Symbols of political maps. Symbols of topographic maps

Geography. Modern illustrated encyclopedia. - M.: Rosman. Edited by prof. A. P. Gorkina. 2006 .

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• Symbols for topographic plans, Main Directorate of Geodesy and Cartography under Sova. Shown are symbols of geodetic points, buildings, buildings and their parts, railways and structures attached to them, highways and dirt roads, hydrography, bridges, overpasses and...

3.1. Cartographic symbols

Cartographic symbols call the designations on maps of various objects and their characteristics. We can say that conventional signs form the language of the map, without knowledge of which it is impossible to read the map. With the help of symbols on the map, the actual picture of the area is clearly conveyed. They convey the content of the cards, designate objects, phenomena, and processes. Signs can be used to represent real and abstract objects. For example, to display populated areas, cartographic symbols have a substantive meaning, and when displaying population density, they have a semantic meaning.

Previously, in the distant past, objects on cards were conveyed using pictures (Fig. 3.1). Each item was indicated by a picture that was understandable without any explanation. These drawings conveyed the features of each object, for example, the appearance of temples in cities, tree species, etc.

Rice. 3.1. Representation of buildings and settlements on ancient maps

The advantages of this method are clarity, simplicity and accessibility in understanding the object. But you cannot make any calculations or measurements using such a map. Currently, this method is used on tourist maps, panorama maps and various children's maps. With the development of military affairs, this method of depicting objects no longer satisfied the requirements for the map. Gradually, such drawings began to be replaced by conventional signs (Fig. 3.2).

Rice. 3.2. Improving the symbols of settlements

Many symbols resemble the objects themselves in their design, so they can be easily remembered. In addition, the qualitative characteristics of objects are conveyed by the color of symbols. The colors adopted for some symbols also correspond to the color of objects on the ground. For example, forests, young growth, shrubs, and gardens are depicted in green; water bodies - blue; relief elements – brown.

Conventional signs are regularly updated, but there are no major changes in their form and style. Topographic plans and maps use standardized symbols that are mandatory for use by all organizations involved in topographic and geodetic work.

On thematic maps, symbols and depiction methods are developed by the map editor. The development of symbols is one of the most important and responsible tasks in the work of a cartographer. The correct and successful choice of symbols ensures good readability and clarity of the map.

The main requirements for conventional signs are:

symbols must be readable and simple to draw;

should not overload the map (the size of the symbols is hundreds of times larger than the size of the object on the ground);

quickly identifiable and clearly distinguishable from each other;

be economical in terms of space they occupy;

transmit the exact location of an object.

Three main groups of symbols are used on topographic maps:

1. Off-scale, or point, used for items not expressed

V map scale (point objects). They indicate the exact location of the object, but do not give the dimensions of the plan outline (Fig. 3.3). The size of the symbol is chosen so that it is clearly readable on the map. Each off-scale symbol has a main point, which is strictly localized on the map scale.

Rice. 3.3. Position of local objects depicted by off-scale symbols

The position of the object on the ground should correspond to the following points of the off-scale symbol on the plan:

− for signs of regular shape (circle, square, triangle, etc.) – the center of the sign;

− for signs in the form of a perspective image of an object (water gauges, lighthouses, outlier rocks, etc.) – the middle of the base of the sign;

− for signs with a right angle at the base (tree species, kilometer posts, water pumps, etc.) – the apex of the corner of the sign;

− for signs in the form of combinations of several figures (oil and gas rigs, chapels, tower-type structures, etc.) - the center of the lower figure of the sign.

2. Linear - used to depict objects of a linear nature, the length of which is expressed on the map scale, but the width is not. For example, rivers, oil and gas pipelines, roads, power lines, etc. The axis of a linear symbol is always constructed on a map scale (Fig. 3.4).

Rice. 3.4. Some symbols of topographic maps

3. Area or scale - used to fill the areas of objects expressed on the scale of the map (forests, salt marshes, swamps, etc.). Such signs usually consist of an outline and its filling, retain their outlines and allow you to determine the area of ​​​​objects.

To convey the content of thematic maps, various methods are used: the method of high-quality background, dotted, motion lines, linear signs, isolines, areas, cartograms, map diagrams, localized diagrams, icons.

Without proper use of symbols, it is impossible to obtain a good quality image. The choice of symbols, color, size, and shape must be taken seriously, since the size of the signs is 60–80 or more times greater than the size of the object on the ground. Thanks to symbols, the map becomes informative, visual and easy to read. The great traveler P.P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky said: “ The card is more important than the current

hundred, since it often speaks much more clearly, clearly and concisely than the best text

hundred." Knowing the language of the map and the features of its composition, you can extract a huge amount of useful information from it.

