Visual perception of the world. Human visual perception

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International University in Central Asia

in the course Concepts of modern natural science

On the topic: “Visual perception of the world”

Completed by: Vasilchenko Kristina

Group: VA 110

Checked by: Dudnikova N.I.

Tokmok 2012

Introduction

Properties and functions of visual perception

Visual perception of the world

Conclusion

List of sources

Introduction

Visual perception has been of great interest to academic researchers in the field throughout time. For example, if we compare the number of studies done in relation to tactile perception and visual perception, then the latter is studied many times more often than tactile perception, this only indicates that this area has not been fully studied.

Vision is a sensory sense (one of the senses) that perceives light and color in the form of an image or picture. Visual perception is a multi-level process, consisting of three main stages carried out by various organs:

1. consistent transformation of light using the optical structures of the eye into an image projected on the retina, and then into electrical signals. This stage is carried out by the eye.

2. transmission of an electrical signal along the pathways of the nervous system to various parts of the brain associated with visual perception.

3. at the third stage, the electrical signal is analyzed by the brain with the formation of a visual sensation, awareness of the presence of a particular visual image in the field of view.

Thus, visual perception of the world is a rather complex process that forms a picture of the world, which can differ significantly from reality.

Concept of visual perception

The term visualization became generally known thanks to Jung, who conducted various studies of the human psyche and consciousness. Even before Jung, this term existed in more ancient and no less famous sciences, the foundations of which were laid by Buddhism and its meditations.

Visual perception is a set of processes of visual image of the world based on sensory information obtained through the visual system.

Visual perception begins with highlighting the general structural features of an object. First of all, the relationship between objects and space is perceived. Next, the relationships between objects are mastered, then between the details of objects. And a clear picture of the whole is created. This is a feature of visual perception.

Numerous studies in this area show that visual perception involves multiple sources of information beyond those perceived by the eye when a person looks at an object. The process of perception, as a rule, also includes knowledge about an object, obtained from past experience not only with the help of vision, but also with the help of other sensations.

Properties and functions of visual perception

Vision is a distant perception, that is, it does not require direct contact with the perceived objects, since it occurs at a distance. Visual perception is absolutely free, that is, the organ of this perception, the eye, moves freely along the surface of the object. This movement is not limited by the boundaries of the object, as can be seen in tactile perception, where, for example, the hand encounters the boundary of an object. It can be noted that the eye in visual perception is an organ with a high concentration of sensitive elements and receptors. And so this is where less superficially located receptors come into play.

Vision gives rise to a huge number of different processes associated with the reflection of color, spatial, and dynamic characteristics located in the visual field of objects.

Visual perception of space is closely related to the processes of processing spatial information in sensory systems such as musculocutaneous, vestibular, and auditory. It should be noted that the perception of movement is built on the basis of data on the spatial position of objects. Any activity contains movement in space, and any movement occurs in time. These dimensions are interrelated, and how they are perceived depends on our sensory abilities, and on the reference points we establish in assessing them. We perceive the movement of an object due to the fact that when it moves against the background, it causes us to sequentially excite different retinal cells.

It is believed that the most complex process of visual perception is the perception of shape. Shape refers to the characteristic outlines and relative positions of the parts of an object. Usually there is a huge number of objects in the field of view at the same time that could form a variety of shapes. And yet, a person can easily recognize objects known to him. No less interesting is that a person does not require special training to perceive an unknown object in an unfamiliar environment as a separate whole; this occurs due to the separation of figure and background. The figure has the character of a thing (a protruding and relatively stable part of the visible world). The background has the character of an unformed environment; it seems to retreat back and continuously continues behind the figure. The figure, in contrast to the background, is a stable and constant formation. In most cases, a necessary condition for the perception of a figure is the identification of a contour - the boundaries between surfaces that differ in brightness, color or texture. But sometimes the figure has no outline at all. And, conversely, the presence of a contour does not automatically ensure that the figure is highlighted. Most often it is perceived as an element of a given figure.

Visual perception of the world

Visualization is a property of human consciousness, capable of reproducing visible and invisible images of the visual (visual) series in its consciousness. Essentially, they are pictures that our consciousness perceives as a visual image, or the sensation of such a visual image. The description is similar to the images that we can see in a dream, but what is hidden behind the visualization is not directly related to sleep and the state of complete mental relaxation. Firstly, the visual images that arise in a person’s head can be divided into two categories – visual images and visual sensation images. Visual images are pictures, graphic images, symbols that appear in the human mind while awake. This is what our brain “sees”, bypassing the known visual receptors. Images of visual sensation are the same pictures and symbols, plots that appear in our minds as sensations of vision, but at the same time the main aspect in the form of a visual image is missing. That is why the concept has the name “sensation of a visual series,” indicating that a person only feels, but does not see, a picture-image.

Perception of the surrounding world and the processes occurring in it, due to embedded visual habits - images, stereotypes, categories that are understandable and familiar to a person, for example, green leaves, blue sky, etc. – all these are categories of the series that are embedded in a person from birth to the present day. A person with visual perception skills grasps the entire plot, and then, if necessary, systematizes or details it, which gives him the opportunity to operate both with information based on the impression of what he saw, and on the basis of understanding what he saw. Positive features: easy assimilation of information related to the humanities. Such people have a great sense of the world around them, feel all the nuances and all its subtleties. A rich picture of the perception of the surrounding world and the ability to receive information and impressions from several sources of information. Negative features are the limited perception of one’s own visual base, which, although expanding, fails, turning into extremely negative associations or misinterpretations. There is often a conflict between the sensory and logical components of human perception.

Visualization is a property of human consciousness that can provide another tool for working with reality. This is something with the help of which the world around us can be perceived more comprehensively, which means we can see and understand a little more.

Visual perception begins with highlighting the general structural features of an object. First of all, the relationship between objects and space is perceived, then the relationships between objects are mastered, then between the details of objects, and a clear idea of the whole is created. This feature of visual perception is taken into account in the compositional construction of the work in order to ensure its orderly perception.

Visual perception depends on the emotional impulses that arise in the eye when the gaze glides over the image. Each turn, that is, a change of directions, lines, their intersection is associated with the need to overcome the inertia of movement, has an exciting effect on the visual apparatus and causes an appropriate reaction. A picture where there are many intersecting lines and the angles they form causes a feeling of anxiety, and vice versa, where the eye calmly glides along curves, or the movement has a wave-like character, a feeling of naturalness and tranquility arises. The wave nature is inherent in matter, and it is possible that the occurrence of a positive reaction in the body is associated with this. A positive reaction occurs when the nerve cells of the visual apparatus experience a state of active rest. Certain geometric structures and shapes cause this condition. These include, for example, objects built according to the proportions of the “golden section”.

Conclusion

Based on the foregoing, it can be noted that visual perception plays an important role in the life of every person. Thanks to vision, a person is able to understand the world around him. In addition, it should be noted that visualization provides the ability to obtain information about the outside world, navigate in space, control one’s actions, and perform precise operations. It can also be emphasized that the role of visual perception in the processing of any information is increasing most of all in modern conditions of intensive development of multimedia. It is known that for more effective memorization of material it is necessary to expand the number of visual means of presenting information, because It is known that visual analyzers are capable of perceiving more information per second than auditory ones.

