us, and secondly, they allow us to more fully study the history of the chronicle itself. In this regard, there have been debates in historical science in recent decades: some scientists, studying “Tatishchevskie” news from chronicles, do not trust them, consider them to be inventions of the famous historian of the 18th century. Others, on the contrary, proceed from the fact that he quoted and retold original, but not preserved, manuscripts. Historians confirm their conclusions with detailed analysis “Tatishchevsky” news in comparison with all other sources. Tatishchev did what was usual for his time: sometimes he freely rearranged the source notes, accompanied them with his own additions, reasoning, etc., and this often misled and continues to mislead his critics.

The encyclopedist scientist, the first Russian academician, was M.V. Lomonosov, about whom Pushkin said that he, the founder of Moscow University, “itself was our first university”. Hard work and genius abilities made him a titan of science - he worked in the fields of physics and chemistry, astronomy and mineralogy, geology and mining, history and geography, linguistics and poetics. The scientist left a deep mark in these and other branches of knowledge. Lomonosov discovered, for example, the law of conservation of matter and motion, substantiated theories of the atomic-molecular structure of matter, the reasons for the uplift of continents and mountain building, etc. In historical science, he strongly criticized the scientists Bayer and Miller and their Norman theory. The history of the Russian people and their language begins, as he argued, with “extreme antiquity,” and not at all with the calling of the Varangians, whom he considered inhabitants of the southern coast of the Baltic.

L. Euler, a great mathematician who worked simultaneously with Lomonosov at the Academy, called him “a brilliant person who, with his knowledge, does credit as much to the academy as to his science”.

Lomonosov was followed by a whole galaxy of outstanding Russian scientists. M.V. Severgin became the founder of the Russian mineralogical school. S.P. Krashennikov compiled the famous “Description of the land of Kamchatka”, I. I. Lepekhin - description of the lands of the Volga region, Urals, Siberia ( “Daily Notes”).

At the same time, in the second half of the century, the scientific foundations of biology, agricultural chemistry and other branches of knowledge were laid. Outstanding scientists work in the field of history - M. M. Shcherbatov (), I. N. Boltin.

Socio-political thought in Russia in the 18th century. Peter's reforms, the turbulent life of the country during the era of the Northern and other wars, palace coups gave rise to a large number of responses from contemporaries.

In Peter's time, many notes appeared, “projects”, the authors of which supported reforms and proposed certain measures. I. T. Pososhkov, author “Books about poverty and wealth”, a spokesman for the interests of the merchants and peasants, advocates for the development of domestic industry and trade. To do this, a policy of protectionism should be pursued in the interests of Russian entrepreneurs, and foreign merchants should be brought “to humility.” In the interests of the state, it is necessary to regulate the duties of peasants in favor of the owners. “To the peasants,” the author argued, “landowners are not centuries-old owners.”.

To streamline administrative and judicial institutions, Pososhkov proposed to put in them instead of “noble-born” people from any other classes, if they “have mental acuity,” to “exterminate” “all sorts of obvious and hidden robbers.” He is a supporter of equality of all classes before the court. Pososhkov proposed preparing a new code with the help of elected representatives from all residents of Russia, including peasants. The draft of this code of laws must be published for discussion and amendments (“People’s Council”).

The results of the reforms are discussed in “Reflections on the causes of the Sveian War” Vice-Chancellor P.P. Shafirov (Peter I himself wrote the afterword to him). Feofan Prokopovich, vice-president of the Synod, famous preacher, “Spiritual Regulations” And “True will of the monarch” acts, in accordance with Peter's plans, as a supporter of the subordination of the clergy to secular power. He also says that the king is free to bequeath the throne to whomever he wishes, regardless of the degree of kinship of the heir. Of the three forms of state power—democracy (power of the people), aristocracy and monarchy—the third is most acceptable, i.e. unlimited power of the monarch.

In theological treatises and sermons, Prokopovich glorifies Russia’s successes on the battlefield, in the development of industry, trade, and reforms.

The historian Tatishchev, in many records, “opinions,” and “projects,” advocated the development of crafts and manufactures, trade and agriculture. The main and most honest camp of the state, that is, its support, in his opinion, is the nobility.