3.2. Inscriptions on geographical maps

A special place is occupied by signatures on the map, which carry a very large semantic load and significantly enrich the content of the map. Thanks to the signs, we can easily navigate the area. But sometimes they can also impair readability. A large number of inscriptions creates diversity; they can cover the main content of the map, and can also intersect important objects (roads, rivers, etc.). For example, on small-scale maps, more than half of the usable map area is taken up by labels. Therefore, when compiling any cartographic work, it is necessary to establish the optimal number of inscriptions to be applied and carefully consider the location of their placement. The following types of inscriptions are distinguished:

1. Proper names of objects– names of rivers, lakes, mountains, cities, etc. On-

example, Yenisei, Tom, Yarovoye, Alatau, Tomsk, Asino, etc.;

2. Explanatory noteswhich convey:

quality characteristics(oak, pine, salted, sandy, etc.);

quantitative characteristics(indicating the width of the road, the width of the river, the height of trees, etc.);

chronological characteristics(dates of events, periods of development of any phenomena, for example, the period of accessibility of the pass, etc.);

Explanations for traffic lines(“The Path of H. Columbus”, “The Path of Magellan”);

explanatory characteristics of the cartographic grid (“Arctic Circle”, “east of Greenwich”, digitization of parallels and meridians, kilometer grid).

3. Terms – concepts related to mapping objects, for example, “lake”, “bay”, “ridge”, “mountain”, “stream”, etc.).

Labels on maps vary font design, height and color. A font design, as a rule, conveys the qualitative characteristics of an object. For example, it is customary to sign navigable rivers in capital letters on topographic maps; in capital letters with a straight outline - cities, and in lowercase letters - rural-type settlements.

In order to enhance the significance of the inscriptions in the characteristics of objects and improve their readability, the inscriptions are made in different colors. Thus, the inscriptions of hydrographic objects are shown in blue, and the reliefs – in brown. The design and color of the signatures give a qualitative characteristic, and the size – a quantitative one.

Basic requirements for the placement of inscriptions are:

1. The inscription must be positioned so that it is clearly visible which object it refers to; its placement must not raise any doubts;

2. Labels should not overload the map, cross each other and cover important objects (roads, rivers, borders, etc.);

3. The placement of inscriptions should ensure their readability. When placing inscriptions on maps, the nature of the localization of objects is taken into account: point, linear or area;

4. For non-scale symbols, the signature is located next to the object on the right side along the parallels or parallel to the northern and southern frames of the map (plan). If the map is very busy, signatures can be placed to the left or above the object in any free space (Fig. 3.5).

Rice. 3.5. Placement of inscriptions for off-scale symbols

5. The inscription of linear extended objects is given either parallel to the sign of the object, or along its axis (Fig. 3.6);

Rice. 3.6. Placing Labels for Line Objects

6. Labels for area objects are placed along a smooth curve along the major axis of the contour. If the object has curved outlines, then the inscription curves accordingly. If the signature does not fit inside an object, for example a lake, then this object is signed nearby (Fig. 3.7).

The inscriptions are very closely related to the main content of the map. Not all objects placed on the map can be labeled, for example, some rivers may be shown without labels; on topographic maps, settlements with a population of less than 50 people in densely populated areas may not be labeled. On maps, a selection of inscriptions is made depending on the purpose, subject matter, scale of the map, as well as the nature of the territory being mapped.

When compiling topographic maps, the names of objects are given after the image of each element of the map content; on small-scale maps - after displaying the entire contents of the map.

Symbols of topographic maps provide complete information about the area. They are generally accepted and used for topographic maps and plans. Topographic maps are important material not only for tourists, but also for geodetic organizations, for authorities who are involved in area planning and transfer of site boundaries.

Knowledge about conventional signs helps not only to read the map correctly, but also to draw up detailed plans of the area, taking into account new objects that have appeared.

Topographic maps are a type of geographic map. They carry detailed information about the layout of the area, indicating the location of various technical and natural objects relative to each other.

Topographic maps vary in scope. All of them carry less or more detailed information about the area.

The map scale is indicated on the side or bottom of the map. It shows the ratio of sizes: indicated on the map to natural. Thus, the larger the denominator, the less detailed the material. Let's say a 1:10,000 map will have 100 meters in 1 centimeter. To find out the distance in meters between objects, use a ruler to measure the segment between two points and multiply by the second indicator.

1. The most detailed is the topographic plan of the area, its scale is 1:5,000 inclusive. It is not considered a map and is not as accurate, since it does not take into account the assumption that the earth is round. This somewhat distorts its information content, however, the plan is indispensable when depicting cultural, everyday and economic objects. In addition, the plan can also show micro-objects that are difficult to find on the map (for example, vegetation and soil, the contours of which are too small to be depicted in other materials).
2. Topographic maps at scales of 1:10,000 and 1:25,000 are considered the most detailed among maps. They are used for household needs. They depict populated areas, industrial and agricultural facilities, roads, hydrographic networks, swamps, fences, boundaries, etc. Such maps are most often used to obtain information about objects in areas that do not have significant forest cover. They depict business objects most reliably.
3. Maps with scales of 1:50,000 and 1:100,000 are less detailed. They schematically depict the contours of forests and other large objects, the image of which does not require much detail. Such maps are convenient to use for air navigation, drawing up road routes and so on.
4. Less detailed maps are used for military purposes to carry out assigned tasks for planning various operations.
5. Maps with a scale of up to 1:1,000,000 allow you to correctly assess the overall picture of the area.