List of sources

http://www.go2magick.com/modules/mobi_page.php/page75/
http://www.sunhome.ru/magic/ 12856
http://nlo-mir.ru/magic/2012- vizualizacija.html
http://www.idlazur.ru/art79. php

Description of work

The advertising message must be conveyed to the consumer clearly and understandably, whether it is a booklet, magazine or website. It would seem that everything is simple: through design information is brought to the attention of the consumer. In reality, everything is more complicated.

Visual perception is the result of a complex interaction of a visual stimulus with a complex of knowledge, goals and expectations already existing in the brain. And understanding how a person perceives visual objects helps to do advertising design effective.

This article is about the theory visual perception and memory, and most of the information is taken from the book “Visual Language for Designers” by Connie Malamed.

Visual processes

Perception is the process of receiving, recognizing and understanding sensory data. First we look, then we need to process what we see in order to understand why it will be needed. Our brain needs to reconcile what the eye saw with the patterns that are already in our memory in order to understand what to do and how to react.

The human brain processes data in parallel with visual perception, different parts of the brain are simultaneously activated through networks of neurons, and therefore the brain's response is very fast.

Visual perception is a two-way street. On the one hand, we see the smallest details of the environment and immediately interpret them into an overall whole. On the other hand, we turn to our memory, i.e. to that part of the brain where all the patterns of our knowledge of the world are collected, and depending on momentary goals, we interpret the data we see.

Human information perception is a combination of ascending and descending brain processes.

Bottom-up visual processing

It is stimulated by external stimuli, i.e. what we see.

The human fundus can only focus on a small area, so we see through a series of intermittent eye movements. We momentarily fix our gaze on one object, then on another, on a third, etc., and it is through these jumps that we perceive the environment. This happens very quickly without any conscious effort, so it doesn’t bother us at all.

The human eye notices movement first, then shape, color, contour and contrast.

First, our brain discretely reads information, then groups elements, and then structures what it receives into basic forms. This process happens quickly and helps us recognize objects on a website or advertising banner. The information is read and transmitted to other parts of the brain and influences where our attention then goes.

Top-down visual processing

This process is guided by existing knowledge and expectations, as well as specific goals at the moment. The brain interprets what it sees according to familiar shapes and images and decides what to watch next.

A person tends to ignore everything that does not make sense or is not necessary at the moment.

Look at the picture above: the text in red letters stands out from the entire mass of letters, because our brain looks for patterns known to it, recognizes words from written letters. Now count the number of letters "R". This time, when scanning the image, the letters P seem to stand out from the writing, and the red text is now lost, becoming the background image. Those. the task at hand influences our visual perception, because we see more of what we are looking for.

So, the essence of the descending process of perception is that we see more with our minds than with our eyes. What we know, what we expect, and what we want to do influences what we see.

Memory

A person stores information in various sections of memory. Sensory (short-term) memory records fleeting impressions of the last milliseconds. It allows you to remember something “written down” no later than 1 minute. There is a hypothesis that short-term memory relies more on the acoustic (verbal) code for storing information and to a lesser extent on the visual one.

RAM

RAM is the workspace in which we analyze, synthesize and manage information. This memory helps us understand the world by comparing what we see with what we already know—a combination of top-down and bottom-up information processing.

When new information arrives, our brain identifies it with what is already stored in memory. If matches are found, the brain identifies objects and images, thus adding to existing knowledge. If there are no matches, the brain draws appropriate conclusions about the new information.

All this happens in RAM very quickly, new information either complements something already known, or is subject to further processing, while remaining in RAM. This is why we have to repeat a phone number several times to remember it.

RAM works with different efficiency in different people, this is influenced by all sorts of factors, for example, -

age - RAM capabilities increase towards adulthood and decrease towards old age;

distracting elements - the less a person is distracted, the faster the processing speed of RAM;

experience - the more knowledge is in memory, the more often the brain will find matches for new information, and therefore the faster the processes in RAM.

There is such a thing as cognitive load. This is a place in the brain's RAM required for processing specific information. And the more complex the information, the more memory space it requires, slowing down the processing process. This is precisely what explains the requirement for simplicity in advertising messages - the simpler it is, the faster and easier the brain identifies it.

Long-term memory

If the processing of information by working memory is completed, i.e., matches are found, such information is transferred to long-term memory. And when new information arrives, the brain encodes it again - looking for matches in long-term memory.

It turns out that the more associations that are familiar and understandable to a person in an advertising message, the more likely it is that he will remember this message. This is why analogies and metaphors work so well, because the more new information is connected to previously accumulated knowledge, the more likely the brain is to retain this information. Remember? “Repetition is the mother of learning.” It is the constant repetition of information in various ways that ensures that the information is transferred to long-term memory.

Example: A 7-digit phone number can be stored in short-term memory and forgotten after a few seconds. On the other hand, a person can remember it through repetition over a long period of time.

In addition to the classification of memory by time, there is also a classification by the organization of memorization:

Episodic memory is the memory of events in which we were participants or witnesses. Moreover, such memorization (for example, the 17th birthday or the last end of the world) occurs without visible effort.

Semantic memory is the memory of facts such as the multiplication tables or the meaning of words. A person will not be able to remember where and when he learned that Tokyo is the capital of Japan, or from whom he learned the meaning of the word “dumpling,” but nevertheless this knowledge forms part of his memory. Both episodic and semantic memory contain knowledge that can be easily narrated.

Procedural memory is the memory of how to do something and leads to specific skills for performing current tasks.

Depth of processes

The depth of perceptual processing affects the likelihood that a person will remember information. Graphic information conveyed by physical astes is not stored as deeply as the semantic rationale for the same graphics. Those. The shape and color of graphics in a design are not as effective as the verbal justification for those graphics. Giving meaning to graphics is the rule of advertising design.

Schemas (context)

Schemas are sets of associations according to which information is stored. This is the context that a person has at this stage of life, the prism through which he perceives everything. That is, a person who reads while lying on the sofa perceives everything differently than someone traveling on the subway. Or the word “death” is perceived differently by a child and an old man. Everyone has their own perception patterns. According to these schemas, we categorize and store information, deciding what that information means to us.

New information always modifies the existing schema, and again there are two information processing processes: first our schemas influence how we process information, and then that information modifies our schemas.

The search for information begins with a signal. It could be something we hear, or a feeling we experience, or some visual stimulus. This signal activates a circuit with corresponding associations, which then transmits the signal to other associated circuits. If the correct schema is affected, the information is considered correct.

Psychological models (thought models)

Psychological models that are formed in a person over the years of knowing the world are responsible for comprehending information. For example, we have a model of how a website works: it's a navigation menu and links, and this model helps us experience different sites in different places. But this happens only because all sites are designed on the menu-link principle. Psychological models are easily transferred from one entity to another as long as those entities use the same execution pattern.

Each person has their own patterns and models of thinking, but they are similar among people united by some common feature - reading the same magazine or attending the same fight club. Those. correctly selected objects, shapes, colors, etc. will activate the schemas and psychological models of the target audience. If you understand the peculiarities of thinking, the cognitive characteristics of the audience, then the corresponding associations in the advertising message will make it especially effective. Actually, this is where the classification of the target audience according to characteristic characteristics begins.

Level of development - classify the audience according to their level of advancement and design accordingly.

Distractability - fewer distractions - more focus. Don't create a design that is confusing.

Visual literacy - understand how clear and familiar certain symbols will be to your audience.

Motivation - Your audience's preferences will help determine how to motivate them. Greater motivation leads to greater attention, and as a result, to a deeper understanding of the advertising message.