Accelerating the economic development of Russia is a thought that permeates many of Lomonosov’s works. He exalts work; only deeds should determine a person’s position, and not noble breed, title, or the merits of ancestors. The brilliant Pomor relies on the will of the monarch, on reforms from above. He is a supporter of “enlightened absolutism.” Lomonosov sees great benefit for the state in the education of all classes, including peasants. He is convinced: “at the university, the more respectable student is the one who knows more. And whose son he is, there is no need for that.”

Criticism of serfdom was voiced in the writings of A. Ya. Polenov, a soldier’s son, I. G. Eisen, a Livonian pastor, and L. Keneman, a Mitavian lawyer, in the speeches of deputies of the Legislative Commission of 1767 - 1768. - nobles G. S. Korobin and Y. P. Kozelsky, peasants I. Chuprov, I. Zherebtsov, Cossack A. Aleinikov and others. Deputies raised the question of softening serfdom, limiting it, and gradually liberating it.

Figures of the Russian Enlightenment, who saw the dissemination of knowledge, science, and improvement of the mind as the main way to transform society, did a lot to publish books and magazines, and translate the works of European thinkers. They also raised the peasant question sharply. N.I. Novikov in his journals, most of all in “Trutne” And “Painter”, published many articles about the immorality of serfdom.

A. N. Radishchev in the book “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow”(1790) painted a picture of the forced existence of the Russian serf peasantry. Having condemned serfdom, he writes that it is necessary to carry out “the complete abolition of slavery” and transfer the land to the peasants. Radishchev equally decisively condemns the monarchy: “Autocracy is the state most contrary to human nature.”

Folklore in the 18th century. Among the people, traditions, legends, and memories of the past of Rus' were passed on from mouth to mouth and accumulated. They are reflected in epics and fairy tales, proverbs and sayings, everyday and historical songs. The historical memory of the times of the Kyiv heroes and the Battle of Kulikovo was preserved. The Terrible Tsar and the Troubles of the early 17th century. Songs about Ermak and Stepan Razin were very popular.

In many works of folk art, their compilers show the “ferocity” of landowners and the forced position of serfs. “Wherever you turn, there are gentlemen everywhere,” complains the anonymous “The Cry of the Serfs”. The compilers of peasant and soldier songs and popular prints (pictures with texts) look at their lives just as sadly.

Russian literature of the 18th century. In the 18th century The printing of books on various branches of knowledge took on a much wider scope. Secular books have priority.

The stories develop plots from the surrounding life: in them we will meet living images of people of that time - either a petty nobleman, a rogue and a scoundrel from Staraya Russa (“The Tale of Frol Skobeev”), or nobles and merchants who were fans of European morals and pleasures (“About Russian sailor Vasily”, “The story of Alexander, a Russian nobleman”, “The story of the Russian merchant John”).

In the middle of the 18th century. Classicism is established in Russian literature. It arose under the influence of Western Europe, which was earlier in time, but acquired its own characteristic features - the pathos of national statehood, absolute monarchy. The founder of classicism in Russia is A.D. Cantemir, the son of a Moldavian ruler who went into the service of Peter the Great. This trend reached its pinnacle in the solemn, philosophical odes of Lomonosov with their ideas of a wise monarch and national cultural progress.

Russian classicism is represented by the names of A. P. Sumarokov, its head, M. M. Kheraskov (also from Moldovans), V. I. Maykov, Ya. B. Knyazhnin and others. Preaching high civic feelings, noble deeds, they proceeded from the thought about the inseparability of the interests of the nobility and autocratic statehood.

At the end of the century, classicism was replaced by sentimentalism. He has a deep interest in the feelings, experiences, and interests of the common man, especially those from the middle classes. N.M. Karamzin, the future great historian, wrote in the genre of a sentimental story, a sentimental journey. Subtly conveying the deep experiences of ordinary people, villagers, for the first time in Russian literature he tried to draw the inner world of peasants.

In a number of works belonging to the genre of classicism, elements of realism are clearly visible. D. I. Fonvizin in "Foreman" And “Undergrown” aptly, realistically describes the life of landowners' estates, the morals of their owners, sympathizes with the fate of the peasants, whose situation, in his opinion, requires relief by softening the morals of the nobility, their enlightenment.

The work of G. R. Derzhavin also often came into conflict with the canons of classicism in poetry. He became one of the predecessors of A.S. Pushkin.