Having decided on the task at hand, choosing a material seems absolutely not a difficult task. Depending on how detailed information about the area is needed, the required map scale is selected.

Working with a topographic map requires a clear knowledge of the schematic designation of the depicted objects.

• areal (scale) - for large objects (forest, meadow, lake), their sizes can be easily measured on a map, correlated with scale and obtained the necessary information about depth, length, area;
• linear - for extended geographical objects, the width of which cannot be indicated, they are drawn in the form of a line corresponding to the scale in order to correctly display the length of the object (road, power strip);
• off-scale - they are used to designate strategically important objects, without which the map will be incomplete, but in a rather conventional size (bridge, well, individual tree);
• explanatory - characterizing an object, for example, the depth of a river, the height of a slope, a tree that indicates the type of forest;
• depicting landscape components: relief, rocks and stones, hydrographic objects, vegetation, artificial structures;
• special - applied to maps for individual sectors of the economy (meteorological, military signs).

• the basic information that the image of a populated area carries - and the placement of the boundaries of the object; for this it is not necessary to mark every building, you can limit yourself to the main streets, intersections and important buildings;
• the symbols of a group of homogeneous objects allow the depiction of only the outermost of them;
• when drawing a line of roads, it is necessary to indicate their middle, which must correspond to the situation on the ground, and the width of the message object itself should not be displayed;
• strategically important objects such as factories and factories are designated at the site where the main building or factory chimney is located.

By correctly placing signs on the map, you can get a detailed idea of ​​the relative position of objects on the ground, the distance between them, their heights, depths and other important information.

The map must be objective and this requirement includes the following provisions:

• correctly selected standard symbols; if this is a special map, then the symbols should also be generally known in a certain area;
• correct representation of line elements;
• one card must be drawn in one image style;
• micro-objects must also be marked exactly; if there is a certain number of such objects of the same size in the area, they must all be marked with the same sign on the map;
• the color indicators of the elements of the relief forms must be maintained correctly - heights and lowlands are often depicted with paints, next to the map there should be a scale that shows what height on the terrain a particular color corresponds to.

Symbols of topographic maps and plans are drawn in accordance with uniform rules.

1. Object sizes are displayed in millimeters. These signatures are usually located to the left of the symbols. For one object, two numerical indicators are given, indicating height and width. If these parameters match, one signature is allowed. For round objects their diameter is indicated, for star-shaped signs - the diameter of the circumscribed circle. For an equilateral triangle, the parameter for its height is given.
2. The thickness of the lines should correspond to the scale of the map. The main objects of plans and detailed maps (factories, mills, bridges, locks) are marked with lines of 0.2–0.25 mm, the same designations on small-scale maps from 1:50,000 - with lines of 0.2 mm. The lines indicating secondary characters have a thickness of 0.08–0.1 mm. On plans and large-scale maps, signs may be enlarged by one third.
3. The symbols of topographic maps must be clear and readable, the spaces between inscriptions must be at least 0.2–0.3 mm. Strategically important objects can be slightly increased in size.

Separate requirements are put forward for the color scheme.

• green - designations of glaciers, eternal snow, swamps, salt marshes, intersections of coordinate lines and hydrography;
• brown – landforms;
• blue – water bodies;
• pink – highway interline clearances;
• red or brown - some signs of vegetation;
• black – shading and all signs.

1. Objects indicated by off-scale symbols on topographic maps and plans must correspond to their location on the ground. To do this, they need to be placed according to certain rules.

• the center of the sign of objects of regular shape (round, square, triangular) on the plan;
• the middle of the base of the symbol - for perspective displays of objects (lighthouses, rocks);
• vertices of the designation angle - for icons with an element of right angles (tree, pillar);
• the middle of the bottom line of the sign is for designations in the form of a combination of figures (towers, chapels, towers).

Knowledge of the correct placement and application of signs will help you correctly draw up a topographic map or site plan, making it understandable to other users.

The designation of groups of objects by symbols must occur in accordance with the rules below.

1. Geodetic points. These objects should be indicated in as much detail as possible. Marking the centers of points is applied exactly to the centimeter. If the point is located on an elevated area, it is necessary to note the height of the mound or mound. When drawing the boundaries of land surveys, which are marked on the ground with pillars and numbered, the numbering must also be displayed on the map.
2. Buildings and their parts. The outlines of buildings must be mapped in accordance with the structure's layout and dimensions. Multi-storey and historically important buildings are depicted in most detail. The number of floors is indicated starting from two floors. If a building has an orientation tower, it must also be displayed on the map.

Small buildings, such as pavilions, cellars, building elements, are displayed at the request of the customer and only on detailed maps. The numbering of buildings is reproduced only on large maps. Additionally, letters can indicate the materials from which the building is constructed, its purpose, and fire resistance.