Culture, traditions are certain colors. Different colors are interpreted differently in different cultures.

So,

before taking on design, you need to answer the question: “What do we want to communicate?” What's the purpose design? Only knowing the goals and objectives advertising message, can be strategically developed design for the most appropriate psychological perception.

If needed

Achieve recognition, notify - use in design principle of dominance, scale and contrast.

Identify the company - provide clarity. Create clean, clear graphics that are easy to interpret based on your audience's schemas and thought patterns.

Effective advertising message- this is work done in accordance with the characteristics of the consumer’s schemes and thinking models. And of course, when working on a project, you don’t need to deal with the whole science of perception design, it is only important to understand it in order to use it in the process.

Advertising as a marketing communications tool is largely based on the characteristics of consumer behavior and psychology. Therefore, it is advisable to begin the analysis of the issue of the role of communication in advertising by identifying the psychophysiological characteristics of human perception of information as such.

In the natural sciences, it is customary to distinguish three main types of perception:

1. Auditory perception. It is a way of perceiving information through hearing and auditory impressions (for example, through communication, noise, music).
2. Visual perception. It involves the perception of information by activating the visual channel and its subsequent storage in memory in the form of images.
3. Kinesthetic perception. It involves the perception of information through the creation of direct physical contact with an object through tactile (touch), olfactory (smell) and taste sensations.

The most informative channel of perception of the above is visual. According to the results of scientific research, it has been established that a person receives about 80% of information coming from outside through visual receptors. Through this channel, a person is able to determine many properties of the observed object: its type, color, shape, size, texture, etc. The visual channel plays a key role in a person’s understanding of the reality around him.

Visual perception (visual perception) The concepts of “visual perception” and “visual perception” are equivalent (derived from the Latin words “visualis” and “perceptio”), however, Latin transliteration entered Russian professional use relatively recently, and began to be widely used only in the last decades of the existence of the USSR. defined as:

- “a set of processes for constructing a visual image of the world based on sensory information obtained using the visual system” Meshcheryakov B.G., Zinchenko V.P. Large psychological dictionary. - M.: Olma-Press, 2004. - P. 124.;
- “a system of sequential perceptual actions aimed at reflecting phenomena of the surrounding world in visual images” Khilko. N.F. Audiovisual culture. Dictionary. - Omsk: Omsk Publishing House. state University, 2000. - C. 20..

In the framework of this study, the second definition will be adopted as a working one, since it emphasizes the stage-by-stage process of fixing the image of the surrounding world in the human mind. So, first we see the big picture, and only after that our perception begins to capture the details. As a result, a certain established visual image of the surrounding reality is deposited in the consciousness.

Visual perception is a complex multi-level process consisting of two key stages:

1) obtaining information at the physiological level (along the chain: light stimulus - retina of the eye - electrical impulses in the neurons of the brain);
2) decoding of visual signals (analysis of the electrical signal and awareness of the presence of a particular visual image in the field of view).

However, vision is not a purely automatic response to external stimuli, but is an essential tool for understanding the world around us. Visual perception involves multiple sources of information beyond those perceived by the eye when a person looks at an object. Visual perception is the result of a complex interaction of a visual stimulus with a complex of knowledge, associations, experience, etc. already existing in the brain. Having received information about an object seen, our brain compares it with existing patterns, templates, expectations in order to understand what to do and how to react to this object. Therefore, visual perception is a complex two-way process. On the one hand, seeing the details of the environment, we interpret them into a general whole. On the other hand, we turn to our memory, where all the patterns of our understanding of the world are collected, and, depending on current goals, we interpret the data we see.

There is no single template for the visual perception of a particular object - the assessment of what is seen is always formed on the basis of personal attitudes and principles. Each person has his own vision of the world, which largely depends on the sociocultural environment around him. The system of subconscious decoding of information is based on a person’s life experience and his environment, which means that it can be different for people of different origins, upbringing, and education. In other words, “external sociocultural settings are refracted in individual consciousness” Dmitrieva L.M. and others. Philosophy of advertising activities: textbook. - M.: Master: NIC Infra-M, 2013. - P. 44..

Thus, visual perception is one of the most important human tools for orientation in reality and obtaining information about surrounding objects. This complex multi-level process includes not only a chain of neural reactions to stimuli, but also the entire variety of ideas already existing in the brain, thanks to which a person, through vision, continuously expands his library of knowledge about the outside world.

“Creativity begins with vision. Vision –

This is already a creative act that requires tension.”

Henri Matisse

The theory of aesthetic perception is based on the fact that perception is basically a cognitive process determined by the forms and type of visual perception.

We will place special emphasis on the fact that aesthetic perception is not a passive, contemplative act, but a creative, active process.

Each act of visual perception, according to Arnheim (author of the most interesting book “Art and Visual Perception”), is an active study of an object, its visual assessment, selection of existing features, comparison of them with memory traces, their analysis and organization of all this into a holistic image.

In the 20s of the last twentieth century, a new direction in psychology appeared, it is called Gestalt. The term Gestalt cannot be unambiguously translated into Russian; it has a number of meanings: holistic, image, structure, form. And it can be used without translation, meaning a holistic unification of elements of mental life, irreducible to the sum of its constituent parts. In their works, Gestalt psychologists paid great attention to problems of perception. They opposed, first of all, the associative theory of perception, which dominated the psychological theories of the 19th century. They sought to prove that perception is holistic in nature and is built on the basis of the creation of integral structures - gestalts. Instead of abstract questions about how we see three dimensions, what sensory elements are, how their unification is possible, Gestalt psychologists put forward real and concrete problems: how we see things as they really are, how a figure is perceived separately from the background, what is surface, what shape is, why you can “change” its weight, dimensions and other parameters without changing anything in an object.

Let's try to figure out how we see and, thereby, help ourselves learn to manage visual perception.

So - any perception is also thinking, any reasoning is at the same time intuition, any observation is also creativity. And each person sees and hears only what he understands and rejects what he does not understand.

It is often believed that the eye is like a camera. However, there are signs of perception that are completely different from the camera. The eye supplies the brain with information that is encoded into neural activity - a chain of electrical impulses, which in turn, with the help of its code and a certain structure of brain activity, reproduces objects. It's like letters when reading, symbols are not pictures. There is no internal picture! For the brain, this structural excitation is the object.

A very interesting tendency of our brain is to group objects and simple shapes and continue (complete) unfinished lines. A few lines are what the eye needs, the rest will be completed by the brain as it develops and understands. (Caricatures, visions in flames or in the clouds - faces and figures, fortune telling on coffee grounds, etc.)

We can say with complete confidence that the process of visual perception also includes knowledge about an object, obtained from past experience, and this experience is not limited to vision, there is also touch and taste, color, olfactory, auditory, and perhaps even temperature, pain and other sensory characteristics of this item.

Perception goes beyond the sensations directly given to us. Perception and thinking do not exist independently of each other. The phrase: “I see what I understand” indicates a connection that really exists.

When describing objects and things, we constantly point out their relationship with the environment. No object is perceived in isolation. Perceiving something means attributing to this “something” a certain place in the system: location in space, degree of brightness, color, size, size, distance, etc. Changing our hairstyle, we suddenly notice that our face has become a little rounder. When choosing a dress style, we dream of “stretching” our legs and neck and “reducing” our waist size. We can say with complete confidence that we see more than what hits the retina. And this is not an action of the intellect!