Architecture of Russia in the 18th century. During construction, especially in its “paradise” (paradise) - the new capital of Russia, it took on an exceptional scale. Under the leadership of D. Trezzini, an architect from Italy, they erected the bell tower of the cathedral in the Peter and Paul Fortress, the building of the colleges (now it houses the university), etc. At the same time and later, other architects, foreign (Schluter, Leblon, Michetti) and Russian (Zemtsov, Eropkin, etc.), also worked on the construction of St. Petersburg. A new, mixed style was developed - using foreign and local motifs.

In Moscow, they continued to develop the traditions of Russian, or Naryshkin, Baroque. These are the Church of the Intercession in Fili, built for L.K. Naryshkin; Church of Ivan the Warrior on Yakimanka; Church of the Archangel Gabriel on Chistye Prudy (Menshikov Tower), etc.

In the second half of the century, classicism dominated in architecture. In St. Petersburg and its environs, remarkable creations were left by A. D. Zakharov, A. N. Voronikhin, G. Cameron, D. Quarenghi and many other architects. Outstanding examples of this style are the Tauride Palace in St. Petersburg (I. E. Old); in Moscow: the house of P. E. Pashkov (V. I. Bazhenov), the Senate building in the Kremlin (M. F. Kazakov), etc. These buildings are characterized by monumentality, majestic simplicity, solemnity, harmony of lines and volumes. They reflect ideas of patriotic pride, triumph and the power of the state.

The great architect of Russia Vasily Ivanovich Bazhenov, born in 1737 in the family of a clergyman of one of the court cathedrals of the Moscow Kremlin, showed extraordinary natural talent from childhood - he enthusiastically sketched ancient buildings in the second capital. The famous architect D. Ukhtomsky found out about him and took him into training. Then he moved to the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts to S.I. Chevakinsky, becoming his assistant in the construction of the St. Nicholas Naval Cathedral. Bazhenov also studied in Paris and Rome. Returning to his homeland, he built arsenal buildings in both capitals, in Moscow - the Pashkov house, in the national Gothic style - a palace in Tsaritsyno, etc. Bazhenov’s connections with Novikov, Tsarevich Pavel Petrovich, with the Freemasons brought upon him the wrath of the empress, and he was removed from business The Tsaritsyn Palace remained unfinished (Catherine considered it gloomy), and the grandiose project of rebuilding the Kremlin remained completely unclaimed. For some time, Bazhenov was engaged in private buildings. At the end of his reign, the empress returned him to the northern capital (1792), and he built buildings in Kronstadt. Emperor Paul appointed him vice-president of the Academy of Arts, and the brilliant architect set about new projects and plans, but soon died (1799).

Sentimentalism was reflected in park architecture ( "grottoes of solitude", gazebos, stylization "wildlife").

Finally, the famous V. Rastrelli worked in the Baroque style (Winter Palace, Smolny Monastery Cathedral, many other buildings in different cities). The son of the sculptor K-B Rastrelli, he was born in 1700. He studied abroad for about five years. Upon returning to St. Petersburg, by order of Anna Ivanovna, he built the Winter Palace (1735-1739), then the Biron Palace in Mitau (Courland). According to his designs, many buildings were erected in Moscow (Annengofsky, Lefortovo houses), St. Petersburg and its environs (the palace in Tsarskoe Village, palaces of Bobrinsky, Vorontsov, Stroganov in the capital, etc.), Kiev (St. Andrew's Cathedral) and others. The crowning achievement of his activity was the construction of a complex of buildings of the Smolny Monastery (40-50s, completed by V. P. Stasov at the beginning of the 19th century). Rastrelli died in 1771.

Russian painting of the 18th century. Secular painting under Peter I expressed itself mainly in the portrait. Brothers Ivan and Roman Nikitin, Andrei Matveev painted Peter, members of his family, associates, successors - Peter II. The portraits were made in a realistic spirit, imbued with psychologism.

In the genre of miniature portraits on enamel, Peter, his wife and sister were depicted by I Adolsky and G Musikiysky.

In the middle and second half of the century, classic painters gained fame - A. P. Losenko ( "Vladimir and Rogneda", "Hector's Farewell to Andromache"), G. I. Ugryumov ( "Test of Jan Usmar's Strength", "The ceremonial entry of Alexander Nevsky into Pskov") and others. Imitation of ancient models, abstraction and ideality of images characteristic of them reduce their impact on the general viewer.