Conventional signs usually identify buildings under construction or dilapidated, cultural and religious buildings. Objects on the map must be placed exactly as in reality.

In general, the detail and detail of the description of the characteristics depends on the purpose of drawing up the map and is negotiated by the customer and the contractor.

1. Industrial facilities. The number of floors in buildings does not matter. More important objects are administrative buildings and pipes. For pipes over 50 meters, it is necessary to indicate their actual height.

At enterprises that have mines and extract minerals, it is customary to designate objects located on the surface. Mapping of underground routes is carried out in agreement with the customer, indicating working and non-working branches. For quarries, a numerical designation of their depth is required.

1. Railways are shown with their gauge. Inactive roads must also be marked on maps. For electrified roads and tram tracks, a power line must be displayed nearby.

The map shows the designation of road slopes, embankments and their heights, slopes, tunnels and their characteristics. Dead ends, turning circles and road ends must be marked.

Highways are marked with a certain sign, which depends on the surface. The roadway must be marked with a line.

1. Hydrographic objects are usually divided into three groups:

• permanent;
• indefinite - existing all the time, but whose outlines often change;
• unstable - changing depending on the season, but with a pronounced source and direction of the channel.

Permanent bodies of water are depicted by solid lines, the rest - by dash-dotted lines.

1. Relief. When depicting the terrain, horizontal lines or contour lines are used indicating the heights of individual ledges. Moreover, lowlands and elevations are depicted in a similar way, using strokes: if they go outward, then an elevation is depicted, if inward, it is a depression, beam or lowland. In addition, if the contour lines are close to each other, the slope is considered steep; if it is far away, it is gentle.

A good topographic map should be extremely accurate, objective, complete, reliable and clearly indicate the contours of objects. When drawing up a map, it is necessary to take into account the customer's requirements.

Depending on the purposes for which the topographic map is intended, some simplifications or minor distortions of minor objects are allowed, but the general requirements must be met.

Symbols of topographic maps

Tikhonova L.Ya. Geography teacher MBOU "Lyceum No. 3" Prokhladny, KBR

Do you know the symbols?

Read the letter

Hello mother!

We went hiking. We left early in the morning

from, let's go to,

turned west along and approached

.To our right was

. Then, past along

but we returned to.

There lived in Rus' the glorious hero Alyosha Popovich,

and he only knew how to lie on the stove, and with Tugarin

We fight snakes. He once set off for gold

To free the folk from the clutches of the Tugarin people.

His path lay through birch forest , past the rotten

swamps , through which path was. Came in

Alyosha goes into the thicket of the forest and sees a picturesque lake ,

and next to him forester's house . He asks the forester,

how to get to him river , where is the Tugarin army

settled down. And the old man answers him, it’s a long way

you have to. First you will go along dirt road ,

turn into Pine forest . There you will see well done ,

boldly go from him to spring , by the spring

there is deep ravine , cross it and you will see meadow ,

stands in that meadow lonely tree .

If you approach him, Tugarin himself will appear.

Write the story in symbols

http://aida.ucoz.ru

Determine the direction

Measure the distance using the scale shown in Fig. 39

in 1 cm 100 m

• Determine the scale of the plan.
• Measure the distance from the birch tree to the barn with a ruler.
• Calculate the distance using a scale.
• Determine the distance from the birch tree to the point 162.3 m; to the lake; to the wooden bridge.

0.9 cm

0.9 cm x 100 m = 90 m

Draw a site plan

An observer stands in the center of the area in a meadow. He sees:

• In the north, 300 m, school
• In the east, 250 m, bushes
• To the north-west, 400 m, orchard
• To the south, 150 m, lake, eastern shore is swampy
• To the southwest, 200 m, bush
• To the north, 450 m, mixed forest
• To the west, 200 m, open forest
• To the south-east, 100 m, well

M: in 1 cm 100 m

A plan from one point is called polar

http://aida.ucoz.ru

Draw a route plan of the area (M 1: 10000m)

The guys went from school (vol. 1) on an excursion (the school is located in the northwestern area)

v.1 → v.2 – on v. 800 m along the path through the orchard,

t.2 – well on the bank of the river. Belka, the river flows from the south. us.

t.2→t.3 – 500 m against the river flow along a path through the bushes,

v.3 – spring,

t.3→t.4 – to the north-west. along a dirt road through a field 400 m.

t.4 – windmill, to the south of t.4 we saw a lake, the eastern shore of which is swampy,

t.4→t.5 – to the south-west. 400 m along the path through the meadow to the birch (t. 5),

t.5→t.1 – we returned to school along a dirt road through open forest

http://aida.ucoz.ru

Draw a sign

Draw a sign

windmill

Draw a sign

Draw a sign

sparse forest

Draw a sign

free standing tree

Topic 8. CARTOGRAPHICAL SYMBOLS

8.1. CLASSIFICATION OF CONVENTIONAL SIGNS

On maps and plans, the image of terrain objects (situations) is presented in cartographic symbols. Cartographic symbols - a system of symbolic graphic notations used to depict various objects and phenomena, their qualitative and quantitative characteristics on maps. Symbols are sometimes also called "map legend".
For ease of reading and memorization, many symbols have outlines that resemble the top or side view of the local objects they depict. For example, symbols of factories, oil rigs, isolated trees, and bridges are similar in shape to the appearance of the listed local objects.
Cartographic symbols are usually divided into scale (contour), non-scale and explanatory (Fig. 8.1). In some textbooks, linear symbols are classified as a separate group.