It seems incredible, but any line drawn on paper or applied to the surface of an object (in our case, on clothing or on the face) is like a stone thrown into the calm water of a pond. All this is a disturbance of peace, mobilization of space, action, movement. And vision perceives this movement, this action.

This is where perceptual powers come into play. Are these forces real? Perceptual objects naturally don't have them (of course, you didn't grow up wearing vertical stripes or expanding from horizontal stripes), but they can be thought of as psychological counterparts or equivalents to the physiological forces operating in the visual area of the brain. There is no reason to call these forces illusions; they are no more illusory than the colors inherent in the objects themselves, although colors from a physiological point of view are just a reaction of the nervous system to light with a certain wavelength (but more on that later).

MENTAL AND PHYSICAL BALANCE.

When discussing the influence of the location of an object on its perception, we inevitably encounter the factor of balance. From the point of view of physics, equilibrium is a state of a body in which the forces acting on it compensate each other. This definition also applies to perceptual powers. Like any physical body, each visual model that has boundaries has a fulcrum or center of gravity. Why do you need balance in creating an image? An unbalanced composition, be it a drawing, furniture arrangement, selection of clothes or colors and lines of makeup and hairstyle, looks random and temporary. When there is a lack of calm and clarity, we have the impression of destruction or sloppiness. For example, the clown's clothes are red and blue, dividing the body in half - and the figure seems ridiculous, although both halves of the body and their physical weight are equal. We can say with complete confidence that the lack of balance leads to the impossibility of perceiving a single whole.

WEIGHT. When creating a visual composition, one should not forget about apparent weight. Weight depends on the location of the part or item. An element located in the center of the composition or close to it weighs less than others. The part at the top seems heavier than the one at the bottom, and the one on the right side has more weight than the one on the left. Weight also depends on size; naturally, a larger object will look heavier. Now, regarding the “weight” of color, red (warm) color is heavier than blue (cold), and bright and light colors are heavier than dark ones. For example, in order to mutually balance black and white, it is necessary to make the area of black space slightly larger than white. Weight is also influenced by the shape of the object and the direction of perceived objects. A correct geometric shape always looks heavier than an irregular one. For example, when comparing a ball, square and triangle of the same weight and color, the ball seems to be the heaviest.

DIRECTION. Direction, like weight, affects balance, i.e. to create a general impression of the subject. It is very important to understand and remember that in elongated forms, the spatial orientation of which deviates from the horizontal or vertical by a small angle, this direction becomes dominant. The simplest and most accessible example of this rule is the slightly offset seam on the once fashionable seamed stockings!

RIGHT AND LEFT SIDE. A difficult problem arises from the asymmetry of right and left. Any object located on the right looks heavier than the left. Experts believe that everything that is located on the left has more meaning for the observer than what is located in the center or on the right. Remember where the speaker's podium is, where the main action on stage takes place: in the middle, and more often on the left. This phenomenon is associated with the dominance of the left hemisphere of the cerebral cortex, which contains the higher brain centers - speech, reading and writing.

OUTLINE. In essence, vision is a means of practical orientation in space. The visual process means “grasping,” the rapid awareness of several characteristic features of an object. (A poorly printed photograph has turned the face into several gray spots, but we recognize it) We can say that the human gaze is, to some extent, an insight into the essence of the subject. And the outline is just one of the essential characteristics of an object, captured and perceived by the human eye. The outline is the boundary of the mass. But here’s an interesting example: we don’t see the hidden side of the ball, but we know for sure that the ball is round. What is familiar to us appears as knowledge that is added to direct observation.

Gestalt psychologists believe that any stimulating model is perceived as the simplest, i.e. the object we see consists of a small number of characteristic structural features. And the farther an object is from us, the simpler the shape we see. Upon closer inspection, we begin to see details.

SIMILARITY. When creating any composition, it is necessary to remember the principle of similarity: the more similar the parts of any perceived model are to each other, the more strongly they will unite into a whole. Elements related by similar shape, color, size, etc. tend to be located in the same plane. Similarity creates a strong visual effect by shaping and forming visual patterns. And the simpler the models obtained in this way, the more striking they are, often breaking the composition or creating a new one.

Further development of the principle of similarity of parts finds its expression in a pattern that deals with the internal similarity of a visually perceived object: when there is a choice between several possibilities for the continuation of curves (and the human body, I want to remind you, consists only of them), then preference is given to the one that is most consistently preserves the internal structure. And yet, we always mentally fill in the intervals between curved segments and build them up to a full circle. It has also been proven that the similarity of figures or color spots is expressed not in a strict repetition of the previous one, but in a gradual change in shape. And the viewer's eye, forced to follow this perceptual movement, sees a new form!

1. Psychology of visual perception

Object and subject of the psychology of art

Based on the theory of philosophy of art, we will answer the question about the significance of art for the science of psychology. Art as an object of study of psychology is considered by C. G. Jung in his work “On the relation of analytical psychology to works of literature.” From the point of view of C. G. Jung, doing art can be considered as a psychological activity, which is why art is an object of psychology (Jung, Neumann, 1996). The subject of study is the process of artistic creation, the forms of reflection of which are presented in relation to:

“a person who creates” an artistic image, putting his own intention into its content, which determines the form of expression;

a “person who perceives”, endowing the content of an already created image with allegories and associations.

In other words, the nature of the formation and content of an artistic image depends on personal attitudes, the previous experience of the creator (apperception) and what C. G. Jung designated as “transpersonal.” It is the transpersonal aspect of creativity that determines the freedom of imagination of the creative subject. In this regard, K. G. Jung calls the source of creative action "autonomous complex" – mental formation independent of the influence of consciousness. In the theory of depth psychology, an “autonomous complex” is defined as a structural formation filled with infantile and archaic content. The energy of this complex acts as the primary source of manifestation and deployment of creative potential. From the point of view of the theory of depth psychology, an artistic image is a symbolic reflection of the sphere of unconscious mythology, by which Jung understood "collective unconscious".

Took a different position Sigmund Freud, believing that the image is a mirror of the personal unconscious, not a symbolic formation, but symptomatic manifestation. According to psychoanalysis, unrealized feelings and needs are forced out of consciousness into the realm of the unconscious. Repressed content is traumatic in nature and requires resolution. An artistic action acts as an act of manifestation of repressed intention, giving it a complete semantic form. Hence, the information hidden in the artistic image makes it possible to identify the aspects of his “inner” existence that are relevant to the subject.

The study of the manifest meanings and symbols of artistic creativity can be carried out in the following areas:

Systematic analysis of the conditions and process of creating artistic work;

Study of the features of cultural and historical time that determine the nature of the reflection in the work of certain psychological aspects of the life of society;

Analysis and interpretation of the personal characteristics of the creative subject, which determine the artistic forms and styles of his self-expression;

Exploring the conscious and unconscious aspects of creativity;

Interpretation of the iconic and symbolic meaning of the image;

Studying the forms of reflection of the structural and compositional characteristics of a work in the context of analyzing the genesis of perception;

A study of the influence of an artistic image on the mental and somatic state of the creating and perceiving subject.

It should be noted that the psychology of art is a field of humanitarian knowledge, in the field of which theoretical and empirical studies of two central aspects of creativity are presented:

Its result is the structure and content of a work of art;

Mental and social aspects of the personality of the creating or perceiving subject.