"Sensitive" plots and pastoralism are inherent in the paintings of masters of the sentimental movement (M. M. Ivanov - "Milking a Cow"; landscapes by S. F. Shchedrin, portraits by V. L. Borovikovsky).

Vasily Lukich Borovikovsky occupied an outstanding place in the history of Russian painting. Born in 1758 in Mirgorod, the son of a nobleman, he served in the army for some time, retired as a lieutenant. Returning to his native land, he did what he loved - painting. Catherine II during her trip to Crimea (1787), passing through Mirgorod, drew attention to his paintings, allegorically depicting her and Peter I, talked with him, and on her advice he went to St. Petersburg. Here he studied at the Academy of Arts, with Levitsky. Working in the portrait genre, he, having become an academician (1795), quickly gained great fame for his portraits of the Empress, Derzhavin, and many nobles. He also painted paintings on religious subjects ( "Annunciation" and others) The artist’s paintings are characterized by an amazing freshness of colors, which has survived to this day, unlike many paintings of his contemporaries. Unfortunately, Borovikovsky did not leave a description of the technical techniques of his painting. Interestingly, he worked with his left hand.

Dmitry Grigorievich Levitsky, one of his mentors, worked in a realistic manner. He was born in 1735 or 1736, probably in Kyiv, in the family of a priest. He studied drawing from his father, then, in St. Petersburg, from Antropov, Valeriani and Lagren. He gained fame in the 60s, became an academician, and taught at the Academy of Arts. He became famous for his portraits of the Empress, members of her family, the architect A.F. Kokorinov, students of the Smolny Institute and many others. His brushes are characterized by tenderness and richness of colors, colorfulness and thoroughness of writing.

Fyodor Stepanovich Rokotov (born in the 1730s) came from serf peasants in the Moscow province. There is no exact information about his early life and training. It is possible that the young artist worked together with Lomonosov. His skill attracts attention. Rokotov was commissioned for portraits of Peter III, then he painted a coronation portrait, which the ruler really liked. The Empress is depicted in full length in profile and against the backdrop of a beautiful setting. Rokotov painted portraits of Pavel Petrovich, I. Shuvalov, G. Orlov. In 1765, he became an academician and left for Moscow. Here he created small intimate portraits. In them, the deeply original talent of the painter is most fully manifested. The paintings are distinguished by their penetration, sincerity and poetry, a special painterly style, extraordinary liveliness and lightness of strokes, transparency of the paint layer. Rokotov achieves great expressiveness in his rendering of faces, fabrics, lace, etc. Portraits of young women are imbued with special lyricism: A.P. Struyskaya, Obreskova, an unknown woman in a pink dress, etc.

We know little about the life of the artist I. A. Ermenev, who studied at the Academy of Arts, then was sent to Paris, where he became a witness, and possibly a participant, in the events of 1789. His further fate is unknown. In a series of watercolors, Ermenev truthfully showed the life of the common people, peasants ( "The Singing Blind", "Peasant Lunch", "Beggars"). The artist creates stern and majestic images of peasants, showing the strength and dignity of ordinary people.

The founder of the peasant everyday genre was Mikhail Shibanov. He was a serf of G. A. Potemkin, who then freed him. Shibanov is the author of many portraits, including one of the best examples of 18th-century painting. portrait of Catherine II. However, Shibanov is known primarily for his everyday paintings ( "Peasant Lunch", "Celebration of the wedding contract" etc.) These canvases truthfully and lovingly depict scenes of peasant life, the faces of the peasants, their clothes and homes.

Sculpture XVIII century. In Peter's time, sculpture was mainly of an applied, ornamental nature. But at the same time the major sculptor K..B. was working. Rastrelli (bronze bust of Peter I, etc.).

Later, sculptural creativity was influenced by classicism. On Russian soil, he gave excellent examples, marked by majesty, laconicism and poetic expressiveness (the monument to Peter I or “The Bronze Horseman” by E.-M. Falcone), humanity and warmth (the tombstone of N. M. Golitsyna in the Donskoy Monastery by F. G. . Gordeeva).

Etienne-Maurice Falconet, a native of Switzerland (born in 1716), who began as a self-taught sculptor, then studied in Paris, received recognition here - he became a member of the Academy of Arts, created works on ancient and biblical themes. On the recommendation of Voltaire and Diderot, Catherine II invited him to Russia (1766) - he was to build a monument to Peter the Great. The sculptor finished his work in 1775 and three years later returned to Paris.