Rice. 8.1. Types of symbols

Large-scale (contour) signs are conventional signs used to fill the areas of objects expressed on the scale of a plan or map. From a plan or map, using such a sign, you can determine not only the location of the object, but its size and outline.
The boundaries of area objects on the plan can be depicted with solid lines of different colors: black (buildings and structures, fences, roads, etc.), blue (reservoirs, rivers, lakes), brown (natural landforms), light pink (streets and areas in populated areas), etc. The dotted line is used for the boundaries of agricultural and natural land in the area, the boundaries of embankments and excavations near roads. The boundaries of clearings, tunnels and some structures are indicated by a simple dotted line. The fill characters inside the outline are arranged in a specific order.
Linear symbols(a type of large-scale symbols) are used when depicting linear objects - roads, power lines, borders, etc. The location and planned outline of the axis of a linear object are depicted accurately on the map, but their width is significantly exaggerated. For example, a highway symbol on maps at a scale of 1:100,000 exaggerates its width by 8 to 10 times.
If an object on a plan (map) cannot be expressed by a scale symbol due to its smallness, then off-scale symbol, for example, a boundary sign, a separately growing tree, a kilometer pole, etc. The exact position of an object on the ground is shown main point off-scale symbol. The main point is:

• for signs of symmetrical shape - in the center of the figure (Fig. 8.2);
• for signs with a wide base - in the middle of the base (Fig. 8.3);
• for signs that have a base in the form of a right angle, at the apex of the angle (Fig. 8.4);
• for signs that are a combination of several figures, in the center of the lower figure (Fig. 8.5).

Rice. 8.2. Symmetrical signs
1 - points of the geodetic network; 2 - points of the survey network, fixed on the ground by centers; 3 - astronomical points; 4 - churches; 5 - plants, factories and mills without pipes; 6 - power plants; 7 - water mills and sawmills; 8 - fuel warehouses and gas tanks; 9 - active mines and adits; 10 - oil and gas wells without derricks

Rice. 8.3. Wide base signs
1 - factory and factory pipes; 2 - waste heaps; 3 - telegraph and radiotelegraph offices and departments, telephone exchanges; 4 - meteorological stations; 5 - semaphores and traffic lights; 6 - monuments, monuments, mass graves, tours and stone pillars more than 1 m high; 7 - Buddhist monasteries; 8 - separately lying stones

Rice. 8.4. Signs with a base in the form of a right angle
1 - wind engines; 2 - gas stations and gas stations; 3 - windmills; 4 - permanent river signaling signs;
5 - free-standing deciduous trees; 6 - free-standing coniferous trees

Rice. 8.5. Signs that are a combination of several figures
1 - plants, factories and mills with pipes; 2 - transformer booths; 3 - radio stations and television centers; 4 - oil and gas rigs; 5 - tower-type structures; 6 - chapels; 7 - mosques; 8 - radio masts and television masts; 9 - kilns for burning lime and charcoal; 10 - mazars, suborgans (religious buildings)

Objects expressed by off-scale symbols serve as good landmarks on the ground.
Explanatory symbols (Fig. 8.6, 8.7) are used in combination with large-scale and non-scale; they serve to further characterize local items and their varieties. For example, an image of a coniferous or deciduous tree in combination with a conventional forest sign shows the dominant tree species in it, an arrow on a river indicates the direction of its flow, and transverse strokes on a railway symbol indicate the number of tracks.

Rice. 8.6. Explanatory symbols of a bridge, highway, river

Rice. 8.7. Characteristics of forest stands
In the numerator of the fraction - the average height of trees in meters, in the denominator - the average thickness of trunks, to the right of the fraction - the average distance between trees

The maps contain signatures of the proper names of settlements, rivers, lakes, mountains, forests and other objects, as well as explanatory signatures in the form of alphabetic and numerical designations. They allow us to obtain additional information about the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of local objects and relief. Lettered explanatory signatures are most often given in abbreviated form according to the established list of conventional abbreviations.
For a more visual representation of the terrain on maps, each group of symbols related to the same type of terrain elements (vegetation cover, hydrography, relief, etc.) is printed with paint of a certain color.