From the point of view of L. S. Vygotsky, in the field of psychology of art three main spheres of cognition can be distinguished: perception, feeling, imagination. Based on this position, we will consider those basic issues of the theory of perception, the interpretation of the content of which is directly related to the development of diagnostic criteria and correctional and developmental models of art therapeutic activity. Further analysis of the nature of sensory experience and imagination will take place in the context of consideration of the genesis of the formation of an artistic image, its impact on the mental sphere of a person.

The main provisions of the theory of visual perception are presented in the works of domestic and foreign scientists N. N. Volkov, A. V. Zaporozhets, V. P. Zinchenko, A. N. Leontyev, V. S. Kuzin, R. Arnheim, G. Baumgartner, R. S. Woodworth, R. L. Gregory, J. Gibson, B. Koehler, K. Koffka, C. Osgood, I. Rentschler, etc. The famous Soviet psychologist V. P. Zinchenko endows the visual system with “important productive functions” . In his opinion, various brain structures responsible for perception are involved in the generation of an image. In this case, the visual system plays a decisive role. Concepts such as “visual thinking”, “pictorial consideration” (Zinchenko, p. 41) are the result of the joint action of various functional systems.

From the point of view of R. Arnheim, visual perception in its structure is a sensory analogue of intellectual cognition, that is, perception is an act of visual judgment. The image has a meaning, the content of which guides the imagination. “The world appears ordered to us because of the connection between perception and meaning,” notes Charles Osgood (Psychology of Sensation and Perception, 2002, p. 115).

According to the theory of ecological perception, not only the elementary sensations obtained during perception, but also the impression of the holistic image of the observed object are determined by the nature of the influence of the environment. James Jerome Gibson - author of the theory environmental perception– explores the significance of light as a carrier of information about the state of the surrounding world (Gibson, 1988). In his opinion, the painting is a place for conveying impressions about the nature of the illumination of objects in the surrounding space. In other words, the object “imposes” itself on the subject, “tuning” him to choose certain aspects (invariants) of perception.

At the same time, the nature of perception depends on the conditions of the cultural environment and the type of activity of the subject himself. Perception correlates with the subject’s existing ideas about the object, which are the result of his upbringing, sensory experience of reflecting reality, the meaning of which is determined by the search for the best ways to interpret incoming information. According to Immanuel Kant, “Thoughts without content are empty, intuitions without concepts are blind” (Kant, 1994); The physical world for a person is only material for sensations, and consciousness actively organizes this material in space and time, forming concepts for interpreting experience.

Theory of perception from the perspective of Gestalt psychology

In the first third of the 20th century, the active development of the theory of perception was carried out within the framework of Gestalt psychology (H. Ehrenfels, K. Koffka). Concept "gestalt" translated from German means "image" or "form". The main idea of Gestalt theory is that the internal, systemic organization of the whole determines the properties and functions of its parts . In this regard, six classes of perception phenomena are distinguished (F.H. Allport):

“sensory qualities and dimensions” given to a person in experiencing impressions from the perception of the object to which they belong;

“configuration properties” related to the form of organization of perceptual experience, to the selection of “figure against background”;

“properties of constancy”, which determine the possibility of recognizing objects on the basis of previous experience of their perception;

“the phenomenon of systemic reference in the perception of properties”, built on a subjective rating scale;

“objective nature of perception”, indicating the meaning of the object for the subject;

“the phenomenon of a dominant attitude or state” that determines the choice of object and readiness for perception.

According to the theory of Gestalt psychology, when perceiving a phenomenon, consciousness strives to implement the perceptual organization of space. M. Wertheimer's research made it possible to classify the factors that determine the desire to streamline the relationships of elements in a system (Wertheimer, 1923, pp. 301–350).

Proximity factor . The closer (other things being equal) objects are to each other in the visual field, the more likely they are organized into single, holistic images.

Similarity factor . The more unified and holistic the images are, the more likely they are to be organized.

Continuation Factor . The more elements in the visual field appear in places that correspond to the continuation of a regular sequence, i.e., they function as parts of familiar contours, the more likely they are organized into single holistic images.

Closedness factor . The more the elements of the visual field form closed wholes, the more readily they will be organized into separate images.

In addition to externally organized factors - “objective stimulus variables”, there are "central factors" , which may include meanings, meanings and relationships . It is the content of the “central factors” that determines the structure of the artistic space, the choice of its compositional characteristics, and color scheme. Analysis of the meanings and meanings embedded in an artistic image allows us to explore the personal characteristics of the subject, the semantic space of his cultural preferences.

The history of studying this issue in the psychology of art has its own traditions. The interpretation of the artistic works of respondents of different nationalities and sociocultural orientations made it possible to develop a number of tests aimed at studying the nonverbal semantic space. C. Osgood, Z. Bayes, L. Jacobovits, R. Bentler and A. La Voie created tests of nonverbal semantics, in which the referent himself evaluates the quality of the work and determines the content of the artistic image. As a result of the interpretation of the test material, factors (signs) were identified on the basis of which the respondent gives preference to one or another drawing. These factors are such indicators as “assessment”, “strength”, “activity”, “density” and “orderliness”. Batteries of projective drawing tests are recommended for the study of visual thinking for the purpose of studying cross-cultural comparisons.

However, according to V.F. Petrenko, when constructing semantic scales, there was a mixture of two levels of analysis of visual material: the level of sensory tissue (plane of expression) and the level of subject content (plane of content) (Petrenko, 1998). For one category of scales, the selection of drawings is carried out by comparing the subject with perceived graphic forms that do not have obvious subject content, while the images of drawings of another series of scales are endowed with specific content.

To resolve this contradiction, we have developed principles and a model for constructing projective diagnostics, based on which the subject of research is the structural elements of the composition, including its content, quality and formal characteristics. The study of the characteristics of compositional construction is of a subject-objective nature and is statistically reliable.

Image as composition: structural approach in art therapy

According to the ideas of V. S. Kuzin, perception is characterized by such variables as integrity , meaningfulness, apperception, selectivity, constancy (Kuzin, 1997), i.e., those features that are inherent in the completed composition. Any purposeful action associated with an act of perception ends in finding a complete solution that has the properties of integrity. How does the concept of “composition” relate to art therapeutic methodology? The therapeutic action is an event structured in space and time. The psychologist finds a compositional solution to the problem that links all the elements of a significant event at a new, more productive level of relationships than before.

Thus, the interpretation of the nature of the subject’s perception of a problem situation can be carried out in the process of studying the results of its compositional construction. An artistic image is considered as a projection of its actual meanings, relationships and significant aspects of life. Distortion of the nature of the logic of constructing an image indicates cognitive and emotional-sensory disorders, internal and external conflicts of the individual.

Table 1

Characteristics of perception and criteria for the integrity of a composition (V. N. Nikitin, A. I. Lobanov)

It should be emphasized that the completed artistic image is a hierarchically structured compositional formation that conveys the creative intent and emotional attitude of the subject to the subject of the image. We can talk about the degree of completeness of a work based on the analysis of its signs of expressiveness. The criteria for the expressiveness of a composition make it possible to determine at what level an error occurs in the perception of a problem situation. A system of diagnostic criteria for studying the ability to create a holistic expressive image was developed by us in the course of studying the nature of compositional construction, reflecting the personal characteristics of the creative subject.

Let us consider the content of the selected criteria.