Realist sculptor Fyodor Ivanovich Shubin, a fellow countryman of Lomonosov (born in 1740), like him, who came on foot to the capital, but not to Moscow, but to St. Petersburg, ended up at the Academy of Arts at the request of Lomonosov. He also studied in France and Italy. Upon returning to St. Petersburg, he gained fame as the best Russian sculptor (busts of Catherine II, Paul I, Lomonosov, nobles, generals Rumyantsev, Suvorov, Potemkin, etc.). He was patronized by the all-powerful Potemkin, but his fellow artists were jealous and persecuted. Shubin died in 1805.

Theater. In 1756, in St. Petersburg, through the efforts of the Yaroslavl son of the merchant F. G. Volkov, the first professional theater in Russia arose. The basis of his activities were national-patriotic themes, enlightenment, and classic repertoire (the tragedies of A.P. Sumarokov, etc.). Outstanding actors of theatrical classicism I. A. Dmitrevsky, P. A. Plavilshchikov, T. M. Troepolskaya, and F. G. Volkov himself worked there. Their sublimity in depicting heroic images of Russian and world history was combined with subtlety in revealing their thoughts, passions, and expressiveness of recitation.

By the end of the 18th century, sentimental productions became widespread - pastoral comedies, operas by Maykov and other authors, "tear dramas" Kheraskova. The founder of this trend among actors was V. P. Pomerantsev.

Life Peter's transformations also affected the everyday life of all layers of society. The nobles changed their ancient clothes, heavy, long and uncomfortable, to simpler and more comfortable European camisoles and suits, shaved their beards, and smoked tobacco. Similar innovations were introduced among merchants and other segments of the urban population.

The authorities began to pay more attention to the cleanliness of the streets, landscaping, and silence in the cities. They tried to build new buildings, streets and squares according to plan, “regularly,” especially in St. Petersburg. Pharmacies and fire brigades were established in both capitals. They monitored sanitary conditions and paved the streets.

In order to improve the culture of communication, assemblies were established; Women were also present at them, which at first caused discontent among adherents of antiquity. To teach good manners from afar, “An Honest Mirror of Youth, or Indications for Everyday Conduct” was published. Peter's decrees commanded us to be polite to each other.

On the occasion of victories in campaigns and battles, folk festivities were organized - with triumphal processions and arches, fireworks and masquerades, treats and performances by dancers, magicians and acrobats.

The reduction of the service period for nobles to 25 years (1736), then the abolition of compulsory service (1762), was met with approval by the nobles. Many resigned to completely switch to housekeeping and entrepreneurship. They built estates, laid out parks and gardens. Holidays and hunting, balls and family celebrations occupied an increasing place in their lives. Rich industrialists and merchants imitated the nobles. They also started houses and palaces, orchestras and kennels.

Many writers and poets, artists and architects came from the nobility. But the bulk of them led an idle, lazy life, which corrupted them. The daily life of the imperial palace and nobles was particularly luxurious. Empress Elizabeth, for example, had a wardrobe with many thousands of dresses. Dignitaries spent huge amounts of money on feasts, entertainment, and favorites.

Some of the nobles collected rich collections of paintings, sculptures, applied arts, rare manuscripts, and used their money to build beautiful architectural monuments, museums, and open private theaters.

Peasant life has changed slightly - the same canvas, colorful shirts and ports, the same onuchi and bast shoes, zipuns and sheepskin coats, mittens and hats. Peasants still lived in “black” huts (they drowned "in black"), "white" huts appeared only among rich villagers. The decorations in the houses are wooden tables and benches, beds and dishes. There were dishes made of clay, but metal ones were rare.

The artisan people lived in difficult living conditions - cramped and dirty rooms, poor clothing; their food is bread and kvass, turya and cabbage. They worked 14-15 hours a day, for their offenses they were subject to fines and punishments, hard labor or conscription. The old people lived on “worldly alms.” Some forgot themselves in taverns.

"Capitalists"- peasants and craftsmen became merchants, industrialists and sought to imitate the nobles in clothing and other household items.

The psychology of bureaucracy was shaped by the environment of institutions with their frequent abuses and arbitrariness, servility and bribery. V.V. Kapnist, playwright and poet, in comedy "Sneak" This is how he described the appearance of the official-grabber:
Take it - there is no big science here.
Take what you can take.
What are we hanging our hands on?
Why not take, take, take...