8.2. CONVENTIONAL SIGNS OF LOCAL OBJECTS

Settlements on topographic maps of scales 1:25,000 - 1:100,000 show everything (Fig. 8.8). Next to the image of the settlement, its name is signed: cities - in capital letters of a straight font, and a rural settlement - in lowercase letters of a smaller font. Under the name of a rural settlement, the number of houses is indicated (if known), and if they have district and village councils, their abbreviated signature (PC, CC).
The names of city and holiday villages are printed on maps in capital letters of italic font. When depicting settlements on maps, their external outlines and the nature of the layout are preserved, main and through passages, industrial enterprises, outstanding buildings and other buildings that have landmark significance are identified.
Wide streets and squares, depicted on the map scale, are shown with large-scale symbols in accordance with their actual size and configuration, other streets - with conventional out-of-scale symbols, main (main) streets are highlighted on the map with a wider clearance.

Rice. 8.8. Settlements

Populated areas are depicted in most detail on maps at scales of 1:25,000 and 1:50,000. Blocks with predominant fire-resistant and non-fire-resistant buildings are painted over with the appropriate color. As a rule, all buildings located on the outskirts of populated areas are shown.
The map at a scale of 1: 100,000 basically preserves the image of all main streets, industrial facilities and the most important objects that are landmarks. Individual buildings within blocks are shown only in settlements with very sparse buildings, for example, in dacha-type settlements.
When depicting all other settlements, buildings are combined into blocks and filled with black paint; the fire resistance of buildings on the 1:100,000 map is not highlighted.
Selected local items significant landmarks are plotted on the map most accurately. Such local objects include various towers and towers, mines and adits, wind turbines, churches and separate buildings, radio masts, monuments, individual trees, mounds, rock outcrops, etc. All of them, as a rule, are depicted on maps conventional out-of-scale signs, and some are accompanied by abbreviated explanatory captions. For example, signature check yy. with the sign of a mine means that the mine is coal.

Rice. 8.9. Selected local items

Road network on topographic maps it is depicted in full and detail. Railways are shown on maps and divided according to the number of tracks (single-, double- and triple-track), gauge (normal and narrow-gauge) and condition (operating, under construction and dismantled). Electrified railways are distinguished by special symbols. The number of tracks is indicated by dashes perpendicular to the axis of the conventional road sign: three dashes - three-track, two - double-track, one - single-track.
On railways they show stations, sidings, platforms, depots, track posts and booths, embankments, excavations, bridges, tunnels, semaphores and other structures. The proper names of the station (passings, platforms) are signed next to their symbols. If the station is located in or near a populated area and has the same name as it, then its signature is not given, but the name of this populated area is emphasized. The black rectangle inside the station symbol indicates the location of the station relative to the tracks: if the rectangle is located in the middle, then the tracks run on both sides of the station.

Rice. 8.10. Railway stations and structures

Symbols for platforms, checkpoints, booths and tunnels are accompanied by corresponding abbreviated captions ( pl., bl. p., B, tun.). Next to the symbol of the tunnel, in addition, its numerical characteristic is placed in the form of a fraction, the numerator of which indicates the height and width, and the denominator - the length of the tunnel in meters.
Road And ground roads When depicted on maps, they are divided into paved and unpaved roads. Paved roads include freeways, improved highways, highways, and improved unpaved roads. Topographic maps show all paved roads in the area. The width and surface material of motorways and highways are indicated directly on their symbols. For example, on the highway the signature 8(12)A means: 8 - width of the covered part of the road in meters; 12 - width of the road from ditch to ditch; A- coating material (asphalt). On improved dirt roads, usually only a label is given for the width of the road from ditch to ditch. Freeways, improved highways, and highways are highlighted in orange on maps, improved dirt roads - yellow or orange.

Figure 8.11. Highways and dirt roads

Topographic maps show unpaved dirt (country) roads, field and forest roads, caravan routes, trails and winter roads. If there is a dense network of roads of a higher class, some secondary roads (field, forest, dirt) on maps of scales 1:200,000, 1:100,000, and sometimes 1:50,000 may not be shown.
Sections of dirt roads passing through wetlands, lined with bundles of brushwood (fascines) on wooden beds and then covered with a layer of earth or sand, are called fascines sections of roads. If on such sections of roads, instead of fascines, a flooring of logs (poles) or simply an embankment of earth (stones) is made, then they are called ruts and rowings, respectively. Fascinal sections of roads, roads and boats are indicated on maps by dashes perpendicular to the conventional sign of the road.
On highways and dirt roads they show bridges, pipes, embankments, excavations, tree plantings, kilometer posts and passes (in mountainous areas).
Bridges depicted on maps with symbols of different designs depending on the material (metal, reinforced concrete, stone and wood); In this case, two-tier bridges, as well as drawbridges and drawbridges, are distinguished. Bridges on floating supports are distinguished by a special symbol. Next to the symbols of bridges with a length of 3 m or more, and located on roads (except for highways and improved highways), their numerical characteristics are signed in the form of a fraction, the numerator of which indicates the length and width of the bridge in meters, and the denominator - the load capacity in tons Before the fraction, indicate the material from which the bridge is built, as well as the height of the bridge above the water level in meters (on navigable rivers). For example, the signature next to the bridge symbol (Fig. 8.12) means that the bridge is made of stone (material of construction), the numerator is the length and width of the roadway in meters, the denominator is the load capacity in tons.