1. “Apperception” – “figure against background”.

Apparently, we can say that the decisive factor determining the nature of the perception and image of an object, highlighting its stylistic features and models for constructing an artistic composition, is the cultural and aesthetic education of the creative subject. Cultural standards- operational units of perception that mediate perceptual interactions, pointed out A.V. Zaporozhets (Zaporozhets, 1967). Attention is focused on those properties of the object, the meaning of which is actualized in the cultural environment to which the subject of creativity belongs. The nature of the perception of objects is determined by socio-historical conditions, i.e., spatiotemporal factors that shape cultural attitudes and personal intentions. To put it another way, apperception, as a storehouse of experience, knowledge, skills, views, interests, determines the characteristics of the subject’s perception of reality (Kuzin, 1997, p. 155).

Rice. eleven. An example of correct selection of “figures against background”

Rice. 12. Art student's work. An example of incorrect selection of “figure on background”

Essentially, apperception predetermines the choice of the main element of the composition around which the structure is built, leaving its secondary components in the background. Consciously or unconsciously, those features of the subject of the image that are most significant for the subject of creativity are highlighted. Thus, the nature of the choice "figures on the background" reflects the subject’s ability to holistically imagine and depict an image.

Violations. Problems in choosing a central figure against the background can be due to various reasons. For mentally healthy respondents, errors in constructing the structure of a composition are usually due to a lack of understanding of the meanings and meanings of the elements of the image for the artistic expression of the content of the theme. Personal attitudes and actualized needs play significant factors in the superficial perception of the created image.

For mentally problematic respondents, pronounced distortions in determining the main element of a composition may be associated with the nature of intellectual activity, in particular, with violations in understanding the selectivity and stability of semantic connections of composition elements (Chomskaya, 1987, p. 197).

With affective disorders, there is redundancy, disorder in the depiction of the details of the composition, and unreasonableness in the choice of the central element of the image.

2. “Consistency” – “objectivity”.

The second characteristic of visual perception is "constancy". Studies of the process of perception indicate that each object has properties and qualities that ensure its recognition. Errors in recognizing the object of perception are, in particular, associated with problems of attention. The nature of the perception of an object determines the form of its drawing, its place in the composition. “Looking at an object means living it and from this living understanding everything fully and deeply,” noted M. Merleau-Ponty in his work “Phenomenology of Perception” (Merleau-Ponty, 1999).

The ability to draw constant features of an object can be defined as the ability to subject image. At the stage of the subject construction of the composition, the subject conducts a study of the depicted properties and qualities of the object. Understanding the typological characteristics of the subject of the image (properties and qualities) determines the nature of the composition. This can be seen in the example of the graphic work of V. D. Bubnova, in which the artist drew the properties of wood, revealing the theme of the work. In turn, the constancy of perception ensures its selectivity, and the depiction of objectivity in the composition ensures the conditionality of the choice of its elements.

Rice. 13. V. D. Bubnova. "Trunk of an old tree", 1958. An example of correct drawing of “objectivity”

Rice. 14. Art student's work. An example of incorrect drawing of “objectivity”

Violations. Neuropsychological analysis of disturbances in the perception and depiction of an object shows that the causes of formal and qualitative distortions in the drawing are associated with lesions at different levels of the visual system, conflict in emotional terms and understanding of the artistic image. Thus, respondents with object agnosia have difficulties in recognizing the shape of an object; with optical-spatial agnosia, problems are noted in depicting the spatial characteristics of an object (Chomskaya, 1987, pp. 89–91).

In manic-depressive psychosis and schizophrenia, errors are recorded in the recipient’s designation of image objects, in the distortion of formal and spatial parameters, in the schematization of image elements, deliberate exaggerated images of some and understatement of the sizes of other objects (foreground and background).

3. “Selectivity” – “conditionality”.

As the third indicator characterizing visual perception, V. S. Kuzin identifies "selectivity". Selectivity of perception ensures the choice in the object of perception of those characteristics that reveal its meaning for the subject. It should be noted the active selective nature of perception. As studies by N.A. Bernstein, P.K. Anokhin, A.R. Luria, K. Pribram and others in the field of neurophysiology and neuropsychology have shown, selectivity of perception is due to the work of two leading mechanisms of information selection:

Anticipation mechanism - anticipation of the result of perception;

A control apparatus, comparing the expected result with the actually observed phenomenon.

The decisive importance in the selection of actual objects of perception belongs to attention, thinking and memory, which predetermine the logic of perceptual action. The multimodality of the perception process provides the conditions for creating a holistic image, the input of which is the selection of features of the depicted object. The impression of the nature of the perception of the object, reflected in the form of subjective sensations and incomplete assessments, is “transferred” in artistic form to the space of the picture. From the point of view of the psychology of perception, the phenomenon of transference is due to the subject’s feeling of empathy for the subject of the image. According to V. Worringer, the selectivity of perception in realistic art determines two forms of depicting an object: the first is associated with the imitation of the object; the second is an image in a “naturalistic style” (Worringer, 1957). Imitation of objects is carried out in the form of copies; it does not carry a sensual relationship to the object of the image. On the contrary, working in a “naturalistic style”, the artist aesthetically defines a form, the nature of which is determined by his empathic attitude towards the depicted object.

Rice. 15. Art student's work. An example of correct “conditioning”

Rice. 16. Art student's work. An Example of Wrong “Conditioning”

In other words, the artist means for himself his own feelings in relation to the perceived object. In the image, he not only turns to his intuition, but makes a conscious choice of image elements and the quality of their elaboration. The intuitive action associated with empathy is guided by the meaning of the work and the subject's ability to find expressive solutions. Criterion "conditionality" allows you to determine the degree of awareness of the subject in choosing the characteristics of the image, the use of which in the image process creates the conditions for the formation of a holistic composition.

Violations. An analysis of the drawings of respondents belonging to various subcultural groups showed that the actualization in the image of certain qualities and properties of the composition is largely determined by goals and value guidelines. Marginal groups of youth are characterized by the choice of such image elements that would emphasize the contrast of relationships (both in form and color), excessive dynamism and demonstrative symbolism.

For socially tolerant groups, a set of everyday elements of the image dominates, indicating a conflict-free, uncritical acceptance of social realities. The choice of socially acceptable objects and forms of image, as a rule, ensures a soft, balanced depiction of the relationships between the elements of the composition, balance of shadow and color connections, and static image.

4. “Meaningfulness” – “correlation”.

A conscious idea of the nature of the image of the completed work determines the sequence strategy for constructing the composition. According to R. L. Gregory, “our reality is formed from personal perceptual hypotheses and from general conceptual hypotheses” (Gregory, 1970). The process of forming a composition is determined by the subject’s ability to study the nature of the relationship between the properties, form and meaning of the subject of the image, and to choose a spatial solution for the composition depending on the intended purpose. Criterion "meaningfulness of perception" reveals the nature of the subject’s vision of the connections between the meaning of the objects depicted and the meaning of the work he creates, the meaning that is captured in the title of the work.

Criterion "correlation" elements of the composition in the semantic space of the picture indicates the subject’s ability to holistically grasp the image. As noted earlier, the theory of Gestalt psychology considers the phenomenon of spatial correlation between the properties of the “figure” and the meaning of the “background”. According to E. Rubin, there are conditions that determine which surface of the image can be considered as a “figure” and which as a “background” (Rubin, 1915). In his opinion, “a surface contained within certain boundaries tends to acquire the status of a figure, while the surface surrounding it will be the background.” In other words, the structure of the composition allows you to see how the space is organized, in what relationships the “figure” and “ground” appear, how the formal and substantive elements of the picture are related to express the main idea.