Rice. 8.12. Overpass over the railway

When designating bridges on highways and improved highways, only their length and width are given. Characteristics of bridges less than 3 m long are not given.

8.3. HYDROGRAPHY (WATER BODIES)

Topographic maps show the coastal part of the seas, lakes, rivers, canals (ditches), streams, wells, springs, ponds and other bodies of water. Their names are written next to them. The larger the map scale, the more detailed water bodies are depicted.
Lakes, ponds and other bodies of water shown on maps if their area is 1 mm2 or more on the map scale. Smaller bodies of water are shown only in arid and desert areas, as well as in cases where they serve as reliable landmarks.

Rice. 8.13. Hydrography

Rivers, streams, canals and main ditches Topographic maps show everything. It has been established that on maps of scales 1:25,000 and 1:50,000, rivers up to 5 m wide, and on maps of scale 1:100,000 - up to 10 m are indicated by one line, wider rivers - by two lines. Channels and ditches with a width of 3 m or more are depicted by two lines, and those less than 3 m wide - by one.
Width and depth of rivers (channels) in meters is written as a fraction: the numerator is the width, the denominator is the depth and nature of the bottom soil. Such signatures are placed in several places along the river (canal).
River flow speed (m/s), represented by two lines, point in the middle of the arrow showing the direction of the flow. On rivers and lakes, the height of the water level during low-water periods in relation to sea level (water edge marks) is also indicated.
Shown on rivers and canals dams, gateways, ferries (transportation), fords and give the corresponding characteristics.
Wells denoted by blue circles next to which a letter is placed TO or signature art. To. (artesian well).
Ground water pipelines are shown by solid blue lines with dots (every 8 mm), and underground ones by broken lines.
To make it easier to find and select water supply sources on the map in steppe and desert areas, the main wells are marked with a larger symbol. In addition, if there is data, an explanatory signature of the ground level mark is given to the left of the symbol of the well, and to the right - the depth of the well in meters and the filling rate in liters per hour.

8.4. SOIL AND VEGETATION COVER

Soil -vegetable cover are usually depicted on maps with large-scale symbols. These include conventional signs for forests, shrubs, gardens, parks, meadows, swamps and salt marshes, as well as conventional signs depicting the nature of the soil cover: sand, rocky surface, pebbles, etc. When designating soil and vegetation cover, a combination of conventional symbols is often used signs. For example, in order to show a swampy meadow with bushes, the area occupied by the meadow is marked with a contour, inside which the symbols of swamp, meadow and bushes are placed.
The contours of areas covered with forests and shrubs, as well as the contours of swamps and meadows, are indicated on maps by dotted lines. If the boundary of a forest, garden or other land is a linear local object (ditch, fence, road), then in this case the symbol of a linear local object replaces the dotted line.
Forest, bushes. The area of ​​the forest inside the contour is painted over with green paint. The tree species is shown with the icon deciduous, coniferous, or a combination of both when the forest is mixed. If there is data on the height, thickness of trees and density of the forest, its characteristics are indicated with explanatory captions and numbers. For example, the caption indicates that coniferous trees (pine) predominate in this forest, their average height is 25 m, the average thickness is 30 cm, the average distance between tree trunks is 4 m. When depicting clearings on a map, their width is indicated in meters.

Rice. 8.14. Forests

Rice. 8.15. Shrubs

Rice. 8.16. Swamps

The depth of impassable and impassable swamps is written next to the vertical arrow indicating the location of the measurement. Difficult and impassable swamps are shown on maps with the same symbol.
Salt marshes on maps they are shown with vertical blue shading, dividing them into passable (intermittent shading) and impassable (solid shading).

On topographic maps, as their scale becomes smaller, homogeneous topographic symbols are combined into groups, the latter into one generalized symbol, etc. In general, the system of these symbols can be represented in the form of a truncated pyramid, at the base of which there are signs for topographic plans at a scale of 1:500, and at the top - for survey topographic maps at a scale of 1:1,000,000.

8.5. COLORS OF TOPOGRAPHICAL SIGNS

Colors topographic symbols are the same for maps of all scales. Line marks of lands and their contours, buildings, structures, local objects, strong points and boundaries are printed upon publication black color, relief elements - brown; reservoirs, watercourses, swamps and glaciers - blue(mirror of water - light blue); area of ​​trees and shrubs - green(dwarf forests, dwarf trees, shrubs, vineyards - light green), neighborhoods with fire-resistant buildings and highways - orange, neighborhoods with non-fire-resistant buildings and improved dirt roads - yellow.
Along with topographic symbols for topographic maps, conventional abbreviations of proper names political and administrative units (for example, Lugansk region - Lug.) and explanatory terms (for example, power plant - el.-st., southwestern - SW, working village - r.p.).