Rice. 17. Art student's work. Example of correct “correlation”

Rice. 18. Art student's work. An example of incorrect "correlation"

Violations. From the point of view of modern scientific ideas about the nature of creativity, both hemispheres of the brain take part in the creation of an artistic image and the determination of its compositional relationships. The right hemisphere system is responsible for holistic sensory perception. The left hemisphere formation is involved in processing information about sensory impressions and operates with concepts and categories (Nikolaenko, 2007).

During the manic phase of manic-depressive psychosis in the recipients' drawings, the individual elements of the composition are not connected to each other; the artistic image appears as a schematically, geometrically organized space. As A. Yu. Egorov and N. N. Nikolaenko believe, during the manic phase, the shift in interhemispheric balance is directed towards pathologically high activation of the left hemisphere, which “suppresses” the emotional and sensory attitude towards the created image (Functional asymmetry..., 1991, p. 680 –690).

In a depressive state, i.e., when the functions of the left hemisphere are suppressed, the recipient’s consciousness retains the ability to imagine a holistic image, but the intention to work out the details of the composition is “erased.” According to research by N. Freeman, a depressive state is characterized by an exaggeration of the size of objects in the background of the image (Freeman, 1980). In contrast to this phenomenon, with manic symptoms, a decrease in the size of objects in the background of the picture is observed.

In schizophrenia, as one of the forms of personality splitting, the extinction of the activity of the right hemisphere occurs against the background of increased activity of the left. There is a deliberate introduction into the structure of the artistic image of a sign-symbolic series of elements, schematization and stylization of depicted objects (Zeigarnik, 1969).

5. “Integrity” – “expressiveness”.

Concept "integrity", like the concept of “expressiveness,” reflects the process of integrating the impression received during the creation and perception of an image. The impression is built on the basis of the perception of the depicted elements, including their properties, spatial arrangement and correlation with the theme of the work. “To see a phenomenon as a whole, to grasp and hold this whole in the orbit of direct attention, developing details until they sound necessary in the symphony of the whole - both compositional and coloristic - this is the basis of the foundations of art,” noted B.V. Ioganson (On the issue about composition, 2000).

As an assessment of the criterion for the integrity of a composition, it is proposed to use the concept "expressiveness". The expressiveness of the work speaks of such a structurally ordered image of the elements of the composition, which creates in the perceiving subject the impression of integrity, completeness, eccentricity, and aesthetic maturity. The assessment of the expressiveness of the composition is made by analyzing the semantic and ornamental characteristics of the entire image.

Rice. 19. Art student's work. Example: a “holistic” expressive image

Rice. 20. Art student's work. Example: “fragmented” inexpressive image

It should be noted that all art has a symbolic function. Art itself is a projection of the inner world of the creator, the satisfaction of his “inner necessity.” A work of art forms an image of the world, embodying ideas that have symbolic meaning, first of all, for the artist himself. Studying the content of a work of art allows us to look into the depths of the unconscious, hidden for direct perception. Expressiveness of the work testifies to the harmonization of conscious and unconscious, rational and intuitive aspects of creativity, indicates the integrity of the personality structure of the creative subject himself.

Violations. Problems in creating a holistic composition with a high degree of expressiveness are associated with disorders of both the cognitive and emotional-sensory spheres of a person. Delays in mental development, affective states, and psychoses limit the imagination and cause the inability to logically construct a holistic picture of the image. A person with obvious mental disorders has disturbances in the volitional sphere, causing his inability to form a holistic, congruent image in his consciousness. Such a personality is characterized by the disintegration of the unity of the elements of the image, exaggeration of the significance of some and denial of the significance of other components of the composition.

The “compositional” method of interpreting the structure of image construction can be used to analyze the personal psychological characteristics and mental disorders of the subject of creativity not only in the field of artistic and visual activity, but also as a diagnostic tool in dance-movement therapy, music-voice therapy and drama therapy. An artistic composition is a projection of typological and subjective characteristics of a person, an objective “cast” of unconscious attitudes and intentions, social clichés and cultural stereotypes. Thus, analysis of the composition structure can be included in the projective diagnostic procedure in art therapeutic practice.

It should be noted that the nature of the subject’s perception of reality depends on sensitivity to the influence of environmental and internal factors. From the point of view of the research of Gustav Theodor Fechner, a person does not have access to a quantitative measurement of sensations on the influence of a stimulus. Knowledge about changes in sensations is based on a comparison of impressions from the primary and subsequent sensations to the corresponding stimulus. However, it is possible to measure the magnitude of the stimulus causing a subtle sensation, including its minimum value. In other words, measuring the minimum intensity of irritation allows us to determine the absolute threshold of sensitivity to a certain type of irritation.

Sensitivity to perception can be defined by such a concept as "threshold of sensation" , reflecting a person’s ability to distinguish the nature of the impact of a stimulus. The lower the threshold of sensation, the greater the sensitivity to the stimulus.

According to theories of psychophysics, studying the quantitative relationship between the impact of stimuli and the corresponding sensations, the relationship between sensitivity (E) and the magnitude of the threshold stimulus (r) can be represented by the formula: E=1/r. G. Fechner deduced patterns in the nature of human perception and reflection of environmental influences. The basic law of psychophysics - “Weber-Fechner” - says: “The magnitude of sensation is proportional to the logarithm of the magnitude of stimulation” (Makarov, 1959, pp. 52–56).

What is the significance of research in the field of psychophysics for art therapeutic practice? It is known that the nature of perception depends on the emotional and sensory state, socio-psychological attitudes and personal motives of the individual. The same object - phenomenon is perceived differently by different subjects. A work of art, having a multimodal, multifunctional meaning, affects the subject of perception at both threshold and subthreshold levels. Knowledge of the possible nature of the influence of the artistic image and the creative process itself on the mental state of the recipient allows us to predict the result of the therapeutic process, taking into account his individual characteristics of perception. For example, for one category of respondents focused on marginal, “major” attitudes and forms of behavior, eccentric forms of therapy with color, music, and games are relevant. For respondents with a “minor” character, soft, pastel colors in painting, harmoniously organized sound space, classical dance forms, etc. are more attractive.

Perspective construction

A person is a being who sees and expresses what he sees. The vision of the object of perception is built from perceptual strategies determined by the characteristics of consciousness, apperception, motives, intentions of the subject and the physical conditions of the environment. A person sees what “fits” into the field of his understanding and meaning. His perception acts as a form of knowledge of the world in which he, as a subject of action, directs his attention to what is relevant for him.

Visual perception of the world is three-dimensional. By choosing foreground or background objects, a person determines for himself their meaning in the context of their relationships. In the process of perception and awareness of what is observed, what is in the background can come forward, and, on the contrary, the actual can move to the extreme horizons of perception. This choice of observation and experience plan varies depending on the person’s mental state and his sociocultural preferences.

In other words, the act of perception always involves the selection of objects, elements of the observation space, their compositional representation and structuring into a single holistic formation. Scientific, empirical and analytical research carried out at the Department of Philosophical Anthropology and Art Therapy for 15 years made it possible to develop criteria for assessing a person’s ability to create compositions, the use of which in art therapeutic practice ensures the objectification of information about perception processes.