8.6. CARTOGRAPHIC FONT USED ON TOPOGRAPHIC PLANS AND MAPS

A font is a graphic design of letters and numbers. The fonts used on topographic maps and maps are called cartographic.

Depending on a number of graphic features, cartographic fonts are divided into groups:
- according to the inclination of the letters - straight (ordinary) and italic with inclinations to the right and left;
- according to the width of the letters - narrow, normal and wide;
- according to lightness - light, semi-bold and bold;
- by the presence of hooks.

On topographic maps and plans, two types of basic fonts are mainly used: topographic and outline italics (Fig. 8.17).

Rice. 8.17. Core fonts and cursive writing of numbers

Topographic (hair) font T-132 is used for signing rural settlements. It is drawn with a line thickness of 0.1-0.15 mm, all elements of the letters are thin hairlines.
Blank italics is used in the design of topographic maps, agricultural maps, land management maps, etc. On topographic maps, explanatory captions and characteristics are written in italics: astronomical points, ruins, plants, factories, stations, etc. The design of the letters has a pronounced oval shape . The thickness of all elements is the same: 0.1 - 0.2 mm.
Computing font or cursive writing of numbers, belongs to the group of cursive fonts. It was designed for recording in field journals and calculation sheets, since in geodesy many processes of field and office work were associated with recording the results of instrumental measurements and their mathematical processing (see Fig. 8.17).
Modern computer technologies provide a wide, almost unlimited selection of fonts of different types, sizes, designs and slants.

8.7. INSTRUCTIONS ON TOPOGRAPHICAL PLANS AND MAPS

In addition to conventional signs, topographic plans and maps contain various inscriptions. They constitute an important element of content, explain the objects depicted, indicate their qualitative and quantitative characteristics, and serve to obtain reference information.

According to their meaning, the inscriptions are:

• proper names of geographical objects (cities, rivers, lakes
  and etc.);
• part of a symbol (vegetable garden, arable land);
• conventional signs and proper names at the same time (signatures of names of cities, hydrographic objects, relief);
• explanatory captions (lake, mountain, etc.);
• explanatory text (convey information about the distinctive features of objects, specify their nature and purpose) (Fig. 8.18).

The inscriptions on the cards are made in various fonts with different letter patterns. Maps can use up to 15 different fonts. The letter design of each font has elements unique to that font, which is based on knowledge of the features of various fonts.
For groups of related objects, certain fonts are used. For example, roman fonts are used for the names of cities, italic fonts are used for the names of hydrographic objects, etc. Each inscription on the map should be clearly readable.
There are distinctive features in the arrangement of the inscriptions of proper names. The names of settlements are located on the right side of the outline parallel to the north or south side of the map frame. This position is most desirable, but not always feasible. The names should not cover the images of other objects and should not be placed within the map frame, so it is necessary to place the names to the left, above and below the outline of the settlement.

Rice. 8.18. Examples of inscriptions on maps

The names of area objects are placed inside the contours so that the label is evenly distributed over the entire area of ​​the object. The name of the river is placed parallel to its bed. Depending on the width of the river, the inscription is placed inside or outside the contour. It is customary to sign large rivers several times: at their sources, at characteristic bends, at the confluence of rivers, etc. When one river flows into another, the name inscriptions are placed so that there is no doubt about the names of the rivers. Before the merger, the main river and its tributary are signed; after the merger, the name of the main river is required.
When placing inscriptions that are not horizontal, special attention is paid to their readability. The following rule is followed: if the elongated contour along which the inscription should be placed is located from northwest to southeast, then the inscription is placed from top to bottom, if the contour stretches from north-east to southwest, then the inscription is placed from bottom to top.
The names of seas and large lakes are placed inside the contours of the basins along a smooth curve, in the direction of their length and symmetrically to the shores. Inscriptions of small lakes are placed like inscriptions of settlements.
The names of mountains are placed, if possible, to the right of the top of the mountains and parallel to the southern or northern frame. The names of mountain ranges, sand formations and deserts are written in the direction of their extent.
Explanatory inscriptions are placed parallel to the north side of the frame.
Numerical characteristics are arranged depending on the nature of the information they convey. The number of houses in rural settlements, the heights of the earth's surface and the water's edge are signed parallel to the north or south side of the frame. The speed of the river flow, the width of the roads and their covering material are located along the axis of the object.
Labels should be placed in the least crowded places on the cartographic image so that there is no doubt about which object they refer to. Inscriptions should not cross river confluences, characteristic relief details, or images of objects that have landmark values.

Basic rules for constructing cartographic fonts: http://www.topogis.ru/oppks.html

Questions and tasks for self-control

1. What are symbols?
2. What types of symbols do you know?
3. What objects are depicted on maps with large-scale symbols?
4. What objects are depicted on maps using out-of-scale symbols?
5. What is the purpose of the main point of an out-of-scale symbol?
6. Where is the main point located on the off-scale symbol?
7. For what purposes are color schemes used on cards?
8. For what purposes are explanatory captions and digital symbols used on maps?