It should be noted that the compositional approach in art therapy is associated with the study of the laws of compositional structure in painting. In art they distinguish three types of compositional construction of an artistic image:

Frontal composition;

Volumetric composition;

Deep-spatial (volumetric-spatial) composition.

At the same time, the idea is noted that none of the compositions has an advantage over others in terms of significance and degree of expressiveness. Preference is given to the type of image that better corresponds to the stated artistic task (Golubeva, 2004, p. 90).

Let us determine the main differences between the types of compositional construction.

Frontal compositions are represented by “planar” image options, as well as compositions with relief.

Volumetric compositions characterized by three dimensions (length, width, height), with two types of composition distinguished: symmetrical and asymmetrical. When constructing a three-dimensional composition, the artist is faced with the need to solve the following technical issues of the image:

Formation of volume in the surrounding space in a situation of “conflict” of volumetric forms on a plane.

Determine the influence on the volume of colors used and color relationships.

The choice of material texture as a qualitative characteristic of volumetric forms on a plane.

It is relevant for constructing a composition to understand the fact that, unlike the spot that dominates the “planar” image model, the impact of the volumetric form on the human psyche is stronger. In the theory of art, such a perceptual phenomenon is associated with the impact of the “physical mass” of an artistic image on the emotional and sensory sphere of a person. However, we believe that we are most likely not talking about a physical phenomenon, but about the meaning of the signs and symbols encoded in the work for the perceiving subject.

In this case, the construction of a volumetric composition is carried out in the process of balancing forms in relation to:

Scale;

Proportions;

Volumes.

Particular attention for the purposes of art therapy, from our point of view, is the process of building deep spatial composition, which is a combination of planes, volumes and pauses between them. Of decisive importance here is the perspective image of space, reflecting the place and role of the objects of the composition for the subject creating it. It should be noted that from a psychological point of view, the deep-spatial characteristics of an artistic image have the greatest weight in the degree of their impact on the personality as a whole.

Theoretical works of artists and architects are devoted to the analysis of this issue, whose attention is attracted by the development of techniques and laws for constructing three-dimensional space. There are two leading types of perspective images: linear and aerial perspective, while the linear perspective construction is divided into front and corner construction. In the theory of linear perspective, forward and backward perspectives occupy a central place. While creating direct perspective construction the size of objects decreases as they move away from the foreground, on the contrary, when drawing reverse perspective– the size of background objects is exaggerated.

Aerial perspective is created by choosing a color tone and adjusting the lightness of the color, which changes as the objects in the image move away from the foreground. The nature of the image depends on the transmission of a particular state of air masses, the nature of the lighting source (Kuzin, 1997, pp. 145–150).

The study of the laws of perception and techniques for constructing perspective by B.V. Rauschenbach made it possible to identify the so-called perceptual type of perspective. Perceptual perspective is a type of perspective that includes forward, backward, and axonometric perspective. It is known that each type of linear perspective image has characterological signs of distortion (transmission of height, width and depth). Thus, in the case of direct perspective, distortion comes down to a strong exaggeration of the size of foreground objects and a reduction in the size of objects in the background. At the same time, the relationship between height and width remains correct. The transmission of middle ground objects occurs almost without distortion.

According to B.V. Rauschenbach, in reality a person sees objects of all planes in a perceptual perspective. The depiction of space and objects through the use of a perceptual perspective system leads to flawless rendering of vertical planes and distortion towards increasing width. From the point of view of the theory of artistic representation, the principle of perceptual perspective is more accurate in depicting the surrounding world.

It should be noted that through the use of techniques for conveying the depth of space on a plane, it is possible to change not only the nature of perception and image of the objective world, but to create conditions for transforming the nature of a person’s acceptance of his environment. According to the research of N. N. Nikolaenko, there are stylistic preferences in perspective images among people with pronounced mental accentuations. Thus, in schizophrenia, there is an expressed desire to create a direct perspective image with elaboration of background elements and scattered details of the composition. While with manic-depressive psychosis, the nature of the image changes depending on the form of the disease. During the manic phase, the tendency to depict a direct perspective dominates; on the contrary, during the depressive state, the central image moves to the foreground, the patient refuses to draw distant space. The author notes that the preference for reverse perspective in a state of depression is associated with the patient’s desire to display the near part of the composition space. In case of recovery, the recipient returns to the strategy of depicting direct perspective with drawing distant space (Nikolaenko, 2007, pp. 165–180).

The conclusions presented by N. N. Nikolaenko are based on a study of the nature of compositional construction by respondents with pronounced forms of mental disorders. The question arises about the legitimacy of transferring observational data to the practice of a psychologist who, as a rule, works with mentally intact referents. Does the preference for a perspective image really indicate the dominance of the cerebral hemispheres, as indicated by N. N. Nikolaenko? Or is the choice of space for developing a composition determined by the cultural and individual characteristics of the creator?

It should be noted that in the history of European painting, a stable dynamic in the nature of drawing an artistic image can be traced, and priorities are highlighted in the methods of constructing a composition. Thus, in the painting of the Renaissance, Romanticism and Impressionism, the study of space is carried out through aerial perspective. The predominance of a linear compositional solution can be observed in the works of representatives of classicism, symbolism, realism, and in modern schools of painting. Of course, this trend in changing painting styles indicates a change in the nature of perception of the world and its presentation in the form of an artistic image. One can assume that the time has come for rationalization and conceptualization to replace the direct experience of reality conveyed through color and light solutions.

In other words, the nature of the perspective construction is determined by both the cultural preferences of a person and his mental state. Studies of the structure of the compositional image of space, conducted with students of psychological specialization (more than 1500 drawings), showed that for a significant part of introverts (35–40%), drawing the foreground and middle plans of the composition is carried out through the use of elements of reverse perspective and axonometry. For extroverts, who make up about 78% of the subjects, it is typical to work on the middle and background plans using direct perspective construction. For representatives of the first sample of subjects, the subject of the image, as a rule, is material and ideal objects that have axiological significance. The objects of attention of the representatives of the second sample - extroverts, to a greater extent, are environmental objects, social connections and signs of communication. Both samples are characterized by the image of an ideal image of oneself, one’s idea of the world.

The use of other types of perspective images in these samples causes significant technical difficulties and, as a rule, ends in failure. It should be noted that when creating an artistic image, a person strives to convey the ideal standards of forms and color relationships that have developed in his ontogenesis. In an attempt to express his vision of the world, the subject conveys in an artistic image his attitude to beauty and harmony; he chooses those artistic means and techniques that allow him to get as close as possible to the image of his plans.

Familiarity with the basics of compositional construction and types of perspective allows not only to expand the range of artistic possibilities, but to change the nature of the subject’s perception and experience of reality. The therapeutic effect occurs in the process of prolonged art action, including the study of the ontology of art, taking into account the individual characteristics and creative abilities of the respondent. This problem is solved thanks to the synesthetic effect that arises as a result of the synthesis of information from the theory and practice of philosophy, psychology and art.

Thus, the nature of the perspective construction of the composition reflects both the characteristics of individual perception and the subject’s attitude to the present and future. Transformation of a person’s ideas about himself and the world, correction of rigid attitudes and intentions can be carried out in the course of art therapeutic work aimed at forming a holistic picture of the world. The artistic image created during the art session is a source of harmonization of the very personality of the creative subject.

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